Chapter 1 : The study of biology

1. Bio = life

Logy = study

Identifying the
problem

Hypothesis

Planing the
experiment
Variables
( mv,rv,cv)
Conduct the
experiment
Collect

and record
data

Analysing

data

Conclusion

Report

Chapter 2 :Cell structure and organization

1. Basic unit of living thing = CELLS
2. Protoplasm = nucleus + cytoplasm
3. Nucleus content = nucleoplasm

Plasma
membrane

Thin, semi-

Control the movement

permeable
membrane
Protien and lipids

of
substance in and out of
the cell
Exchange of
respiratory gas,
nutrients, waste
product

Thick, fibrous

Cell wall

carbohydrate
Made up of
cellulose and fullypermeable

Cytoplasm

Nucleus

Vacuole

Maintain the shape

Provide support for plant
body
Prevent excess water
enter

Jelly-like substance:
water and mineral
salts
Contains organelles

Acts as medium for

biochemical reaction
Provides substances
required by organelles

Spherical with 2
membrane
Contains nucleolus,
nucleoplasm,
chromatin,
Nuclear envelope

Control all the activities of

cell
Contains DNA that carry
its characteristics and
metabolic functions

Fluid-filled with cell

sap
Layer called
tonoplast

Store chemical:
water/sugar/dissolve
minerals
Regulate water balance
Maintain turgidity of cell

Mitochondria

Cylindrical shaped
with 2 membrane
Outer membrane=
smooth
Inner membrane=
form

Sites of cellular respiration

Power house of the cell
Release & generated in
the form of ATP energy

cristae

Ribosome

Endoplasmic
Reticulum

Golgi
apparatus

Lysosome

Two sub units =

RNA(ribonucleic) and
protein
Attach on rough ER

Synthesis of protein

Rough ER got
ribosome
Smooth ER no
ribosome

R= transport protein
synthesized by ribosome
S= transport lipids within
the cell / detoxification of
drugs and metabolic by
products

Consists of stack of
flattened membrane
bound sacs
New cell buds off as
vesicle at the end

Receive protein and lipid

from ER and form
enzyme/hormones
Processing/ packaging /
transport centre
Control the secretory
activity of cells
Transport to plasma
membrane to be secreted
Formation of lysosomes

In animal cells,
contains hydrolytic
enzyme

Hydrolytic enzyme
digests complex organic :
protein/lipid/nuclei acid
Breakdown products pass
to cytoplasm, become
nutrients for the cell

Centrioles

Chloroplast

Small cylindrical in
pairs, next to nucleus
in animal cells
Composed of complex
arrangement of
microtubules

Formation of spindle
fibres during cell
division

Dics-shaped with 2
membrane
Consists of granum
and stroma
Each granum contains
chlorophyll

Captures energy from

sunlight, turn light to
chemical energy which
is photosynthesis
Green pigment from
chlorophyll

4. Sperm cells = many mitochondria

5. Flight muscle cells (insects) = birds to fly
6. Meristems cell = many mitochondria ( require energy for cell division)
CELL SPECIALISATION
1. Cell specialization is a process of change and adaption of a cell undergoes to
give it special structures and specific functions.
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2. Epithelial tissues : protection secretion and absorption

MUSCLES TISSUES
Smooth muscle = 1.involuntary actions
2.churning action of stomach and arteries
3. slower than skeletal muscle but contracted for a longer
period
Skeletal muscle = 1.voluntary movement of body
Cardiac muscle = 1. Involuntary, pump blodd to all parts of body

CONNECTIVE TISSUES

lymph(fluid leakout of
blood capillary) are
interwovem with fibrous
stands called collagen

densely packed collagen

called tendons N
ligaments
cartilage = strong yet
flexible
bones harder than
cartilage

Tendons = muscle to bones

Ligaments = bones to bones
Cartilage = bones for ears, nose, joints/ acts as cushion absorb pressure
Bones = harden by mineral deposits; calcium / protect organs
Blood = manufactured in bone marrow
Fat cells = insulate body

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Homeostasis- process to regulate the physical and chemical factors in the

internal environment for the
optimal functions of cells

CHAPTER 3 MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCES ACROSS THE MEMBRANE

1. Living cells : absorb water and nutrients / excrete waste product / exchange
respiratory gasses
2. These process help the cells = a) maintain PH value and concentration of ions
b) obtain nutrients for metabolism/ eliminate
waste product
c) secrete hormone and enzyme
d) maintain concentration of gradient for nerve
and muscle act
3. Plasma membrane (fluid mosaic model) = phospholipids + protein
4. Fluid mosaic model = phospholipid bilayer + protein molecules ( S.J.Singer &
G.L .Nicholson)
PHOSPHOLIPID BILAYER ( amphipathic molecule)
polar head , hydrophilic ( attracted to water)
non-polar tail, hydrophobic ( repelled by water)
cholesterol stronger/ flexible/ less permeable to water-soluble & ions
- the interaction of tails of the phospholipid bilayer prevents adjacent phospholipid
pack tightly.
This make the membrane more fluid.
Glucose & amino acids and charged ions X pass through phosphplipids but
transport proteins
carrier protein the shape fits exact the specific molecule
protein pore a pore made of protein that have a passage for particular solute
carbohydrate chain forms glycoprotein & glycolipids
The size and polarity of molecule determine the movement of molecule across
plasma membrane.
simple diffusion
-lipid soluble molucule (fatty
acids/g;ycerol/steriod
compound/vitaminADEK)
- small uncharged
molecule( oxygen/CO2)
- water
- depends on concemtration of
gradient ( high-->low)
diffusion
- alveoli(high in oxy) into
blood capillaries around
lungs(low in oxy)

transport protien
- water soluble
molecule(glucose/amino acids)
- inorganic ions(K+/Na+)
- facilated diffusion
a)pore protein-allow small
water soluble molecule/ions
b)carrier proteinglucose(change shape b4
tranporting)
- cellular energy needed for
active transport( againts the
gradient

MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCE ACROSS THE PLASMA MEMBRANE

1) Passive transport no energy/ according to the concentration of gradient
a) simple diffusion
b) facilitated diffusion
c) osmosis
2) Active transport chemical energy needed / against
SIMPLE DIFFUSION
- The net movement of molecules or ions from a region of high concentration
to the region of low concentration until equilibrium is achieved.
- Does not require a semi permeable membrane
OSMOSIS
-

The net movement of water from a region of low solute concentration (high
concentration of water) to a region of high solute concentration (low water
concentration) through a semi permeable membrane.
The process : involves osmotic pressure (mechanical pressure within a
system)
FACILIATED DIFFUSION

The net movement of hydrophilic or ions across the plasma membrane with
the help of transport proteins.
Carrier proteins enable the movement of macromolecule across the plasma
membrane at a faster rate.

Pore protein have specific shapes and only allow specific ions to pass
through. ( small dissolved particles, ions )

ACTIVE TRANSPORT
-the movement of small ions and molecules occurs against the concentration gradients,
from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration with the use of
cellular energy.
-cellular energy in the form of APT which is generated during respiration in
mitochondria.
-carrier protein have active sites which bind which particular molecules or ions or
energy rich carrier of APT
- carrier protein involves in active transport are call as PUMPS.
Eg. Sodium-potassium pump ;
In animals, the concentration of potassium in inside the cell is higher while the
concentration of sodium outside the cell is always higher.
Pump transport sodium ions out of the cell and potassium ions into the cell.
THE PROCESS
SIMPLE DIFFUSION
-Gaseous exchange ( stomata leaves during photosynthesis / in amoeba sp)
-Evaporation of water from the leaf cells during transpiration
-Alveoli and blood capillaries
1) Gaseous exchange at the alveoli is by simple diffusion
2) Oxygen in alveoli diffuses into the blood capillaries of the lung because the
concentration of oxy in alveoli is higher than in blood capillaries .
3) Carbon dioxide from the blood capillarie of the lung diffuses into the alveoli because
the concentration of co2 is higher in blood capillaries than in alveoli.
FACILITATED DIFFUSION
1)Absorption in villi of the small intestine. Carrier protein at the intestinal wall transport
small molecule ( glucose/amino acids) into blood capillaries of villi.
OSMOSIS
1) Movement of water from one plant cell to another.
2) Osmoregulation / transport of water in cortex stems
3) Water takeup by plant roots soil has higher concentration of water compared to
the cell sap of root hairs. Therefore, water moves up into the vacuoles of root
hairs by osmosis

ACTIVE TRANSPORT
1) Uptake of mineral salts and ions by the root hairs. The concentration od minerals
and ions in the cell sap in higher compare to the soil. These substances
transported via active transport.
2) The alga Nitella- accumulate iodine altho, its protoplasm has high concentration
of iodine than the sea.
3) The alga Halicystis- eliminates sodium ions and accumulate potassium in its cells
through active transport
4) Eg. Accumulation of iodine in the cell of thyroid gland
Eg. Movement of sodium ions into the cells of lining the kidney tubules
Hypotonic / Hypertonic / Isotonic
1) hyper (more) hypo ( less) iso (equal)
ISOTONIC
1) Interstitial fluid = cytoplasmic fluid
2) Definition : concentration of solute in equal to cytoplasm of the cell.
3) No net movement of water across the plasma membrane
Red blood cell ( 0.85% or 0.15M SODIUM CL solution / 0.28M GLUCOSE
solution)
(0.5M-o.55M 17-18% of sucrose solution)
HYPOTONIC
1) Solution which contain higher concentration of water (low concentration of
solute) than the cytoplasm
Animal :
1) When RBC immersed into hypo solution, the water diffuses into the cell
by osmosis bcz the cell is less concentrated.
2) The cell starts to swell when the solution is extremely hypo that is consist
of distilled water and then burst.
3) The plasma membrane is too thin to withstand the osmotic pressure
which causes it to rupture the content of cells into the surrounding
4) It is known as haemolysis

Plants:

1) When plant immersed into hypo solution, water diffuses into the large
central vacuole by osmosis as the solution outside is less concentrated
than inside of the cell
2) The LCV expand causing it to swell
3) The vacuole and cytoplasm press outwards against the plasma
membrane, turns out press hard on the cell wall
4) The cell is said to be turgid and firm as the net flow of water into the cell
5) The plant cell doesnot burst bcz rigid cell wall is strong enough to resist
the increasing pressure within
6) The swelling of plant causes turgor pressure occurs to prevent taking in
too much water and bursting, like the RBC
7) Turgor pressure supports and maintain its shape of the cell
8) Turgidity of plant is for causing the guard cells in leave to swell so the
stomato remain open for photosynthesis
HYPERTONIC
1) Hyper solution contains higher concentration of solute (low concentration of
water) than of the cell.
Animal :
1) When RBC immersed into hyper solution, water diffuses out of the cell by osmosis
as the solution outside the cell more concentrated.
2) The cell loses water to the external environment, shrivel and plasma membrane
crinkles up.
3) This is known as crenation
Plants:
1) When plant is immersed in hyper solution, water diffuses out of the LCV by
osmosis
2) Both vacuole and cytoplasm lose water and shrink. The plasma membrane pulls
away from the cell wall.this is known as plasmolysis.
3) The plant cel become flaccid and less turgid but the cell wall doesnot shrink bcz
its strong
4) The flaccidity of plant leads to wilting and then death.
5) Non-woody plant like herbaceous plant rely on turgor pressure to keep stem
erect. When wilting happens. Leaves become limps and stems will drop.
6) However, plant cell can become turgud again by immersing it into hypo solution.
This is known as deplasmolysis