To call a house vernacular means that its style relates to, or is specific to the
*The author wishes to thank the Society of Women Geographers for the Pruitt National Fellowship, Kansas
State University, Department of Geography for their generosity in research funding, and the anonymous
reviewers of this article for their valuable suggestions.
k DR. BELZ is an assistant teaching professor in Interdisciplinary and Global Studies at Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, Massachusetts, 01609; [mbelz@wpi.edu].
Geographical Review 105 (3): 304324, July 2015
Copyright 2015 by the American Geographical Society of New York
305
and how decorative elements play a role in the endurance of vernacular landscapes today, even amidst modernization. Due to the increased ability of smallscale features to adapt to new settings, they allow a modernizing landscape to
preserve aspects of the vernacular style.
A N E NSEMBLE
OF
F EATURES
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FIG. 1The northern state of Himachal Pradesh and its twelve districts, showing the surrounding states and international border with China. (Cartography by Melissa Belz).
of Kalpa and its five proximate villages. A wide variety of local residents,
including homeowners (both male and female), master carvers, farmers, businessmen, and officials within the fields of agriculture and forestry were asked
to participate in semistructured interviews. With the help of translators, over
307
forty-five total interviews were conducted, many with multiple family members
present.
A mixed-interview approach was used to solicit information in an open
answer format and then through directed questioning on specific components.
Direct questioning allowed me to measure against patterns that became evident
in landscape analysis and to get opinions on a select list of landscape signatures.
Through interviews and landscape interpretation, several characteristic features were identified as representative of the Kinnauri vernacular house. I refer
to these elements as small-scale or decorative features because they are ancillary
to major components of the building such as form (the design or mass),
construction method, or materials. The vernacular house in Kinnaur, with its
layered-log construction, is similar in many ways to that found throughout the
western Himalaya. It is not entirely unique to the district of Kinnaur or to the
state of Himachal Pradesh. Simplified versions are found in parts of Uttarakhand, as well as scattered in parts of Jammu and Kashmir. It is argued here
that in Kinnaur district, it is found with increased carving, in greater
concentration, and with a higher occurrence of a select ensemble. The common
pattern of significant features, used in specific and meaningful combinations,
creates an ensemble distinct to the region. Furthermore, and central to this
discussion, most Kinnauras interviewed in the Kalpa region believe that this
style is unique to their immediate district and peripheral regions. Therefore,
the idea of the Kinnauri house is used as a case study in determining the
essential qualities that allow a vernacular style to represent a cultural group,
play a role in place-making, and accept change in a meaningful way.
E VOLUTION
OF
A N E NDURING S TYLE
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influences fosters a continuation of the known ways. However, very few places
are without outside influence today.
Traditional housing practices are vulnerable to increased access to manufactured building materials that often comes with road construction (Rawat and
Sharma 1997; Harrison 1998; Kleinert 1998; Dasgupta 2008). Additionally,
migration, both in and out, often brings with it increased exposure to new
influences and global trends. Both processesincreased road networks and
migrationcan prompt the adoption of new styles, building methods, and
modification of architectural traditions. Migration and situational change, such
as population growth or resource limitations, bring on certain stresses to a
community (Jordan and Kaups 1987). A common response is the simplification
of cultural traits and landscape ensembles as they are modified in order to cope
with stress (Jordan and Kaups 1987). This means select features will be simplified and that others will fall from use. The architectural traits and practices
most likely to be retained will serve a purpose in the modernized setting, adapt
easily, or be acceptable to both the traditional belief systems and the contemporary counterparts (Prussin 1973, 1986; Arreola 1988; Edwards 2008). It is
important to remember that cultural or architectural change, when conscious
or deliberate, can produce cultural fabric that continues to represent the local
goals and the vernacular system (Edwards 2008). Adaptation of architectural
features makes resettlement or changes within a culture visible as features are
modified to represent the backgrounds of the people, illustrating exactly how
interwoven the house is with the contexts of its inhabitants (Heath 2001). Many
scholars argue that vernacular traditions have always adapted and are renegotiated by every subsequent generation (Jackson 1976; Jordan and Kaups 1987;
Blake and Smith 2000; Heath 2001, 2009; Bronner 2006) and, therefore, some
support a more conscious inclusion of modernized buildings in the study of
vernacular landscapes (Jackson 1976; Vellinga 2004, 2006; Shankar 2005; Heath
2009). This article opens the conversation for interpreting meaningful adaptations to modernizing vernacular houses.
Although the iconic Kinnauri vernacular house has undergone changes over
the last generation, its new design continues to reflect the region. To better
understand the character of the Kinnauri vernacular house, the central qualities
have been distill here to eight essential features. This list allowed for analysis of
traits as markers that illustrate how the house is experiencing change. The characteristics include: 1) layered ground-floor wall construction known locally as
kath kuni, 2) small ground-floor windows and doors, 3) verandah overhang, 4)
pitched slate roof, 5) ridgeline adornments, 6) verandah window bank, 7)
carved upper-story wall panel, and 8) carved fascia trim. Figure 2 shows several
of these characteristics.
The essential features are woven together into the fabric of the vernacular
house and are a mixture of building material, house form, and ornamentation.
Of the eight Kinnauri vernacular features, several have fallen from use in new
309
FIG. 2This image shows an example of the carved upper-story wall panel with carved fascia trim and window bank. (Photograph by Melissa Belz, August 2011).
construction, while others have more recently gained popularity as the house
evolves. For example, ground-floor and upper-story verandah windows
increased in size after the 1950s and incorporated glass. The verandah overhang
deepened and on occasion is enclosed with brick. Carvings are becoming more
simplified and less common along the wall panel, but use of carved fascia trim,
locally called jallar, has flourished over the last fifty years. Once only commonplace on temples, it has spread to houses with increasing regularity (Belz 2013).
The vernacular house of Kinnaur is a functional work of art. Its characteristic carvings, layered construction method, and often imposing scale create a
presence on the landscape that immediately transports the viewer to earlier
days when the house played a major role as status symbol. Today, increasing
opportunities exist for the display of status, including Western clothing, fancy
cell phones, and private vehicles; therefore, less importance is put into the
wood house with carving. Additionally, restrictions are now in place for harvesting the once abundant timber needed for construction. These are among
the reasons that the Kinnauri vernacular house has undergone several changes
over the last fifty years.
It is important to introduce some of the changes in house form that are
playing out in Kinnaur. House form is never the result of any single physical
force, but is the consequence of a whole range of socio cultural factors
(Rapoport 1969, 47). Therefore, without attributing Kinnauri vernacular landscape change to any one factor, certain processes are highlighted as having had
the greatest influence on particular changes in the Kinnauri vernacular house.
They include road improvements, a changing market economy, and restrictive
forest-management policies.
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I MPROVED
Jackson called the road the most powerful force for the destruction or creation of landscapes (1980, 122). The arrival of new roads makes people less
bound to place and exposures them to different technologies and images. Prior
to 1960, Kinnaur had been a prized buffer region, not easily penetrated from
Tibet and China, and basically of little interest to Indian officials. The age-old
isolation of Kinnaur district started coming to an end when relations between
India and China became strained in 1959, during the Tibetan uprising against
the Chinese, after which Himachal Pradesh sheltered the Dalai Lama in exile.
At that point, it became a strategic hotspot and a new road was constructed to
increase military presence (Chib 1984).
The people, with improved road networks and no longer so isolated, gradually found more products in the markets that had been brought up from the
core of India. Access to new products continues to expand. Based on interviews, new types of construction materials were first available in tandem with
road construction. However, the new materials were primarily destined for government procurement. Prices remained high until the middle to late 1980s,
deterring most locals from incorporating concrete or metal into their houses.
At that time however, an improved standard of living brought about by government jobs and an expanding cash-crop market, again made possible through
improved road networks, began to influence changes in the style of the vernacular landscape
Kinnaurs ancient flat-roofing system gave way over the years to a more climatically efficient, pitched wooden-plank roof. The early roof, constructed
from layers of timber covered in clay, was a simple structure to build and provided workspace on the upper levels, but was prone to leaking and eventual
collapse from heavy snow loads. The pitched wooden-plank roof helped shed
the heavy snow and occasional rain. As the local economy improved in the
1930s through an emergent informal market for wild-harvested pine nuts,
homeowners used their increasing financial stability to invest in their homes
and improved the pitched roofs with schist slabs, referred to here generally as
slate. Because they last longer and function better than wood, slate roofs are
still visible throughout the landscape today. However, slate roofing tiles have
their own associated disadvantages. They are difficult to procure from their
remote location, expensive if purchased, and need robust wooden framework
to support the weight. Therefore, new options could be seen as advantageous.
Improved road access facilitated an increase in the availability of concrete
for building components and iron sheet for roofing, and had a dramatic effect
on the vernacular house. New construction generally opts for iron sheeting in
place of harvesting traditional slates. Lightweight metal roofing sheets are easy
to acquire, require less wooden framework than heavy slates, and are perceived
to last longer. However, the incorporation of metal roofing into the vernacular
house form changes the style of the house and affects the cultural landscape.
311
FIG. 3New materials in roofing do not have to create drastic changes to roof form. Here
the metal roof clearly echoes the traditional form made from slate. (Photograph by Melissa Belz,
October 2011).
The incorporation of metal roofing into the vernacular house does not have
to entirely change the roof form and style. Many homes incorporate metal
roofing while keeping the same traditional hipped form with peaks and valleys
(Figure 3). However, changes to the form of the roof often accompany new
materials because previous massing (building scale) was somewhat dictated by
the limitations of accessible material sizes, such as available timber (Dasgupta
2008). Large, lightweight metal roofing sheets can span greater distances on the
roof structure. Since any deviation from a straight line adds construction time
and cost, simplified forms have become more common. Often with the incorporation of metal, the jointed-roof form common to the region is eventually
foregone for a more simplified gable-roof structure. Along with the loss of slate
roofing goes the tradition of carving decorative forms onto the ridgeline. Furthermore, many houses are returning to the construction of a flat roof, but
now with concrete. Modern materials are better able to cope with rain and
snow, and the space a flat roof provides for household work and food processing is a great benefit in mountainous climates and places where livestock roam
freely.
T HE
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FIG. 4The historic vernacular house of Kinnaur district, with its shallow verandah and
abundant use of wood. The verandah window openings were very small on the upper levels of
the home as a response to the cold climate and abundance of wood. Now glass is used and
openings are larger. (Photograph by Melissa Belz, August 2011).
cult. Herding was further complicated by the strained relationship with China,
which previously provided additional pasture and markets for the livestock.
Cash-crop farming along with growth in government-sector jobs has offered
new opportunities for employment since the 1960s.
Kinnaur districts unique combination of climate, topography, and water
resources made it particularly suitable to take advantage of Indias growing
demand for orchard crops, such as apples, apricots, and almonds. The growth
of cash-crop farming in Himachal has transitioned the Kinnauri people away
from a dependence on multicrop subsistence farming, and therefore, cattle.
Livestock are needed less than before because orchard horticulture is less reliant
on plowing and soil fertilizer, both of which are provided by cattle. Likewise,
fewer goats and sheep are herded as a means of income as milk and wool have
become abundant in the market, further decreasing the number of livestock
owned. The house reflects this change in economy and lifestyle. Eventually, the
abandonment of livestock-focused livelihoods resulted in changes in house
form and space use that historically reflected these needs.
The verandah is the dominant characteristic of the Kinnauri house and
reflects the agricultural needs of the people. Historically, the verandah window
openings were very small on the upper levels of the home, as a response to the
cold climate and abundance of wood (Figure 4). The interior verandah space
has been an essential feature of the mountain home, facilitating several tasks of
daily life and playing a critical climatic role for the interior of the house. The
exterior barrier wall of the verandah provides protection for interior rooms
from cold, wind, and snow. Larger window openings appeared with more regularity as glass became more easily available in the 1950s. Large, windowed
313
FIG. 5The house transitioned away from the shallow verandah overhang. The verandah
has been deepened and posts were added. (Photography by Melissa Belz, July 2011).
verandahs are now widespread throughout the western Himalaya and particularly
in Kinnaur district. For subsistence farmers and horticulturalists alike, the interior hallway-like sun space is important for processing and drying crops indoors
when outdoor temperatures are too cool. The exterior covered space created at
ground level from the verandah overhang functions as a semiprotected workspace
partially sheltered from rain and snow, providing a crucial area for wood storage,
food storage, animal penning, and domestic work.
One of the first transitions of the house was the incorporation of a larger
verandah overhang supported by posts (Figure 5). It is unclear when this subtle
change began to take place. However, it may reflect the increased need for protected storage of export apples and the increased importance of the interior
verandah space for dry-fruit processing, correlating to the 1960s when apples
emerged as an expanding economy. As apple production grew, the verandah
became a more dominant part of the house in distinction to the shallow overhang of the ancient vernacular house.
Even with the increased depth of the verandah, the large stock of boxed
fruit, ready for collection by fruit-export companies, often waits relatively
exposed under the verandah overhang. Increasingly common today, the exterior
overhang area is enclosed to allow for increased interior fruit storage and finished living space. This modification complements the trend away from multicrop subsistence farming and the dependency on livestock. The modification
reflects changes in livelihoods, but also an increase in the standard of living.
People can now afford brick walls to secure their products and expand their
living quarters.
A NCIENT
The ancient housing system of the western Himalaya was made exclusively of
wood (Handa 2006). The sacred deodar tree, or god tree, has been the primary
timber chosen for both temples and homes. Subsequent designs of the eleventh
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century continued to use solid wood on upper levels and feature log and stone
layered on the bottom level in the seismically resistant construction method
locally known as kath kuni (Figure 4). The layered-log technique of kath kuni
is seen throughout the western Himalaya; however, the practice has now been
discarded due to its heavy dependence on wood.
In mountainous Himachal Pradesh, timber harvesting has been considered
throughout history as a tribal right for all landowners. However, the Forestry
Act of 1878 enacted prohibitions on local use of forests, restricting historic tribal rights to the forest (Cranney 2001; Oosthoek 2007; Sharma 2011). Beginning
in 1980, the Forest Conservation Act heightened government restrictions placed
on tribal forest rights, limiting access to timber for fuel and construction. Families had to apply for a permit to harvest a limited number of trees for construction. Sometimes, timber was sold on the black market while other families
applied for permits and saved the wood for consecutive years to collect enough
timber to build a house. The restrictions increased throughout the years, leading to illegal cutting or taking more than permitted as families argued that the
allotment was not enough to build a house. Furthermore, land put aside for
conservation and commercial government plantations put additional forest land
out of reach.
As wood became increasingly unavailable for construction and forest land
generally unavailable for daily needs of fodder and food products, tensions
grew and protests began, but to little avail (Cranney 2001). Concerned about
forest health, in 2006 the Department of Forestry imposed a full ban on all
wood collection from forests throughout India (Sharma 2011; Singh 2011). The
rationale was that illegal wood cutting would be more easily controlled if only
the government had authority to fell trees. Timber would subsequently be sold
to the public at discounted, sliding-scale prices; however, lengthy start-up
delays hindered access to timber for several years in many districts. The government policies slowly but directly affected the ability of residents to continue
their wood-dominant construction. New building materials such as concrete
and fired brick, more expensive but much easier to acquire, had to be incorporated into house construction.
The prior abundance of inexpensive wood for construction of houses and
temples1 allowed the people of Kinnaur to excel in the art of wood carving,
and the admiration of this art form encouraged them to devote their wealth,
time, and energy to it (Tobdan 2008). In a region known for its woodcarving
heritage, restrictions on timber access have had major impacts on vernacular
building systems and the cultural landscape. Increased challenges to building
with traditional local materials make the temptation of building with marketready, manufactured materials even greater. The increasing restrictions to tribal
forest rights imposed by the Indian government, coupled with increased access
to modern construction alternatives, created the tipping point for change in
the Kinnauri vernacular house.
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317
FIG. 6The modern version of the Kinnauri vernacular house succeeds in relating to the
iconic vernacular through the use of the carved panel and window orientation. (Photography by
Melissa Belz, July 2011).
kath kuni wall construction, and small windows and small doorsoften produced with ornately carved trimwere recognized most often as the typical
vernacular traits of the Kinnauri house. However, due to lack of access to timber and changing space use, these aspects of the ancient vernacular house are
no longer incorporated. Furthermore, these featureskath kuni and small windows and doorsare seen over a wide swath of the western Himalaya from
Afghanistan to Nepal, they are not particular to Kinnaur or Himachal Pradesh
(Rautela and others 2008).
My landscape analysis determined a separate set of architectural features,
part of the eight iconic features, that make the Kinnauri vernacular landscape
distinct from other regions today. The window bankwith and without decorative sash, the wall panelespecially when carved, and the jallar are the most
common and distinctive Kinnauri vernacular traits today. These are the select
essential qualities that make the house distinct from neighboring regions and
show the most resilience. Interestingly, none of the people interviewed listed
these traits instinctively in open-ended questions. However, in direct questioning, most people agreed that these specific traits were important parts of the
Kinnauri house.
This ensemble of features was chosen because it is found in high concentration and repetition in Kinnaur compared to other regions. Additionally, in
Kinnaur, decorative aspects of the ensemble are presented in a more refined
manner, keeping with the carving heritage for which the Kinnauras are known.
These features seem to be a taken for granted part of the contemporary vernacular landscape, so common that they are overlooked (Arreola 1981). However,
the repeated pattern of their use, within defined parameters, speaks to their
value.
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Select features have the power to come together into an image of the iconic
house. It is the combination and frequency of these essential qualities that gives
cultural congruency to regional architecture and allows the rest of the house to
modernize without sacrificing that image. Several of these features can undergo
adaptation and reinterpretation without losing the essential connection to the
iconic vernacular style. Keeping the connection to the iconic vernacular image
is much more difficult to achieve with larger-scale components alone, such as
building form and materials. Resilient small-scale features provide a greater
range of acceptable modifications for the vernacular house. It is not necessary
that a house has each of the characteristic traits to convey an image of the iconic house (Rapoport 1989). A Kinnauri home can display a decorative window
bank and carved lower panel, while forgoing the carved fasciathe most common central quality. It is the frequency and interplay of essential qualities that
encourages the cultural congruency of the Kinnauri vernacular landscape, and I
reason that this can be achieved with few and small-scale features alone.
A modern concrete home in Kinnaur can echo the spirit of the vernacular
by adding fascia trim and nothing more. That small-scale decorative feature
single-handedly recalls the vernacular tradition and helps a modern house fit
into its surroundings, helping hold the essential qualities of an iconic house.
This is achieved through its high degree of repetition in the region (Rapoport
1981). This example may not be considered a truly vernacular building; however, the key to exploring the idea of contemporary vernacular landscapes
implores us to ask: does a connection exist, is there an essential quality, and
how has this been achieved?
The argument I make here, that small-scale features have the ability to convey the spirit of the vernacular, is supported beyond Himachal Pradesh. In the
desert of Gujarat, India, the traditional vernacular house is a round hut with
pigmented exterior designs. The contemporary version is a rectangular house
form that has lost all reference to the vernacular house form (Figure 7). The
house changed for similar reasons as revealed in Himachal Pradesh, including
increased road access and new materials. However, government housing programs also greatly influenced the application of manufactured materials during
rapid construction for environmentally displaced peoples. The use of typical
decoration, however, reproduced on the new dwellings, allows residents to
retain the spirit of their vernacular traditions in a new context, providing a
means of cultural congruity and marking cultural identity. The nondescript
form comes alive as Gujarati solely with the addition of traditional painting.
Furthermore, the painting is easily replicated on the new house form, making
it more likely to be retained (Prussin 1986; Edwards 2008).
Without decoration, the distinctiveness of some buildings actually disappears. In Russia, carved decorative trim is the central distinguishing feature that
defines the traditional cottage, or dacha. The cottage has a very common form:
it is wooden, tends to be small in size, and has a steeply pitched gable roof
319
FIG. 7In Gujarat, the vernacular house is a decorated round hut. The modern rectangular
home seen here references the vernacular and allows for cultural identity by the use of adaptable
decoration. (Photography by Melissa Belz, November 2011).
FIG. 8This image of a Russian cottage, or dacha, shows that the common gable form is
made distinctive through decorative features, such as the window and door trim and use of
color. (Photograph by Steve Belz, September 2002).
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GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW
a tourist destination, designers often seek to tie new construction into the history of the island. One example at a new condominium complex incorporated
window details of the colonial vernacular transoms, suggesting that this contemporary interpretation of a decorative detail is enough to create a link to the
colonial vernacular architecture. Although historically of wood, the new adaptation uses etched glass. In spite of the extreme difference in building scale, form,
and material, this small feature is able to help the structure relate to its history
and setting.
For a final example, Kingston Heath details the historic industrial towns of
southern Massachusetts, where new immigrants adapted the ubiquitous, company-built, three-decker house to resemble the houses they left in the Portuguese islands. They did this in several ways, including the simple incorporation
of wrought-iron railings in place of straight wooden banisters (Heath 2001).
This unassuming detail helped reflect the essential quality of their former vernacular landscape and was small enough and easily transferable enough to be
transplanted into a new context.
A DAPTABILITY
AND
T HE K EY
TO
E NDURANCE
321
FIG. 9Fascia trim, traditionally made from carved wood, is now produced in metal, both
prefabricated and handmade. This allows continuation of the trait when timber is scarce.
Although different, it still reflects the vernacular house clearly and is the most popular vernacular
trait today. (Photograph by Melissa Belz, August 2011).
plywood as an alternative building material. Although, it does not accept carving as well as cedar, simplified designswhich seem to be the natural progressioncan still be achieved. Furthermore, the construction system allows for
the use of available and less-expensive small-sized wood. Finally, reinterpretation represents the original vernacular trait almost seamlessly.
Jallarthe carved fascia trim of Kinnauris the most commonly seen vernacular feature today. Its small-scale adaptability played a major role in the
process. It is easily accessible to the average person since it is more affordable
than a personalized panel carving. It is easily adaptable to new house forms
and can be incorporated onto a variety of structures and materials. Furthermore, fascia trim is now fabricated in metal, an available material during these
times of timber conservation (Figure 9). Many people cut the designs on their
own, but others outside of Kalpa explained that the trim can be purchased prefabricated. The metal fascia has undergone reinterpretation and change without
losing the essential connection to the iconic vernacular. Because the trim piece
is easily transferable to metal and compatible with old and new building methods, it becomes the dominant holdover. The drastic change in the material
alongside its growth in popularity exemplifies the importance of adaptability as
a guiding principle in enduring styles.
C ONCLUSION
Due to changing livelihoods, allowing less time for owner-builder construction,
and limitations on access to materials such as stone, timber, and earth, manufactured materials are becoming ever-present in traditional environments.
Selection of essential features and their ability to adapt to a new context is crucial for any modernizing vernacular landscape if it is to keep its distinctiveness.
My initial visits to Kinnaur district in 2006 led me to presume that smallscale decorative features would be the first thing to disappear in a changing
landscape due to their apparent expendability and need for maintenance. The
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