In electricity generation, an electrical generator is a device that converts mechanical

energy to electrical energy, generally using electromagnetic induction. The reverse

conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy is done by a motor; motors and
generators have many similarities. A generator forces electric charges to move through
an external electrical circuit, but it does not create electricity or charge, which is already
present in the wire of its windings. It is somewhat analogous to a water pump, which
creates a flow of water but does not create the water inside. The source of mechanical
energy may be a reciprocating or turbine steam engine, water falling through a turbine or
waterwheel, an internal combustion engine, a wind turbine, a hand crank, compressed
air or any other source of mechanical energy.
Types of Engines
Many generator sets are relatively small in size, typically ranging from several kilowatts to
several megawatts. These units are often required to come online and operate quickly. They
need to have the capacity to run for an extended period of time.
The internal combustion engine is an excellent choice as the prime mover for the majority of
these applications. Turbines may also be used.
Diesel-fueled engines are the most common, but other fuels used include natural gas, digester
gas,landfill gas, propane, biodiesel, crude oil, steam and others. Some campuses and industrial
facilities use and produce steam for heating and other processes. These facilities may find it
economically feasible to produce electricity as a byproduct of the steam production. These
installations would typically be classified as a cogeneration facility producing a fairly constant
power output and operating in parallel with the electric utility system.
Types of Generators
Generators can be either synchronous or asynchronous.
Asynchronous generators are also referred to as induction generators. The construction is
essentially the same as an induction motor. It has a squirrel-cage rotor and wound stator. An
induction generator is a motor driven above its designed
synchronous speed thus generating power. It will operate as a motor if it is running below
synchronous speed.
The induction generator does not have an exciter and must operate in parallel with the utility or
another source. The induction generator requires VARs from an external source for it to
generate power. The induction generator operates at a slip frequency so its output frequency is
automatically locked in with the utility's frequency. An induction generator is a popular choice for
use when designing cogeneration systems, where it will operate in parallel with the utility.
This type of generator offers certain advantages over a synchronous generator. For example,
voltage and frequency are controlled by the utility; thus voltage and frequency regulators are not
required. In addition, the generator construction offers high reliability and little maintenance.
Also, a minimum of protective relays and controls are required. Its major disadvantages are that
it requires VARs from the system and it normallycannot operate as a standby/ emergency
generator.
Synchronous generators, however, are the most common. Their output is determined by their
field and governor controls. Varying the current in the DC field windings controls the voltage

output. The frequency is controlled by the speed of rotation. The torque applied to the generator
shaft by the driving engine controls the power output. In this manner, the synchronous
generator offers precise control over the power it can generate. In cogeneration applications, it
can be used to improve the power factor of the system.
Generator Fundamentals
A generator consists of two primary components, a prime mover and an alternator. The prime
mover is the energy source used to turn the rotor of the alternator. It is typically a diesel
combustion engine for most emergency or standby systems.
In cogeneration applications, the prime mover may come from a steam driven turbine or other
source. On diesel units, a governor and voltage regulator are used to control the speed and
power output. The alternator is typically a synchronous
machine driven by the prime mover. A voltage regulator controls its voltage output by adjusting
the field. The output of a single generator or multiple paralleled generator sets is controlled by
these two inputs. The alternator is designed to operate at a specified speed for the required
output frequency, typically 60 or 50 Hz. The voltage regulator and engine governor
along with other systems define the generators response to dynamic load changes and motor
starting characteristics.
Generators are rated in power and voltage output. Most generators are designed to operate at a
0.8 power factor. For example, a 2000 Kw generator at 277/480V would have a kVA rating of
2500 kVA (2000 kW/ 08 pf) and a continuous current rating of 3007A
Typical synchronous generators for industrial and commercial power systems range in size from
208V13,800V.
Other ratings are available and these discussions are applicable to those ratings as well.
Generators must be considered in the short-circuit and coordination study as they may greatly
impact the rating of the electrical distribution system. This is especially common on large
installations with multiple generators and systems that parallel with the utility source. Shortcircuit current contribution from a generator typically ranges from 8 to 12 times
full load amperes.
Generator Controls
The engine generator set has controls to maintain the output frequency (speed) and voltage.
These controls consist of a governor and voltage regulator. As loads change on the system, the
frequency and voltage will change. The speed control will then adjust the governor to correct for
the load (kW) change. The voltage regulator will change the field current to adjust the voltage to
the desired voltage value. These are the basic controls found on all synchronous generators.
Multiple generator systems require more sophisticated controls. Generators are paralleled in a
multigenerator system and they must share the load. These systems often have a load shed
scheme, which adds to the complexity.
Multiple generator schemes need a master controller to prevent units from being connected outof-phase. The sequence of operation is to send a start signal to all generators simultaneously.
The first unit up to frequency and voltage will be permitted to close its respective breaker and
energize the paralleling bus. Breakers for the other generators are held open, not permitted to
close, until certain conditions are met. Once the paralleling bus is energized, the remaining
generators must be synchronized to it before the generators can be paralleled. Synchronization
compares the voltage phasors angle and magnitude. Both generators must be operating at the
same frequency and phase-matched within typically 5 to 10 degrees with each other. The
voltage magnitude typically must be within 20 to 24%.
A synch-scope is typically supplied on paralleling gear. The synch-scope displays the relative
relationship between voltage phasors on the generator to be paralleled and the bus. If the

generator is running slower than the bus (less than 60 Hz) then the needle on the scope will
spin in the counterclockwise direction. If it is running faster, then it will rotate in the clockwise
direction. The greater the frequency difference, the faster is the rotation. It is important that the
generators are in phase before they are paralleled. Severe damage will occur if generators are
paralleled out-of-phase.
TYPE OF ELECTRICAL GENERATOR
1. Gas Turbine Generator
2. Hydro Generator
3. Steam Turbine Generator
4. Nuclear Power Generator
5. Diesel Generator

Diesel Generator
A diesel generator is the combination of a diesel engine with an electrical generator
(often called an alternator) to generate electric energy. Diesel generating sets are used
in places without connection to the power grid or as emergency power-supply if the grid
fails. Small portable diesel generators may be used as power supplies on construction sites, or
as auxiliary power for vehicles such as mobile homes.
Diesel generator set
It is common practice to provide a standby emergency source of supply at all important
installations such as large factories, railways, airports and other essential services. This
is usually achieved with the use of a captive diesel generator (DG) set.
The packaged combination of a diesel engine, a generator and various ancillary devices
such as base, canopy, sound attenuation, control systems, circuit breakers, jacket water
heaters, starting systems etc, is referred to as a generating set or a gen set for short.
While the larger industrial generators can range from 8kVA - 30kVA for homes, small
shops & offices up to 2000kVA used for large office complexes, factories. A 2000 kVA
set can be housed in a 40ft ISO container and be fully packaged and portable. Sizes up
to about 5 MW are used for small power stations and these may use from one to 20
units. In these larger sizes the engine and generator are brought to site separately and
assembled along with ancillary equipment
Diesel generators, sometimes as small as 250 kVA are widely used not only for
emergency power, but also many have a secondary function of feeding power to utility
grids either during peak periods, or periods when there is a shortage of large power
generators.
Ships often also employ diesel generators, sometimes not only to provide auxiliary power
for lights, fans, and winches, etc. but also for main propulsion. With electric propulsion
the generators can be placed in a convenient position, to allow more cargo to be carried.
Generating sets are selected based on the load they are intended to supply power for,
taking into account the type of load, ie emergency or for continuous power, and the size
of the load, and size of any motors to be started which is normally the critical parameter.

DG SET
This comprises the following parts :-

Engine :-This is the main prime mover (PM) for the generator and may be a gas, petrol or
diesel engine, depending upon the availability of fuel. In the discussions below, we
emphasize a diesel engine, being used more commonly for captive power generation.
The control of power output of a generator is obtained through this PM only. It has a drooping
characteristic on load.
These characteristics are used to control the fuel supply to the engine through a speedregulating governor, which controls the power output of the generator. The difference in the
speed of the engine at no load and full load is termed the speed droop, and is expressed as a
percentage of the no-load speed. The droop is maintained at around 3-5% by the leading
manufacturers. The lower the droop, the better will be the performance of the engine on
load. Since

and therefore, the smaller will be the fluctuation in the frequency of the generated power.
But for parallel operation of the generator, a higher droop will mean better load sharing

Governor
This senses the speed of the machine and performs extremely fast and accurate
adjustments in the fuel supply to the PM. In turn it regulates the speed and the output of
the PM within predefined limits, depending upon the droop of the PM. The governor may
be a mechanical (manual), hydraulic or electronic (automatic) device. The governor can be set
to make the machine run at a constant speed, even on load variations, with extremely quick and
almost instantaneous speed control, and thus maintain a near-zero delta N. In a parallel
operation they can also control load sharing automatically and accurately. Power grids,
receiving power from different sources, are extremely susceptible to frequency variations. Even
a small change in frequency of the order of 0.5 Hz, may cause the system to trip. A fastactuating governor with low response time (as low as 0.5 second) can overcome such a
situation by quickly regulating the speed of the PM.
OPERATING PARAMETERS
The following are some important operating parameters:
a. RESIDUAL VOLTAGE FOR SELF-EXCITATION
The armature of the machine will normally have a residual voltage of around 8 V (for LT
machines) across the terminals when running at the synchronous speed. If not, as when
the generator is operated after a long shutdown, a d.c. voltage of 12 V can be applied
through a battery for a few seconds to obtain the required residual voltage.
b. OPERATING PF
Small generators such as those used for captive power generation are seldom used as
synchronous motors or synchronous condensers. To save on the cost of machines
their field system is generally designed for 0.8 p.f. lagging, unless designed for another
application for a different p.f. The generator output is also defined at 0.8 p.f. lagging
and rated in kVA. The 0.8 p.f. so selected is in consonance with the average p.f. at which
a power system would be operating generally. The maximum kW rating of the machine is
therefore defined by kVA x p.f. The operating p.f. plays a vital role in the selection of the
machine. It is desirable that the load which the generator may have to feed has a p.f. of
at least 0.8 lagging and more, but not beyond unity. The machine may not perform well
at p.f.s lower than it is designed for, as well as in the leading mode, because At lower p.f.s the field system is required to be overexcited, which may cause

excessive heating of the field windings.

At lower p.f.s the machine will deliver even less than the theoretical output due to higher I2R
losses, which will remain the same while the active component(Icosphi) will be reduced
corresponding to the lower p.f.
In the leading mode the field system will be ineffective. When this is required the
manufacturer must be consulted. In the leading mode when the machine is suitable to
operate such, the voltage will improve and the machine will operate in the under excited mode.
While the field winding will now be less stressed, the leading p.f. is not healthy for the
machine and the equipment connected on it becausea. The capacitive mode will cause an overvoltage across the machine windings during a
switching operation (Section 23.5.1) which may damage them particularly the end turns.
b. In the leading mode the harmonics, when present in the system, will magnify and
further distort the voltage and current waveforms. The windings of the machine are
therefore more stressed due to such spurious overvoltages.
Thus, in the leading mode the machine tends to become unstable. It is therefore
mandatory to operate the machine well within its stability region, i.e. between 0.8 p.f.
lagging and unity, unless it is also designed for a leading mode.
Generally, machines up to 1000 kVA are designed for these parameters. Generators used for
hydropower generation and operating on smaller heads may also sometimes be required to
operate in a leading mode a b a synchronous condenser to improve the p.f. of the system. This
may happen when the water head in the reservoir falls below its minimum required level and
is not capable of generating the required minimum power. When used
in these conditions the field system has to be designed for both lagging and leading modes.
Field system
Automatic voltage regulator (AVR)
This device controls the generator and maintains a steady state armature voltage automatically
within the predefined limits. It also serves to control the reactive kVAr loading during a parallel
operation or when the machine is being used as a synchronous condenser for reactive
power compensation through a quadrature droop control (QDC) as noted below.
Quadrature droop control (QDC)
This is a scheme introduced in the AVR circuit to adjust the reactive power (kVAr) of a machine
during a parallel operation or when it is being used as a synchronous condenser. It
prevents a reactive circulating current, I, through the armature windings when the two
machines are operating in parallel , or controls the reactive component within the required
limits when operating on an infinite bus. The limit of such circulating currents is defined to be
within 5% of the rated current of the machine.
If the machine operates at p.f.s lower than 0.8, the excitation requirement of the machine
would be high. This is a case of overexcitation and may damage the field system. For
such operations, the machine would require a double derating, depending upon the p.f.
at which it has to operate, one for the lower p.f., due to the reduced active component of the
current ( I cos phi) and the second because of higher excitation demand. In such cases the
manufacturers may be consulted. A corrective step, however, would be to improve the
system p.f. by installing a few capacitor banks to achieve a system p.f. between 0.8 and 1.0.
A generator is normally designed for a lagging p.f., and is not suitable to operate at leading p.f.s.
At leading pfs, the armature reaction becomes magnetizing, and the field system loses its
control over the terminal voltage. During a leading p.f., therefore, the terminal voltage rises
rapidly, as the field system becomes redundant, rendering the machine unstable. The field
current reduces as the leading p.f reduces. When the leading p.f. reduces further,

the field current (excitation) reaches almost zero, a condition known as self-excitation.
This is the critical point of the AVR when it will lose almost all its control. Any further
reduction in thc p.f. will cause overexcitation, causing the voltage to rise steadily without
any control. Leading p.f.s thus cause instability and rapid voltage rises.
The above situation is, however, found when the machine is run singly. When it is
operated in parallel with another source, the field excitation will not influence
DIESEL RATING DEFINITIONS
1. Emergency Standby Power (ESP)
Output available with varying load for the duration of an emergency outage. Average
power output is 70% of the emergency standby power rating. Typical operation is 50
hours per year with maximum expected usage of 200 hours per year. Standby power in
accordance with ISO8528. Fuel stop power in accordance with ISO3046.
2. Standby Power
Output available with varying load for the duration of the interruption of the normal
source power. Average power output is 70% of the standby power rating. Typical
operation is 200 hours per year, with maximum expected usage of 500 hours per year.
Fuel stop power in accordance with ISO3046. Typical application - emergency power
plant in hospitals, offices, factories etc. Not connected to grid.
3. Prime Power
Output available with varying load for an unlimited time. Average power output is 70% of
the prime power rating. Typical peak demand of 100% of prime-rated ekW with 10% of
overload capability for emergency use for a maximum of 1 hour in 12. Overload
operation cannot exceed 25 hours per year. Prime power in accordance with ISO8528.
Fuel stop power in accordance with ISO3046.
Typical application - where the generator is the sole source of power for say a remote
mining or construction site, fairground, festival etc.
4. Continuous /Base Power
Output available without varying load for an unlimited time. Average power output is 70 100% of the continuous power rating. Typical peak demand is 100% of continuous rated
ekW for 100% of operating hours. Continuous power is in accordance with ISO8528.
Fuel stop power in accordance with ISO3046.

AUTO STARTING, AUTO SYNCHRONISING, AUTO LOAD SHARING, AUTO LOAD

SHEDDING, GRID ISLANDING AND AUTO LOAD SHADING OF GENERATORS IN
PARALLEL OPERATION

1. Starting of a DG set
Through an auto-mains failure (AMF) This is a common scheme to bring a standby DG
set on line automatically on the failure of the main source of supply with the help of
a battery backed-up ignition scheme. On the failure of the main supply, generally three
ignition pulses are given to the engine to auto-start the machine. If the engine fails to
start at three attempts, a further pulse is blocked. To start, the engine is made
automatic. The generator excitation or the field current is also pre-set, which adjusts the
generator voltage to the required level automatically through the AVR. Provision is also

made to start it manually in case the AMF scheme fails and to also facilitate routine
testing and give it more flexibility. The scheme may be briefly described as follows
(see the control and scheme drawing

Control supply
A battery backed-up d.c. source of control supply is provided for the AMF panel
and engine ignition. The control scheme, as illustrated, generally consists of a 220
or 240 V a.c. source of supply, with a transformer rectifier unit, to provide a 24 or 48
V d.c. control voltage, to charge the battery as required and a battery back-up of suitable
capacity.
Selection scheme
Auto or manual selection (switch SW2) A switch SW2 is provided for the selection of
the engine to be started in auto or manual modes:
Auto mode
In auto mode the engine starts automatically on failure of the a.c.
bus voltage, V,, through an undervoltage or bus voltage relay (Relay code 27) (Figure
). The relay is provided on the generator control panel with time delay contacts. Time
delay is provided to allow a pause to the generator if the normal supply is quickly
restored.
Manual mode
Local control
In manual mode, the engine can be started and stopped locally, through a pair of
start and stop push buttons Nos 17 and 18, provided on the AMF panel (Figure
).
Local remote control (switch SW3)
This is provided to facilitate the manual start and stop of the engine from a remote point
such as through a remote station.
Three-attempts start
A three-attempts start facility is provided through a sequential timer (ST) in auto
mode. A starting relay (SR) gives three ignition impulses to the engine. If the engine
fails to start at three consecutive attempts, the starting relay (SR) automatically locks
out and emits no further ignition impulse. This feature is essential to protect the engine
against a possible hunting and a drain of the battery.
Switching off
Bus voltage relay (Relay code 27) provides an impulse to the generator trip circuit as
soon as normal supply is restored. The generator falls out of the circuit automatically
after a pause of 2- 10-30 seconds, and the engine stops.
The relay now also has a delayed feature as it had during the start, to allow a pause to
the main supply in case the main supply fails quickly again.
Lubricating oil
An interlock is provided through a centrifugal type of pressure switch (PS) to trip the
engine in the case of low lube (lubricating) oil pressure during a run. Since during a start
oil pressure has not built up, a timer, T, is introduced to bypass the trip interlock and
avoid a false trip. A relay (contactor), d , , is used to provide lube oil pressure
interlock.
Fuel oil solenoid valve (SV)
This is to cut off the fuel supply to the engine on a trip or a normal stop of the engine.
Speed and voltage control Push button Nos 22 and 23 may be provided on the AMF

panel and also on the remote panel to raise and lower the speed and voltage, when
required to control the speed c f ; ) and voltage ( E , ) of the generator in order for it
to be synchronized with another generator or an infinite bus.
Figure illustrates a typical scheme incorporating all these features and interlocks.

2. SYNCHRONIZING (PARALLEL OPERATION)

In the past, synchronization was performed manually using three-lamp method. Nowadays, the
process is automatically operated and controlled with the aid of synchronization relays.
During installation of a generator, careful checks are made to ensure the generator terminals
and all control wiring are correct so that the order of phases (phase sequence) matches the

system. Connecting a generator with the wrong phase sequence will result in a short circuit as
the system voltages are opposite to those of the generator terminal voltages.
The sequence of events is similar for manual or automatic synchronization. The generator is
brought up to approximate synchronous speed by supplying more energy to its shaft - for
example, opening the valves on a steam turbine, opening the gates on a hydraulic turbine, or
increasing the fuel rack setting on a diesel engine. The field of the generator is energized and
the voltage at the terminals of the generator is observed and compared with the system. The
voltage magnitude must be the same as the system voltage.
Synchronizing lamps
Formerly, three light bulbs were connected between the generator terminals and the system
terminals (or more generally, to the terminals of instrument transformers connected to generator
and system). As the generator speed changes, the lights will rise and fall in intensity at a rate
proportional to the difference between generator frequency and system frequency. When the
voltage at the generator is opposite to the system voltage (either ahead or behind in phase), the
lamps will be bright. When the voltage at the generator matches the system voltage, the lights
will be dark. At that instant, the circuit breaker connecting the generator to the system may be
closed and the generator will then stay in synchronism with the system.
Synchroscope
Another manual method of synchronization relies on observing an instrument called a
"synchroscope", which displays the relative frequencies of system and generator. The pointer of
the synchroscope will indicate "fast" or "slow" speed of the generator with respect to the system.
To minimize the transient current when the generator circuit breaker is closed, usual practice is
to initiate the close as the needle slowly approaches the in-phase point. An error of a few
electrical degrees between system and generator will result in a momentary inrush and abrupt
speed change of the generator.
Synchronizing relays
Synchronizing relays allow unattended synchronization of a machine with a system. Today
these are digital microprocessor instruments, but in the past electromechanical relay systems
were applied. A synchronizing relay is useful to remove human reaction time from the process,
or when a human is not available such as at a remote controlled generating plant. Sometimes
as a precaution against out-of-step connection of a machine to a system, a "synchro check"
relay is installed that prevents closing the generator circuit breaker unless the machine is within
a few electrical degrees of being in-phase with the system. (Synchro check relays are also
applied in places where several sources of supply may be connected and where it is important
that out-of-step sources are not accidentally paralleled.)

AUTOMATIC SYNCHRONIZING
Basic Principles:

1.

Automatic synchronizing of a generator consists of electrically coupling the generator

output to another source of electrical energy and operating the generator such that its
output adds to the other source.
2. Automatic synchronizing can encompass a wide variety of conditions such as:
a). Two or more equal or similar-sized generators which, when paralleled to each other,
will operate as though they were one larger generator. This is the most common
application and reason for parallel operation.
b). Two or more unequal-sized generators which are operated in parallel as though they
were one larger generator. This is also a common condition.
c). Generator systems (which may consist of two or more individually paralleled
generators) which are operated in parallel with another electrical system which, by
comparison, is infinitely large. This is the case of operation in parallel with the normal
electrical utility source. This is commonly done for on-site peak shaving, bottom shaving
or cogeneration systems. It may be done momentarily in some special cases.
Benefits of automatically-synchronized (paralleled) systems:
1 Economy
An existing distribution system may not lend itself to being split into several sections and
handled by separate non-paralleled units. When the loads are expected to expand
substantially, the initial investment is minimized by installing one smaller generator set, and then
adding more sets in parallel as the loads increase.
2 Reliability
When a part of the emergency load is deemed very critical, it may be desirable to have more
than one generator capable of being connected to that load. When there is a normal source
outage, all generators in the system are started. The probability of having a generator start and
achieve nominal voltage and frequency is increased according to the number of sets available.
The first set ready to handle the essential load does so. As the other generators are running
and connected to the bus, the remaining loads are connected in declining order of priority.
Types of Systems:
There are two types of paralleling systems:
a) Sequential paralleling
In sequential paralleling, the engine/generator sets are connected to the bus in a
predetermined order. The lead engine is connected to the bus first. When the engine/generator
selected as number 2 is ready to be connected, a synchronizer is connected between the output
terminals of generator 2 and the bus. Then the generator is in synchronism, its paralleling
circuit breaker is closed, connecting it to the bus. Usually, a restriction is imposed to limit the
time the controls will consume in attempting to synchronize and parallel a set to the bus before
reconnecting the controls to the next set in sequence.
b) Random paralleling

Random access permits simultaneous synchronizing of each set to the bus. The random
access method is faster than sequential paralleling but more expensive. Codes mandating
emergency loads to be reconnected within ten seconds may require the method of operation.
With diesel or natural-gas-driven engine/generator sets, it is reasonable to expect that the
emergency bus will be established within the ten-second limit in a random access system,
because any one of the generators can be first on line.
c) Dead field paralleling

d) Utility paralleling
Synchronizing Basics:
1) To successfully synchronize a generator to a bus requires some degree of instrumentation to
tell the operator what the phase relationships are between the two sources. The simplest is two
voltmeters connected to read voltage between the same phases of the incoming generator and
the bus. When the two sources are in phase and at equal voltage, both Va and Vb will read 0
volts. (The third phase will also be the same since, if any two are correct, the third must be
correct.) When the phases are 180 out of sync, the voltmeters will read 2 x normal system
voltage. As the phases go in and out of sync the voltmeters will drift from 0 to 2 x to 0 at a rate
which depends on the slip frequency (frequency difference). The breaker closure must occur
when the voltage difference is at, or very near, 0. Otherwise each source will be subjected to
extreme currents and forces which will damage the equipment. Out of sync voltage differences
(and resultant forces) increase rapidly with increasing phase to phase mismatch angles. In
general the forces are acceptably small if the phase angles are within about 15 of true
synchronism.
2) Two synchronizing lights can be used in place of voltmeters. When the lights are out, the
phases are synchronized. When the phases drift out of sync, the lights will come on due to the
voltage difference. It is usual to use three lights to cater to the possibility of one burned bulb.
Bulbs must be rated for 2 x voltage.
3) A synchroscope is a pointer-type meter that incorporates the two voltmeter movements with a
single pointer. The pointer moves to a circular position dependent on the voltage difference. At
zero volts it will be located at top dead centre. The synchroscope position is representative of
voltage difference, not phase displacement angle. Any area within about 30 to 45 of top dead
centre represents a fairly small voltage difference corresponding to a fairly small phase-tophase displacement. A synchroscope will rotate at the slip frequency rate.
4) All of the foregoing are instrumentation devices which will allow an operator to observe when
synchronism occurs and to initiate breaker closure accordingly. The operator must adjust the
incoming generator speed (and voltage if necessary) to obtain synchronized conditions).
5) For automatic systems, an automatic device must be used to obtain synchronized conditions
and initiate breaker closure at the proper time. There are a wide variety of automatic

synchronizers available to interface with various types of governors. The synchronizer can also
be utilized to match voltages as well as speed.

Paralleling
There are two basic methods used for paralleling: droop, where speed decreases with load,
and isochronous, where speed remains constant.
Droop mode allows operation of a generator on an infinite bus or in parallel with other engine
generator units using hydro mechanical governors. In droop, speed changes as the load on
the generator changes. An increase in load results in a decrease in speed. The amount of
speed change or droop is expressed in percent and is set by the load droop set point.

Droop Mode
Droop is a decrease in speed or frequency, proportional to load. That is, as the load increases,
the speed or frequency decreases, as illustrated in Figure . This reduction in speed is
accomplished with negative feedback. The feedback increases as the system is loaded.

Droop is expressed as the percentage reduction in speed that occurs when the
generator is fully loaded. With a given droop setting, a generator set will always produce the
same power output at a particular speed or frequency. Droop sometimes is called the
percent speed regulation. If all generator sets in a droop system have the same droop setting,
they will each share load proportionally. The amount of load will depend on their speed

settings. If the system load changes, the system frequency will also change. A change
in speed setting will then be required to offset the change in feedback and return the
system to its original speed or frequency. In order for each generator set in the system to
maintain the same proportion of the shared load, each generator will require the same change
in speed setting.

Isochronous Mode
Isochronous means repeating at a single rate or having a fixed frequency or period. A
generator set operating in the isochronous mode will operate at the same set frequency
regardless of the load it is supplying, up to the full load capability of the generator set
(see Figure 6-4). This mode can be used on one generator set running by itself in an isolated
system.

The isochronous mode can also be used on a generator set connected in parallel with other
generator sets. Unless the governors are load sharing and speed controls, however, no
more than one of the generator sets operating in parallel can be in the isochronous mode. If
two generator sets operating in the isochronous mode without load sharing controls are
tied together to the same load, one of the units will try to carry the entire load and the other
will shed all of its load. In order to share load with other units, some additional means must be
used to keep each generator set from either trying to take all the load or from motoring.

Droop/Isochronous Load Sharing on an Isolated Bus

Droop/isochronous load sharing combines the first two modes. All generator sets in the system
except one are operated in the droop mode. The one unit not in droop is operated in the
isochronous mode. It is known as the swing machine. In this mode, the droop machines will run
at the frequency of the isochronous unit. The droop and speed settings of each droop unit
are adjusted so that each generates a fixed amount of power (see Figure 6-5). The
output power of the swing machine will change to follow changes in the load demand.
Maximum load for this type of system is limited to the combined output of the swing machine
and the total set power of the droop machines. The minimum system load cannot be
allowed to decrease below the output set for the droop machines. If it does, the system
frequency will change, and the swing machine can be motored. The machine with the highest
output capacity should be operated as the swing machine, so that the system will accept
the largest load changes within its capacity.
Isochronous Load Sharing on an Isolated Bus
Isochronous load sharing operates all generator sets in a system in the isochronous
mode. Load sharing is accomplished by adding a load sensor to each electric isochronous
governor. The load sensors are interconnected by the load sharing lines. Any imbalance in
load between units will cause a change to the regulating circuit in each governor. While
each unit continues to run at isochronous speed, these changes force each machine to
supply a proportional share of power to meet the total load demand on the system (see Figure
6-6).