Chapter 15 Digestive System

1. Processes involved in digestive functions (Fig.15-2)

(1) Mechanical processing
(2) Digestion
(3) Secretion
(4) Absorption
(5) Mobility: "peristaltic movement"
(6) Excretion
2. Functions of gastrointestinal Organs
Anatomy of digestive system (Fig.15-1)
Overview of digestive organs (Fig.15-3a,b)
1) Oral cavity
A. Components
Tongue
Salivary glands
Teeth
B. Works in the oral cavity
Analysis of materials before swallowing
Mechanical breakdown
Lubrication
Digestion
C. Tongue
(1) Functions of tongue
(a) Mechanical processing
(b) Assist in chewing and swallowing
(c) Senses touch, temperature, and taste
(2) Taste buds (taste buds)
Different degrees of tastes reception around the tongue
-From the tip of tongue, sweet, salt, sour, bitter taste sensors are concentrated
Taste sensory is affected by olfactory nerve (2/3 of tongue) glossopharyngeal (1/3)
Hot taste is a reception of pain
D. Salivary glands
(1) Functions of salivary
Lubrication of food
Digestion of polysaccharides (amylase)
Control oral bacterial population
Dissolve food
(2) Three salivary glands (salivary glands)
(a) Parotid SG
Largest SG
Produce watery saliva
Opening on oral cavity against second upper molar
(b) Sublingual SG
Smallest SG
Have 10-12 small openings on floor of the oral cavity

Produce mixed saliva (more mucus)

(c) Submandibular SG
Produce mixed saliva (more watery)
Opening on the base of tongue
(3) Salivary secretions
Secretes 1.0 to 1.5L /day
Normally slightly acidic (pH 6.7)
Secretion controlled by autonomic nervous system
Secretion influenced by radiation exposure and emotional distress
Components
Water
Ions
Buffer
Wastes
Enzyme
E. Teeth
F. Pharynx
Passage to the esophagus
Muscular contraction helps on swallowing
2) Esophagus
Muscular tube between pharynx and stomach
Lies posterior to the trachea
Lubrication through mucus
Peristaltic movement (9 seconds to reach to the stomach)
Two esophageal sphincters (Fig.15-15)
Upper ES: skeletal muscle
Lower ES: smooth muscle
Major factors on swallowing (Fig.15-14)
-Controlled by swallowing center on medulla oblongata
(1) Tongue -pushes to back
(2) Soft palate -blocks nasal passage
(3) Epiglottis - blocks glottis
(4) Peristaltic wave of esophagus
3) Stomach
A. Functions of stomach
(a) Temporary storage
(b) Mechanical breakdown of resistant materials (Fig.15-22)
(c) Digestion and preservation
(d) Secretion of intrinsic factor
B. Structure of stomach (Fig.15-16)
(a) Cardiac region: connects to esophagus
(b) Fundus: mucus and pepsinogen
(c) Body: HCl
(d) Antrum: gastrine
(e) Pylorus (pyloric sphincter)
*Rugae: Foldings on inside wall of stomach (stomach)

C. Gastric secretions
(a) Gastric glands (Fig.15-17)
(b) Three-layered (layers of stomach wall)
-Mucosal (innermost), muscularis and serosal (outermost)
(c) Gastric pits
a. Mucus glands/ goblet cells
b. Chief cells
Secrete pepsinogen
Pepsinogen converted into pepsin by HCl
c. Parietal cells
Secrete HCl and intrinsic factor
- Activate enzymatic secretion of chief cells
- HCl converts pepsinogen to pepsin
- HCl provides low pH (pH 2) for pepsin (optimal at pH 2-4)
-Intrinsic factor helps absorption of vitamin B12 (RBC formation)
d. Conversion of pepsinogen to pepsin (Fig.15-21)
e. Somatostatin and histamine from stomach as paracrine agents
D. HCl secretion
(a) Secretes 1.5L per day
(b) Involved components (Fig.15-18)
H+/K+ pumps secrete H+ to stomach lumen
Cl- channels secrete Cl- to lumen
HCO3-/ Cl- channels secrete HCO3- to blood
(c) Regulation of HCl production (Fig.15-19)
Stimulation increases H+/K+ pump population on the membrane
Stimulants: Gastrin, Ach, and Histamine (most potent)
Inhibitor: Somatostatin
*Somatostatin from stomach, pancreas, and small intestine (from delta cells)
E. Regulation of gastric secretion (Table 15-5)
Controlled by CNS and hormone (Fig.15-20)
(a) Cephalic phase
Stimuli: Sight, smell, taste, or chewing
From parasympathetic nerve at parietal cells, chief cells, and mucus cells
Increased HCl secretion
(b) Gastric phase
(i) Stimuli: Distension, low acidity, amino acids/peptides
Food in the stomach stretches chemoreceptors of mucosa to secrete gastrin
Gastrin stimulates HCl secretion and movement of stomach
Protein, alcohol, and caffeine are gastric stimulants
(ii) Negative feedback: Somatostatin inhibits secretion of HCl, histamine,
and gastrin
Acidity of stomach is indicator of somatostatin secretion
(iii) Phase lasts several hours while the food stays in the stomach
(c) Intestinal phase (Fig.15-24)
Stimuli: Distension, acidity, osmolarity, and chyme
Arrival of food into intestine triggers the regulation from intestine

Controls the rate of chyme entry from stomach by neural and/

or hormonal way
Inhibition of gastric secretion
*Inhibitory reflex
Presence of acid substances in small intestine stimulates sympathetic
nerve and inhibits parasympathetic nervous system
*Hormonal control
Presence of protein and fat cause the release of enterogastrones (gastric
inhibitory hormones and peptides) which in turn slow gastric movement
of stomach
F. Digestion in the stomach
-Protein digestion by pepsin
Optimal pH is 2.0
Pepsin is inactivated in small intestine
About 20% of protein digested
G. No absorption of nutrients from the stomach due to,
(a) Mucus covering
(b) Epithelial cells are not differentiated for the absorption
(c) Lining is impermeable to water
H. Gastric movement (Fig.15-22; 15-23)
(a) Pacemaker cells (in longitudinal smooth muscle layer)
(b) Three times/ min.
(c) Hormonal, neural, and reflex control intensity and frequency of gastric movement
4). The Pancreas
A. Location
Behind the stomach, extended laterally from duodenum
B. Structure (Fig. 15-25; hepatic organs)
Elongated, pinkish-gray
About 15cm long, 80g
Soft and easily torn
Pancreatic acini (pancreatic acini)
-Cells secreting pancreatic enzymes
C. Production of bicarbonate (bicarbonate production)
Neutralizes acidic chyme from stomach
D. Pancreatic enzymes (Table 15-6)
(a) Lipases
(b) Amylase
(c) Proteolytic enzymes
Most abundant pancreatic enzyme (about 70%)
Trypsin, chymotripsin, and peptidase
Activation of proteolytic enzymes (Fig.15-26)
-Enterokinase from intestinal epithelial cells activates trypsinogen to trypsin
-Trypsin activates other proteolytic enzymes
E. Hormonal and neural control of pancreatic secretion
(1) Hormonal regulation
- Hormones from small intestine control pancreatic secretion

(a) Secretin (Fig.15-27)

Stimulated by introduction of acid into duodenum
Stimulates secretion of bicarbonate
(b) Cholecystokinin (Fig.15-28)
Stimulated by introduction of fatty acids and amino acids into duodenum
Stimulates secretion of pancreatic enzymes and bile
*Properties of gastrointestinal hormones (Table 15-4)
(2) Neural control
Nerural reflex: Stimulation from fatty acids and amino acids enhances pancreatic
secretion
Parasympathetic nerves (from taste and distension of stomach) stimulates pancreatic
secretion
5) The liver
Largest visceral organ: about 1.5kg
A. Structure (liver)
Has four lobes
Gallbladder under the right lobe
Hepatocytes: Liver cells
Kupffer cells: Phagocytic macrophage
Bile ducts (Fig.15-4; gallbladder)
Common hepatic duct
Cystic duct (to gallbladder)
Common bile duct (to duodenum)
B. Function of liver
(1) Metabolic regulation
Regulates circulating nutrients level
Inactivates toxins from circulating blood
Absorbs fat-soluble vitamins
(2) Hematological regulation
Blood storage -largest blood reservoir
Removes old and damage red blood cells
Synthesizes plasma proteins
-Important in osmotic concentration, nutrient transport, and blood clotting
(3) Synthesis and secretion of bile
(a) Components of bile
Water
Bicarbonate ion: buffering of chyme
Lecithin and bile salts: emulcification of lipid
Bilirubin: from RBC metabolism (bilirubin)
Cholesterol: Secreted from blood through liver
(b) Recycle of bile salt
Enterohepatic circulation of bile salt (Fig.15-30)
95% are recycled through the enterohepatic circulation
(c) Control of bile secretion (bile secretion)
i) Secretin
Secreted from duodenum

Stimulate liver to secrete bile

ii) Cholecystokinin (Fig.15-31)
Secreted from duodenum
Stimulate gallbladder to contract
Stimulate sphincter of Oddi
iii) Vagus nerve (10th cranial nerve)
Stimulate gallbladder to contract
(4) Detoxification
Convert toxins into less toxic materials
Ammonia to urea
(5) Storage of glycogen
Convert from blood glucose short term storage
Prevent acute hyperglycemia
C. Blood and bile flow through liver (liver circulation)
(1) Hepatic ducts: bile to gallbladder
(2) Hepatic portal vein: blood from viscera to liver
(3) Hepatic artery: arterial blood supply to liver
6) Small intestine
A. Has three parts
(1) Duodenum
After stomach
About 0.25m
Glandular openings from pancreas an liver
(2) Jejunum
Between deodenum and ileum
About 2.5m
Chemical digestion and nutrient absorption
(3) Ileum
Has sphincter at the end (ileocecal valve), opens to cecum
About 3m
Controls the flow of the material from small intestine to large intestine
B. Intestinal wall structure (Fig.15-6)
-Efficiently structured to extend and absorb nutrients
(1) Three layers (intestinal wall, tissue)
(a) Mucosa
Mucosa epithelium
Lamina propria
Exocrine and endocrine glands
*Villi (Fig.15-7)
- 600X increase in area (size of a tennis court: 300m2)
Microvilli
Blood vessels
Lacteal
(b) Submucosa
Connective tissues
Submucosal nerve plexus

- Regulates contractions of smooth muscle

(c) Muscularis externa
- Provides contraction forces
Circular muscle: Thick layer, contraction narrows lumen
Myenteric nerve plexus
Longitudinal muscle: Contraction shortens intestine
(d) Serosa
Connected to mesenteries (blood and lymphatic vessels, nerves)
(2) Intestinal Movements
Takes about 5 hours to go through small intestine
(a) Governed by reflexes
(i) Gastroenteric reflex
Stimulus from extension of stomach
Initiates secretion and peristaltic movements
(ii) Gastroileal reflex
Stimulus by gastrin from stomach
Opens ileocecal valve
(b) Segmentational movement (Fig.15-32)
Mixing chyme with mucus and gastric enzymes
(c) Peristaltic movement
Movement of intestinal contents
(3) Intestinal Secretion
(a) About 1.8L per day
(b) Buffering and mixing digested food and pancreatic enzymes
(c) Stimulated by touch, stretch receptors, and osmosis
(d) Regulated by hormonal and neural control
(i) Intestinal hormones (intestinal hormones)
(A) Secretin
Stimulated by low pH
Increases water and buffer secretion by pancreas and liver
Reduces gastric motility and secretory rates
(B) Cholecystokinin
Stimulated by lipids and partially digested protein in chyme in duodenum
Accelerates pancreatic enzyme secretion and bile secretion
Reduces gastric motility and secretory rates
(C) Gastric Inhibitory Peptide
Stimulated by fat and glucose in chyme in duodenum
Inhibits gastric motility
Stimulate release of insulin from pancreas
(ii) Neural control
(A) Sympathetic nerve
(B) Parasympathetic nerve
(C) Vagus nerve
(4) Digestion in small intestine
About 80% of absorption takes place
Major water absorption

Monosaccharides, amino acids, fatty acids, and water are the forms of absorption
Digestive enzymes and buffers are provided by liver and pancreas
Bile salts and bilirubin
7) Large intestine
A. Structure
(1) Frames the small intestine
(2) About 1.5m long
(3) Three portions (Fig.15-33)
(a) Cecum
Pouch shaped intestinal chamber
Connected to ileum by ileocecal valve
Has vermiform appendix
Begins fecal compaction
(b) Colon
Ascending colon
Transverse colon
Descending colon
Sigmoid colon
(c) Rectum
B. Functions
(1) Reabsorption of water and compaction of feces
-Takes about 1.5L of chyme in a day
-Active absorption of sodium leads water absorption due to osmotic pressure
(2) Absorption of vitamins from bacterial functions
(3) Storage of fecal material
C. Absorption in large intestine
(1) Water
About 87% of water absorbed
(2) Vitamins
Vitamin K and B5
(3) Organic compounds
Products from bacterial decomposition
D. Movement of fecal materials
(1) Takes hours while water reabsorption takes place
(2) Forces are mass movement and infrequent peristaltic movement
(3) Stimulation from distension of stomach
E. Defecation
Rectal distension stimulates defecation reflex
Positive feedbacks are involved
-Stretch receptors in the rectal walls and sacral parasympathetic system
stimulates peristaltic movement of rectum
3. Digestion and absorption
1) Carbohydrate (carbohydrate absorption)
Digestion starts from mouth by salivary amylase
-Break into di- or trisaccharides
-The enzyme inactivated by HCl

Pancreatic amylase digests complex carbohydrates into simple carbohydrates

Monosaccharides are absorbed through microvilli of small intestinal wall
-Intestinal wall has enzymes that digest complex to simple sugar
Monosaccharides are transported into the cells through carrier mediated transportation
2) Lipid (Fig.15-12; lipid absorption)
Digestion process starts at the small intestine by bile salts (Fig.15-10,11)
-Bile salts emulsify large lipid drops into small lipid droplets
Pancreatic lipase digests lipids into micelles (fatty acids and glycerol)
Micelles diffuse into cytoplasm
Synthesis of triglycerol from fatty acid and glycerol in the cytoplasm
Formation of chylomicrone by protein coating onto synthesized triglycerol
-Chylomicrone is water soluble
Chylomicrones transported into circulatory system through lacteal
*Lipoproteins (lipoproteins)
3) Protein (amino acid absorption)
Mechanical breakdown of protein from mouth
Pepsin from the stomach digests larger proteins into small polypeptides
Pancreatic proteinase break polypeptides into short oligopeptide chains and amino acids
-Trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase
Amino acids are transported into the cells through carrier mediated transportation
4) Water and electrolyte absorption (Fig.15-5; water absorption)
Water moves into the cells from the intestinal lumen by passive transportation
-Among about 2L of water supply into digestive tract only 100ml excreted
-Daily water intake is about 2L and 6L are internal secretion
-Osmotic gradient from intestinal absorption leads the movement of water into the
body system
Electrolytes are actively transported
5) Vitamin absorption
Vitamin B12 needs to bind to intrinsic factor from stomach (absorbed from ileum)
Fat-soluble vitamins are dissolved and absorbed with lipid droplets (micelles)
Vitamin K is produced from large intestinal bacteria, and absorbed from colon