The Simple Model:

Fitting analytic solutions of the equation of transfer

to observations reveals infall rates
for star-forming molecular clouds

Christopher H. De Vries
Philip C. Myers

Mathematics and Computer Science Seminar November 17, 2006

 Structure of the Talk
I. Radiative transfer

A. What is the equation of transfer?

B. What can we learn from this equation?

II. The asymmetric spectral line signature of an infalling

molecular cloud

A. How do stars form?

B. What can we learn from molecular observations?

III. Fitting models to data

A. How do we fit models to observations?

B. What are the pitfalls one has to watch out for?
 Astronomical Observations
Astronomers explore the Universe by making three types of
observations:

1. Robotic Probes.

2. Neutrino Detectors.

3. Electromagnetic Radiation.
 Electromagnetic Radiation
This talk will focus on analysis of radiation from astronomical
objects. Specifically the millimeter and sub-millimeter emission
from molecular gas clouds.
In order the interpret what we see, we need to understand

1. what causes the radiation,

2. what happens to the radiation as it travels,

3. and what effect our detectors have on that radiation.

 Electromagnetic Radiation
This talk will focus on analysis of radiation from astronomical
objects. Specifically the millimeter and sub-millimeter emission
from molecular gas clouds.
In order the interpret what we see, we need to understand

1. what causes the radiation, (Signal)

2. what happens to the radiation as it travels, (Transfer)

3. and what effect our detectors have on that radiation.

(Noise)
 Electromagnetic Radiation
This talk will focus on analysis of radiation from astronomical
objects. Specifically the millimeter and sub-millimeter emission
from molecular gas clouds.
In order the interpret what we see, we need to understand

1. what causes the radiation, (Signal)

2. what happens to the radiation as it travels, (Trans-

fer)
3. and what effect our detectors have on that radiation.
(Noise)
 Specific Intensity
In radiative transfer we measure the change in specific intensity
or brightness of radiation. Specific intensity (Iν ) is defined as
the amount of energy passing through a small area in a small
range of directions at a small range of frequencies in a small
time.
dE
Iν =
dA dt dΩ dν
The units of specific intensity (in cgs) are therefore erg cm−2
s−1 ster−1 Hz−1 .
 Radiative Transfer
Radiative transfer is huge topic which I cannot cover in detail,
but it is described by a very modest differential equation called
The Equation of Transfer.

dIν
= −αν Iν + jν
ds
s Distance (cm)
αν Absorption Coefficient (cm−1 )

jν Emission Coefficient (erg cm−3 s−1 ster−1 Hz−1 )

 Optical Depth
In a purely absorbing medium with the equation of transfer is
easy to solve, and depends only on the integral of the absorption
coefficient along the radiation’s path.
dInu
= −αν Iν
ds
 Z s 
0 0
Iν (s) = Iν (s0 ) exp − aν (s )ds
s0

The intensity decays exponentially as it travels through an ab-

sorbing medium. We define the optical depth (τ ) as the integral
of aν along the path. Using τ we can restate the equation of
transfer as
dIν
= −Iν + Sν .
dτ
 Radio Astronomers and Temperature
Radio astronomers are peculiar in that we assign a temperature
to everything (even when that temperature has no real thermal
meaning).

• Brightness Temperature (TB ) — Proportional to specific

intensity.

• Excitation Temperature (Tex )— Proportional to the

source function.
I will slow a lot of observations where “temperature” is the unit
of the observation, but these will be intensities or brightness of
radiation.
dTB
= −TB + Tex
dτ
 Molecular Emission and Absorption
What do we look at to observe “dark” molecular clouds? Emis-
sion from molecules within those clouds.

• At narrow bandwidths (spectral lines)

• At radio (millimeter and submillimeter) wavelengths

• Caused by quantum mechanical processes (rotational

transitions).

• Specific lines caused by specific molecules.

 Star Formation and Infalling Clouds
Molecular clouds are huge, stretching up to 100 parsecs in size.
They are also incredibly diffuse with a density lower than the
best vacuum achievable on Earth.

Stars have an average density greater than water, with ex-

tremely high density in the core. They are also more than
one million times smaller than a small molecular cloud core.

In order to form stars clouds must undergo a phase of massive

collapse.
 Infalling Molecular Cloud
Hot

Observer

Cool

Radially Infalling Cloud

 Infalling Cloud: Doppler Shifts

Observer

Radially Infalling Cloud

 The Asymmetric Infall Profile

Observer

Radially Infalling Cloud

 The Asymmetric Infall Profile

1. There must be a rising ex-

Observer
citation temperature gradi-
ent along the line of sight.

Radially Infalling Cloud

 The Asymmetric Infall Profile

1. There must be a rising ex-

Observer
citation temperature gradi-
ent along the line of sight.

Radially Infalling Cloud

2. There must be a velocity
gradient along the line of
sight.
 The Asymmetric Infall Profile

1. There must be a rising ex-

Observer
citation temperature gradi-
ent along the line of sight.

Radially Infalling Cloud

2. There must be a velocity
gradient along the line of
sight.

3. The line must be optically

thick.
 Traditional Modeling of Infall
1. Choose a hydrodynamic simulation which includes rele-
vant physical processes.

2. Simulate the radiative processes and thermodynamics

within the cloud.

3. Assume a chemistry model for the cloud.

4. Model the radiative emissions of the cloud.

Remarkably, nearly all these models predict the excitation tem-

perature depends linearly on optical depth!
 The Simple Model
We exploit this relationship by building simple models of col-
lapsing clouds.

1. The excitation temperature rises linearly to a peak and

then falls with the same slope as a function of optical
depth.

2. We assume some uniform rate of infall over the entire

cloud.
 The Simple Model
Τex

Tpk vc vc

Tbg

τ
τf τr
 The Simple Model
We exploit this relationship by building simple models of col-
lapsing clouds.

1. The excitation temperature rises linearly to a peak and

then falls with the same slope as a function of optical
depth.

2. We assume some uniform rate of infall over the entire

cloud.
The equation of transfer is integrable in this case and simula-
tions can by calculated in second by a computer rather than
hours or weeks taking the traditional approach. This allows us
to consider fitting our models to real observations.
 Fitting a Model to Observations
The key of fitting is to numerically minimize the difference
between the model predictions and observations by changing
parameters of the models. This is often referred to as χ2 -
minimization.

Minimization is an iterative process. You must

1. choose parameters,

2. calculate a result,

3. and compare that result with observations.

4. (repeat as necessary)
Error Gradient Methods

Parameter
Error Gradient Methods

Parameter
Error Gradient Methods

Parameter
Error Gradient Methods

Parameter
 Simulated Annealing
The standard solution to ending up in a local minimum is to
use a process called simulated annealing.

• Mirrors process of annealing or controlled cooling to cre-

ate crystals.

• Although you tend to follow the gradient down and re-

duce error, you allow a probability of going upwards and
increasing error.
• As time goes on the probability of taking a step upwards
decreases.

• If probability is reduced at the right rate, you will end up

in the global minimum.
Error Simulated Annealing

Parameter
 Differential Evolution
Simulated annealing requires careful control of the probability
of an upward step during the simulation. Differential evolution
(Storn & Price 1997) is self-regulating with fewer free param-
eters.

• Start with a population of solutions.

• Allow the solutions to vary by the differences between

them (self-scaling).
• Keep good solutions and throw out the bad solutions in
each generation.

• Repeat until you believe convergence is reached.

Error Differential Evolution

Parameter
Error Differential Evolution

Parameter
Error Differential Evolution

Parameter
Error Differential Evolution

Parameter
Error Differential Evolution

Parameter
A Fit to Data: L1544
 The Correct Solution
So far we have:

• A model that is easy to calculate

• A method for fitting that model to data

How do we know if our best fit model is right? Is a model

correct merely because it explains our observations? Not nec-
essarily. We must continue to scrutinize it.

Does our model reproduce the features of hydrodynamically

simulated clouds?
Simulated Fits
 Actual Data
Since this model is easy to
use and runs quickly (and I
put the code online) observa-
tional astronomers have be-
gun using this model to fit
their asymmetric line profiles
and derive infall velocities and
other physical parameters for
their observations.

The fits are good, but do they

really tell us anything about
the physics of the cloud?
Williams, Lee, & Myers 2006
 The Moral of the Story
1. Know your problem.
 The Moral of the Story
1. Know your problem.

2. Look for reasonable simplifications.

 The Moral of the Story
1. Know your problem.

2. Look for reasonable simplifications.

3. Know where these simplifications apply.

 The Moral of the Story
1. Know your problem.

2. Look for reasonable simplifications.

3. Know where these simplifications apply.

4. Convince people you are right.