Amorphousmetal

FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Anamorphousmetal(alsoknownmetallicglassorglassy
metal)isasolidmetallicmaterial,usuallyanalloy,witha
disorderedatomicscalestructure.Mostmetalsarecrystallinein
theirsolidstate,whichmeanstheyhaveahighlyordered
arrangementofatoms.Amorphousmetalsarenoncrystalline,
andhaveaglasslikestructure.Butunlikecommonglasses,such
aswindowglass,whicharetypicallyelectricalinsulators,
amorphousmetalshavegoodelectricalconductivity.Thereare
severalwaysinwhichamorphousmetalscanbeproduced,
includingextremelyrapidcooling,physicalvapordeposition,
solidstatereaction,ionirradiation,andmechanicalalloying.[1][2]

Samplesofamorphousmetal,with
millimeterscale

Inthepast,smallbatchesofamorphousmetalshavebeen
producedthroughavarietyofquickcoolingmethods.Forinstance,amorphousmetalribbonshavebeen
producedbysputteringmoltenmetalontoaspinningmetaldisk(meltspinning).Therapidcooling,on
theorderofmillionsofdegreesasecond,istoofastforcrystalstoformandthematerialis"locked"ina
glassystate.Morerecentlyanumberofalloyswithcriticalcoolingrateslowenoughtoallowformation
ofamorphousstructureinthicklayers(over1millimeter)hadbeenproducedtheseareknownasbulk
metallicglasses(BMG).LiquidmetalsellsanumberoftitaniumbasedBMGs,developedinstudies
originallyperformedatCaltech.Morerecently,batchesofamorphoussteelhavebeenproducedthat
demonstratestrengthsmuchgreaterthanconventionalsteelalloys.

Contents
1 History
2 Properties
3 Applications
4 ModelingandTheory
5 Seealso
6 References
7 Externallinks

History
Thefirstreportedmetallicglasswasanalloy(Au75Si25)producedatCaltechbyW.Klement(Jr.),
WillensandDuwezin1960.[3]Thisandotherearlyglassformingalloyshadtobecooledextremely
rapidly(ontheorderofonemegakelvinpersecond,106K/s)toavoidcrystallization.Animportant

consequenceofthiswasthatmetallicglassescouldonlybeproducedinalimitednumberofforms
(typicallyribbons,foils,orwires)inwhichonedimensionwassmallsothatheatcouldbeextracted
quicklyenoughtoachievethenecessarycoolingrate.Asaresult,metallicglassspecimens(withafew
exceptions)werelimitedtothicknessesoflessthanonehundredmicrometers.
In1969,analloyof77.5%palladium,6%copper,and16.5%siliconwasfoundtohavecriticalcooling
ratebetween100to1000K/s.
In1976,H.LiebermannandC.Grahamdevelopedanewmethodofmanufacturingthinribbonsof
amorphousmetalonasupercooledfastspinningwheel.[4]Thiswasanalloyofiron,nickel,phosphorus
andboron.Thematerial,knownasMetglas,wascommercializedintheearly1980sandisusedforlow
losspowerdistributiontransformers(Amorphousmetaltransformer).Metglas2605iscomposedof80%
ironand20%boron,hasCurietemperatureof373Candaroomtemperaturesaturationmagnetization
of1.56teslas.[5]
Intheearly1980s,glassyingotswith5mmdiameterwereproducedfromthealloyof55%palladium,
22.5%lead,and22.5%antimony,bysurfaceetchingfollowedwithheatingcoolingcycles.Usingboron
oxideflux,theachievablethicknesswasincreasedtoacentimeter.
ResearchinTohokuUniversity[6]andCaltechyieldedmulticomponentalloysbasedonlanthanum,
magnesium,zirconium,palladium,iron,copper,andtitanium,withcriticalcoolingratebetween1K/sto
100K/s,comparabletooxideglasses.
In1988,alloysoflanthanum,aluminium,andcopperorewerefoundtobehighlyglassforming.Al
basedmetallicglassescontainingScandiumexhibitedarecordtypetensilemechanicalstrengthofabout
1500MPa.[7]
Inthe1990snewalloysweredevelopedthatformglassesatcoolingratesaslowasonekelvinper
second.Thesecoolingratescanbeachievedbysimplecastingintometallicmolds.These"bulk"
amorphousalloyscanbecastintopartsofuptoseveralcentimetersinthickness(themaximum
thicknessdependingonthealloy)whileretaininganamorphousstructure.Thebestglassformingalloys
arebasedonzirconiumandpalladium,butalloysbasedoniron,titanium,copper,magnesium,andother
metalsarealsoknown.Manyamorphousalloysareformedbyexploitingaphenomenoncalledthe
"confusion"effect.Suchalloyscontainsomanydifferentelements(oftenfourormore)thatupon
coolingatsufficientlyfastrates,theconstituentatomssimplycannotcoordinatethemselvesintothe
equilibriumcrystallinestatebeforetheirmobilityisstopped.Inthisway,therandomdisorderedstateof
theatomsis"lockedin".
In1992,thecommercialamorphousalloy,Vitreloy1(41.2%Zr,13.8%Ti,12.5%Cu,10%Ni,and
22.5%Be),wasdevelopedatCaltech,asapartofDepartmentofEnergyandNASAresearchofnew
aerospacematerials.Morevariantsfollowed.
In2004,twogroupssucceededinproducingbulkamorphoussteel(actuallyrathercastironowingto
highCcontent),oneatOakRidgeNationalLaboratory,theotheratUniversityofVirginia.TheOak
Ridgegroupreferstotheirproductas"glassysteel,"whiletheUniversityofVirginiagroupreferredto
theirsas"DARVAGlass101".[8][9]Theproductisnonmagneticatroomtemperatureandsignificantly
strongerthanconventionalsteel,thoughalongresearchanddevelopmentprocessremainsbeforethe
introductionofthematerialintopublicormilitaryuse.[10][11]

Properties

Amorphousmetalisusuallyanalloyratherthanapuremetal.Thealloyscontainatomsofsignificantly
differentsizes,leadingtolowfreevolume(andthereforeuptoordersofmagnitudehigherviscositythan
othermetalsandalloys)inmoltenstate.Theviscositypreventstheatomsmovingenoughtoforman
orderedlattice.Thematerialstructurealsoresultsinlowshrinkageduringcooling,andresistanceto
plasticdeformation.Theabsenceofgrainboundaries,theweakspotsofcrystallinematerials,leadsto
betterresistancetowearandcorrosion.Amorphousmetals,whiletechnicallyglasses,arealsomuch
tougherandlessbrittlethanoxideglassesandceramics.
Thermalconductivityofamorphousmaterialsislowerthanthatofcrystallinemetal.Asformationof
amorphousstructurereliesonfastcooling,thislimitsthemaximumachievablethicknessofamorphous
structures.
Toachieveformationofamorphousstructureevenduringslowercooling,thealloyhastobemadeof
threeormorecomponents,leadingtocomplexcrystalunitswithhigherpotentialenergyandlower
chanceofformation.Theatomicradiusofthecomponentshastobesignificantlydifferent(over12%),
toachievehighpackingdensityandlowfreevolume.Thecombinationofcomponentsshouldhave
negativeheatofmixing,inhibitingcrystalnucleationandprolongingthetimethemoltenmetalstaysin
supercooledstate.
Thealloysofboron,silicon,phosphorus,andotherglassformerswithmagneticmetals(iron,cobalt,
nickel)havehighmagneticsusceptibility,withlowcoercivityandhighelectricalresistance.Usuallythe
conductivityofametallicglassisofthesameloworderofmagnitudeasofamoltenmetaljustabove
themeltingpoint.Thehighresistanceleadstolowlossesbyeddycurrentswhensubjectedtoalternating
magneticfields,apropertyusefulfore.g.transformermagneticcores.Theirlowcoercivityalso
contributestolowloss.
Amorphousmetalshavehighertensileyieldstrengthsandhigherelasticstrainlimitsthanpolycrystalline
metalalloys,buttheirductilitiesandfatiguestrengthsarelower.[12]Amorphousalloyshaveavarietyof
potentiallyusefulproperties.Inparticular,theytendtobestrongerthancrystallinealloysofsimilar
chemicalcomposition,andtheycansustainlargerreversible("elastic")deformationsthancrystalline
alloys.Amorphousmetalsderivetheirstrengthdirectlyfromtheirnoncrystallinestructure,whichdoes
nothaveanyofthedefects(suchasdislocations)thatlimitthestrengthofcrystallinealloys.Onemodern
amorphousmetal,knownasVitreloy,hasatensilestrengththatisalmosttwicethatofhighgrade
titanium.However,metallicglassesatroomtemperaturearenotductileandtendtofailsuddenlywhen
loadedintension,whichlimitsthematerialapplicabilityinreliabilitycriticalapplications,asthe
impendingfailureisnotevident.Therefore,thereisconsiderableinterestinproducingmetalmatrix
compositematerialsconsistingofametallicglassmatrixcontainingdendriticparticlesorfibersofa
ductilecrystallinemetal.
Perhapsthemostusefulpropertyofbulkamorphousalloysisthattheyaretrueglasses,whichmeans
thattheysoftenandflowuponheating.Thisallowsforeasyprocessing,suchasbyinjectionmolding,in
muchthesamewayaspolymers.Asaresult,amorphousalloyshavebeencommercializedforusein
sportsequipment,medicaldevices,andascasesforelectronicequipment.
Thinfilmsofamorphousmetalscanbedepositedviahighvelocityoxygenfueltechniqueasprotective
coatings.

Applications

Currentlythemostimportantapplicationisduetothespecialmagneticpropertiesofsomeferromagnetic
metallicglasses.Thelowmagnetizationlossisusedinhighefficiencytransformers(amorphousmetal
transformer)atlinefrequencyandsomehigherfrequencytransformers.Amorphoussteelisaverybrittle
materialwhichmakesitdifficulttopunchintomotorlaminations.[13]Alsoelectronicarticlesurveillance
(suchastheftcontrolpassiveIDtags,)oftenusesmetallicglassesbecauseofthesemagneticproperties.
Amorphousmetals(metallicglasses)exhibituniquesofteningbehaviorabovetheirglasstransitionand
thissofteninghasbeenincreasinglyexploredforthermoplasticformingofmetallicglasses.[14]Ithas
beenshownthatmetallicglassescanbepatternedonextremelysmalllengthscalesrangingfrom10nm
toseveralmillimeters.[15]Ithasbeensuggestedthatthismaysolvetheproblemsofnanoimprint
lithographywhereexpensivenanomoldsmadeofsiliconbreakeasily.Nanomoldsmadefrommetallic
glassesareeasytofabricateandmoredurablethansiliconmolds.Suchlowsofteningtemperatureallows
fordevelopingsimplemethodsformakingcompositesofnanoparticles(e.g.carbonnanotubes)and
BMGs.Thesuperiorelectronic,thermalandmechanicalpropertiesofBMGscomparedtopolymers
makethemagoodoptionfordevelopingnanocompositesforelectronicapplicationsuchasfieldelectron
emissiondevices.[16]
Ti40Cu36Pd14Zr10isbelievedtobenoncarcinogenic,isaboutthreetimesstrongerthantitanium,andits
elasticmodulusnearlymatchesbones.Ithasahighwearresistanceanddoesnotproduceabrasion
powder.Thealloydoesnotundergoshrinkageonsolidification.Asurfacestructurecanbegenerated
thatisbiologicallyattachablebysurfacemodificationusinglaserpulses,allowingbetterjoiningwith
bone.[17]
Mg60Zn35Ca5,rapidlycooledtoachieveamorphousstructure,isbeinginvestigated,atLehigh
University,asabiomaterialforimplantationintobonesasscrews,pins,orplates,tofixfractures.Unlike
traditionalsteelortitanium,thismaterialdissolvesinorganismsatarateofroughly1millimeterper
monthandisreplacedwithbonetissue.Thisspeedcanbeadjustedbyvaryingthecontentofzinc.[18]

ModelingandTheory
Bulkmetallicglasses(BMGs)havenowbeenmodeledusingatomicscalesimulations(withinthe
densityfunctionaltheoryframework)inasimilarmannertohighentropyalloys.[19][20]Thishasallowed
predictionstobemadeabouttheirbehavior,stabilityandmanymoreproperties.Assuch,newBMG
systemscanbetested,andtailoredsystemsfitforaspecificpurpose(e.g.bonereplacementoraero
enginecomponent)withoutasmuchempiricalsearchingofthephasespaceandexperimentaltrialand
error.

Seealso
Glassceramictometalseals
Materialsscience
Bioabsorbablemetallicglass
Liquidmetal
Structureofliquidsandglasses

References

1.Somescientistsonlyconsideramorphousmetalsproducedbyrapidcoolingfromaliquidstatetobeglasses.
However,materialsscientistscommonlyconsideraglasstobeanysolidnoncrystallinematerial,regardless
ofhowitisproduced.
2.Ojovan,M.I.Lee,W.(B.E.(2010)."Connectivityandglasstransitionindisorderedoxidesystems".
JournalofNonCrystallineSolids356(4449):2534.Bibcode:2010JNCS..356.2534O.
doi:10.1016/j.jnoncrysol.2010.05.012.
3.Klement,W.Willens,R.H.Duwez,POL(1960)."NoncrystallineStructureinSolidifiedGoldSilicon
Alloys".Nature187(4740):869870.Bibcode:1960Natur.187..869K.doi:10.1038/187869b0.
4.LibermannH.&GrahamC.(1976)."ProductionOfAmorphousAlloyRibbonsAndEffectsOfApparatus
ParametersOnRibbonDimensions".IEEETransactionsonMagnetics12(6):921.
Bibcode:1976ITM....12..921L.doi:10.1109/TMAG.1976.1059201.
5.Roya,R&Majumdara,A.K.(1981)."Thermomagneticandtransportpropertiesofmetglas2605SCand
2605".JournalofMagnetismandMagneticMaterials25:8389.Bibcode:1981JMMM...25...83R.
doi:10.1016/03048853(81)901505.
6.Inoue,A.(2000)."Stabilizationofmetallicsupercooledliquidandbulkamorphousalloys".ActaMaterialia
48:279306.doi:10.1016/S13596454(99)003006.
7.Inoue,A.Sobu,S.Louzguine,D.V.Kimura,H.Sasamori,K.(2011)."UltrahighstrengthAlbased
amorphousalloyscontainingSc".JournalofMaterialsResearch19(5):1539.
Bibcode:2004JMatR..19.1539I.doi:10.1557/JMR.2004.0206.
8.U.Va.NewsService,"UniversityOfVirginiaScientistsDiscoverAmorphousSteelMaterialisthreetimes
strongerthanconventionalsteelandnonmagnetic"(http://www.virginia.edu/topnews/releases2004/poonjuly
22004.html),U.Va.NewsServices,7/2/2004
9.GooglePatentslistingforPatentWO2006091875A2,"PatentWO2006091875A2Amorphoussteel
compositeswithenhancedstrengths,elasticpropertiesandductilities(AlsopublishedasUS20090025834,
WO2006091875A3)"(http://www.google.com/patents/WO2006091875A2?cl=en),JosephSPoon,GaryJ
Shiflet,UnivVirginia,8/31/2006
10."GlassySteel".ORNLReview38(1).2005.
11.Ponnambalam,V.Poon,S.J.Shiflet,G.J.(2011)."Febasedbulkmetallicglasseswithdiameterthickness
largerthanonecentimeter".JournalofMaterialsResearch19(5):1320.Bibcode:2004JMatR..19.1320P.
doi:10.1557/JMR.2004.0176.
12.Russell,Alan&Lee,KokLoong(2005).StructurePropertyRelationsinNonferrousMetals.JohnWiley&
Sons.p.92.ISBN9780471708537.
13.Ning,S.R.Gao,J.Wang,Y.G.(2010)."ReviewonApplicationsofLowLossAmorphousMetalsin
Motors".AdvancedMaterialsResearch.129131:1366.doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.129131.1366.
14.Saotome,Y.Iwazaki,H.(2000)."Superplasticextrusionofmicrogearshaftof10minmodule".
MicrosystemTechnologies6(4):126.doi:10.1007/s005420050180.
15.Kumar,G.Tang,H.X.Schroers,J.(2009)."Nanomouldingwithamorphousmetals".Nature457(7231):
868872.Bibcode:2009Natur.457..868K.doi:10.1038/nature07718.PMID19212407.
16.HojatiTalemi,Pejman(2011)."Highperformancebulkmetallicglass/carbonnanotubecompositecathodesfor
electronfieldemission".AppliedPhysicsLetters99(19):194104.Bibcode:2011ApPhL..99s4104H.
doi:10.1063/1.3659898.
17.Maruyama,Masaaki(June11,2009)."JapaneseUniversitiesDevelopTibasedMetallicGlassforArtificial
FingerJoint".Techon.
18."Fixingboneswithdissolvableglass".InstituteofPhysics.October1,2009.
19.King,D.M.Middleburgh,S.C.Liu,A.C.Y.Tahini,H.A.Lumpkin,G.R.Cortie,M.(January2014).
"FormationandstructureofVZramorphousalloythinfilms".ActaMaterialia83:269275.
doi:10.1016/j.actamat.2014.10.016.
20.Middleburgh,S.C.Burr,P.A.King,D.M.Edwards,L.Lumpkin,G.R.Grimes,R.W.(November2015).
"StructuralstabilityandfissionproductbehaviourinU3Si".JournalofNuclearMaterials466:739744.
doi:10.1016/j.jnucmat.2015.04.052.

Externallinks
LiquidmetalDesignGuide
(http://info.liquidmetal.com/Portals/202786/docs/Liquidmetal%20Design%20Guide%20Rev%201
.0%2024January2013.pdf)

"Metallicglass:adropofthehardstuff"(https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg18624931000
metallicglassadropofthehardstuff/)atNewScientist
GlassLikeMetalPerformsBetterUnderStress(http://focus.aps.org/story/v15/st20)Physical
ReviewFocus,June9,2005
"Overviewofmetallicglasses"
(https://jshare.johnshopkins.edu/thufnag1/Public_html/metallicglass.html)
NewComputationalMethodDevelopedByCarnegieMellonUniversityPhysicistCouldSpeed
DesignandTestingofMetallicGlass(https://www.cmu.edu/mcs/news/pressreleases/2004/0902
widom.html)(2004)(thealloydatabase(http://alloy.phys.cmu.edu/)developedbyMarek
Mihalkovic,MichaelWidom,andothers)
MaterialsToday:Thecaseforbulkmetallicglass(http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?
_ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6X1J4BSCDTGR
M&_cdi=7244&_user=10&_pii=S1369702104001245&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_c
overDate=03%2F31%2F2004&_sk=999929996&wchp=dGLbVzW
zSkzV&md5=104fc8b85860bed5084ae3b29beeade4&ie=/sdarticle.pdf)
NewtungstentantalumcopperamorphousalloydevelopedattheKoreaAdvancedInstituteof
ScienceandTechnology[1]
(http://english.chosun.com/w21data/html/news/200505/200505060005.html)
AmorphousMetalsinElectricPowerDistributionApplications
(http://www.metglas.com/downloads/lit/amor_elec_pow_dist_appl.pdf)
AmorphousandNanocrystallineSoftMagnets
(http://www.vacuumschmelze.de/dynamic/docroot/medialib/documents/pdf/fipublikationen/Amor
phousNano_1996.pdf)
glasstransitiontemperaturesofbulkmetallicglasses
(http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3586724/table/t1/)
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