1

Bulk Deformation Forming Forging

Overview - Shaping and Forming

SLS
Powders

Special
Pressing

Stamping

Ingot
casting
Molten
Material

Current Lecture

Rolling

Sheet metal
forming
Forging/
Press forming

Extruding
Casting
Shapes
Single crystal
pulling

Machining

Continuous
Casting/Rolling

Firing/
Sintering

Finishing

Raw Material

Injection
Molding

Blow
molding

Increasing level of detail

Forging Process
Application of compressive force applied
through various mechanisms
The forming of workpieces through a
succession of tools and dies
One of the oldest metalworking operations
Initially just a hammer on an anvil (jewelry,
horse shoes, sword making)
Used to improved properties as well as form
a shape
Produces discrete parts

Forging Process History

Molds of stone helped initial forming efforts
Now forces are
Mechanical (hammer presses)
Hydraulic

Dies are tool steel

Near net shape forming

Forging Practice

Prepare raw material including cleaning

Heat workpiece (for hot forging)
Descale if necessary
Preheat and lubricate dies (hot forging)
Forge in appropriate dies and in correct
sequence
Remove excess material (flashing)
Clean
Check dimensions
Straighten if necessary
Machine to final dimensions
Heat treat if necessary
Inspect

Forging Process Capabilities

Tolerances of 0.5% to 1% can be achieved
Material properties can be tailored by
appropriate die design
Directed material flow

Forging Processes
Advantages
Metal flow and grain structure can be
controlled
Results in good strength and toughness
Near net shape (low buy to fly ratio)
Parts of reasonable complexity can be created
Landing gear
Connecting rods
Complex shafts

Disadvantages
Dies are expensive, particularly for hot forging
Highly skilled labor required

Forging Process Categories

Preparation

Forging

Subsequent
Operations

Heading, Coining,
Cogging, Fullering,
Gathering, Hubbing,
Piercing, Roll Forging,
Skew Rolling
Trimming,
Machining,
Cleaning
Heat
Treating

Hot
Warm
Isothermal

Inspection

Slug
Preform
Billet

Open die,
Impression Die,
Closed Die,
Precision,
Orbital, Swaging

Open Die Forging and Cogging

Simplest and cheapest
Also called upsetting or flat-die forging
Advantages
Cheap
Can form a wide variety of simple shapes with
the same dies
Squares, cylindrical

Useful for preparing material for other forms of

forging or machining
Can handle large items (35 tons)

Disadvantages
Barreling of shape due to high friction

10

Open Die Forging and Cogging

11

Open Die Forging Force

F = Yf r2 (1 + 2r/3h)
is the flow stress of the material
where Yf

is the coefficient of friction

r
is the radius
h
is the height of the workpiece
Examples
Stainless steel workpiece, 150 mm diameter, 100 mm
high reduced with flat dies to 50% of original height.
Coefficient of friction is 0.2
Force is 5000 tons

12

Impression and Closed Die Forging

Use dies with the approximate end shape
Usually requires more than one die to
complete process
Fullering and Edging dies prepare material to
take up die shape
Fullering moves material away from center
Edging moves material away from edges

Flashing produced from excess material

Often used to ensure good die filling

Stages in Impression
Die Forging

13

14

Load in impression-die forging

Stages in the forging of a crank

shaft

15

Terminology of Impression
Forging

16

Impression and Closed Die

Forging

17

Advantages
Produces near net shape
Material properties tailored to application

Disadvantages
High die costs
Highly skilled labor required

18

Precision Forging
A further development of closed die forging
Close calculation of material required to fill die
minimizes scrap and flashing
Dies have more detail minimizing subsequent
shaping operations
Advantages
Little subsequent shaping
Good to excellent properties

Disadvantages
Expensive
Difficult to control

19

Closed Die Forging Force

F = k Yf A
where
Yf
A
k

is the flow stress

is the area and
is a factor given below

Shapes
Simple, no flashing
simple, with flashing
Complex, with flashing

k
3-5
5-8
8-12

20

Related Processes
Coining

Similar to precision forging but much older

Die cavity completely closed
Very high pressures involved
Used in coin making

Heading
Used mostly for bolts

10

21

Related Processes
Piercing
Exactly as it sounds
Makes holes
Used in conjunction with closed die forging

Hubbing
Like piercing but for making cavities, not
complete penetrations larger areas

Roll Forging
Uses rolls to shape parts (ball bearings)
Similar to shape rolling but makes discrete
parts

22

Related Processes
Orbital Forging
Forms the part incrementally
Small forging forces because the die contact is
concentrated on a small part of the workpiece
at anyone time
Applicable to mostly cylindrical shapes

Incremental forging
Blank formed in several small steps like orbital
non-rotational parts can be made

11

23

Related Processes
Isothermal forging

Dies at same temperature of workpiece

No workpiece cooling
Low flow stresses
Better material flow
More close tolerances and finer details can be
achieved

Swaging
Cylindrical parts subjected to radial impact
forces by reciprocating dies
Used to reduce tube diameter and introduce
rifling into gun barrels

24

Die Design
Requires knowledge of
Material strength
Sensitivity of these to deformation rate and
temperature
Friction and its control
Shape and complexity of workpiece
How the metal will flow to fill the die cavity
Great skill and expertise
Multiple dies to move the material in the right
direction

12

25

Forgeability
Defined as the capability of a material to
undergo deformation without cracking
Common test is the upset test
Upset cylindrical specimen to fixed, large
deformation
Examine barrel surfaces for cracks

Another is the hot torsion test

Twist long cylindrical specimen around its axis
No of twists to failure is forgeability
Also used for rolling and extrusion
deformation capabilities

26

Hot forging Temperatures

Material
Aluminum alloys
Magnesium alloys
Copper alloys
Carbon and low alloy steels
Stainless steels
Titanium alloys
Iron based superalloys
Tungsten alloys

Temperature
Range (oC)
400-550
250-35600-900
850-1150
1100-1250
700-950
1050-1180
1200-1300

13

27

Product Quality Issues

Surface cracks (forgeability limitation)

Buckling
Laps
Internal cracks

28

Defects

14

29

Defects

30

Forging Machines
Mechanical Presses

Hydraulic
Mechanical
Screw
Hammers
Gravity Drop
Power Drop
Counterblow
High Energy Rate

15

31

Hydraulic Presses
Constant speed
Load limited
Compared to mechanical
Typically slower
Higher initial cost
Less maintenance

32

Mechanical Presses

Crank or eccentric types

Stroke limited
Energy dependent on that stored in flywheel
Very large forces can be generated at bottom
dead center
Hence must be careful in die design and
placement to avoid die fracture

16

33

Screw Presses
Derive energy from flywheel like mechanical
presses
Flywheel drives a screw, not a ram
Energy limited
Process stops when flywheel energy
exhausted

34

Hammers
Ram is raised by some mechanism and let
fall onto workpiece
Derives energy from potential energy of the
hammer
They are energy limited
High speeds
Minimal cooling
Different types

Gravity drop
Power drop
Counterblow
High energy rate machines

17

Characteristics of Forging
Processes
Process

Advantages

Limitations

Open die

Cheap dies
Small quantities
Wide range of sizes
Good strengths

limited to simple shapes

Poor tolerances
Low production rates
high skill required

Closed Die

Good utilization of material

High die costs
Better properties
Machining necessary
Good tolerances and accuracy
High rates
Good reproducibility

Precision

Close tolerances
Machining unnecessary
Excellent material utilization
Thin webs and flanges

35

Machining necessary
High forces
Intricate dies
Need way of removing part

36

Comparison of Forging Presses

18

37

Forging Economics
Setup and tooling costs are high initially
Good for large production quantities
Material costs as a fraction of total costs vary
with material
High percentage for stainless steels (70-85%)
Low percentage for carbon steel (25-45%)

38

Summary
General characteristics of forming processes
(metals only)
General
Bulk deformation processes
Forging
Open Die
Closed Die
Other

Summary

19