Branches of physics

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Further information: Classical physics, Modern physics and Outline of physics Branches of physics

Domains of major fields of physics

Physics deals with the combination of matter and energy. It also deals with a wide variety of
systems, about which theories have been developed that are used by physicists. In general, theories
are experimentally tested numerous times before they are accepted as correct as a description of
Nature (within a certain domain of validity). For instance, the theory of classical
mechanics accurately describes the motion of objects, provided they are much larger
than atoms and moving at much less than the speed of light. These theories continue to be areas of
active research: for instance, a remarkable aspect of classical mechanics known as chaos was
discovered in the 20th century, three centuries after the original formulation of classical mechanics
by Isaac Newton (16421727). These "central theories" are important tools for research in more
specialized topics, and any physicist, regardless of his or her specialization, is expected to be literate
in them.
Contents
[hide]

1 Classical mechanics

2 Thermodynamics and statistical mechanics

3 Electromagnetism

4 Relativity

5 Quantum mechanics

6 Interdisciplinary fields

7 Summary

8 References

Classical mechanics[edit]
Classical mechanics is a model of the physics of forces acting upon bodies. It is often referred to as
"Newtonian mechanics" after Isaac Newton and his laws of motion. It also includes classical
approach as given by Hamiltonian and Lagrange methods.

Thermodynamics and statistical mechanics [edit]

Main articles: Thermodynamics and Statistical mechanics
The first chapter of The Feynman Lectures on Physics is about the existence of atoms, which
Feynman considered to be the most compact statement of physics, from which science could easily
result even if all other knowledge was lost.[1] By modeling matter as collections of hard spheres, it is
possible to describe the kinetic theory of gases, upon which classical thermodynamics is based.
Thermodynamics studies the effects of changes in temperature, pressure, and volume on physical
systems on themacroscopic scale, and the transfer of energy as heat.[2][3] Historically,
thermodynamics developed out of the desire to increase the efficiency of early steam engines.[4]
The starting point for most thermodynamic considerations is the laws of thermodynamics, which
postulate that energy can be exchanged between physical systems as heat or work.[5] They also
postulate the existence of a quantity named entropy, which can be defined for any system.[6] In
thermodynamics, interactions between large ensembles of objects are studied and categorized.
Central to this are the concepts of system and surroundings. A system is composed of particles,
whose average motions define its properties, which in turn are related to one another

Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism

through equations of state. Properties can be combined to express internal

energy and thermodynamic potentials, which are useful for determining conditions
forequilibrium and spontaneous processes.

Electromagnetism[edit]
Main article: Electromagnetism
See also: Optics

Relativity[edit]
Main articles: Special relativity and General relativity
The special theory of relativity enjoys a relationship with electromagnetism and mechanics; that is,
the principle of relativity and the principle of stationary action in mechanics can be used to
derive Maxwell's equations,[7][8] and vice versa.
The theory of special relativity was proposed in 1905 by Albert Einstein in his article "On the
Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies". The title of the article refers to the fact that special relativity
resolves an inconsistency between Maxwell's equations and classical mechanics. The theory is
based on two postulates: (1) that the mathematical forms of the laws of physics are invariant in
all inertial systems; and (2) that the speed of light in a vacuum is constant and independent of the
source or observer. Reconciling the two postulates requires a unification of space and time into the
frame-dependent concept of spacetime.

General relativity is the geometrical theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1915/16.[9]
[10]
It unifies special relativity, Newton's law of universal gravitation, and the insight that gravitation can
be described by the curvature of space and time. In general relativity, the curvature of spacetime is
produced by the energy of matter and radiation.

Quantum mechanics[edit]
Main article: Quantum mechanics

The first few hydrogen atom electron orbitals shown as cross-sections with color-coded probability density

Schrdinger equation of quantum mechanics

Quantum mechanics is the branch of physics treating atomic and subatomicsystems and their
interaction with radiation. It is based on the observation that all forms of energy are released in
discrete units or bundles called "quanta". Remarkably, quantum theory typically permits
only probable or statisticalcalculation of the observed features of subatomic particles, understood in
terms ofwave functions. The Schrdinger equation plays the role in quantum mechanics
that Newton's laws and conservation of energy serve in classical mechanicsi.e., it predicts the
future behavior of a dynamic systemand is a wave equation that is used to solve for
wavefunctions.
For example, the light, or electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed by an atom has only
certain frequencies (or wavelengths), as can be seen from the line spectrum associated with the
chemical element represented by that atom. The quantum theory shows that those frequencies
correspond to definite energies of the light quanta, or photons, and result from the fact that
the electrons of the atom can have only certain allowed energy values, or levels; when an electron
changes from one allowed level to another, a quantum of energy is emitted or absorbed whose
frequency is directly proportional to the energy difference between the two levels. The photoelectric
effect further confirmed the quantization of light.
In 1924, Louis de Broglie proposed that not only do light waves sometimes exhibit particle-like
properties, but particles may also exhibit wave-like properties. Two different formulations of quantum
mechanics were presented following de Broglie's suggestion. The wave mechanics ofErwin
Schrdinger (1926) involves the use of a mathematical entity, the wave function, which is related to
the probability of finding a particle at a given point in space. The matrix mechanics of Werner
Heisenberg (1925) makes no mention of wave functions or similar concepts but was shown to be

mathematically equivalent to Schrdinger's theory. A particularly important discovery of the quantum

theory is the uncertainty principle, enunciated by Heisenberg in 1927, which places an absolute
theoretical limit on the accuracy of certain measurements; as a result, the assumption by earlier
scientists that the physical state of a system could be measured exactly and used to predict future
states had to be abandoned. Quantum mechanics was combined with the theory of relativity in the
formulation of Paul Dirac. Other developments include quantum statistics, quantum electrodynamics,
concerned with interactions between charged particles and electromagnetic fields; and its
generalization, quantum field theory.

Interdisciplinary fields[edit]
To the interdisciplinary fields, which define partially sciences of their own, belong e.g. the

astrophysics, the physics in the universe, including the properties

and interactions of celestial bodies in astronomy.

biophysics, studying the physical interactions of biological

processes.

chemical physics, the science of physical relations in chemistry.

econophysics, dealing with physical processes and their relations in

the science of economy.

geophysics, the sciences of physical relations on our planet.

medical physics, the application of physics to prevention, diagnosis,

and treatment.

physical chemistry, dealing with physical processes and their

relations in the science of physical chemistry.

Summary[edit]
The table below lists the core theories along with many of the concepts they employ.
Theory

Classical
mechanics

Major subtopics

Concepts

Newton's laws of motion, Lagrangian

mechanics,Hamiltonian
mechanics,kinematics, statics,dynamics, chaos
theory, acoustics,fluid dynamics,continuum
mechanics

Density, dimension, gravity, space, ti

me, motion, length,
position, velocity,acceleration, Galile
an
invariance, mass, momentum, impuls
e, force, energy,angular
velocity, angular
momentum, moment of
inertia, torque, conservation
law, harmonic

oscillator, wave, work, power, Lagra

ngian, Hamiltonian, TaitBryan
angles, Euler
angles, pneumatic, hydraulic

Electromagnetism

Thermodynamicsa
nd statistical
mechanics

Quantum
mechanics

Electrostatics,electrodynamics,electricity,magn
etism,magnetostatics,Maxwell's
equations,optics

Capacitance, electric
charge, current, electrical
conductivity, electric field,electric
permittivity, electric
potential, electrical
resistance, electromagnetic
field, electromagnetic
induction, electromagnetic
radiation, Gaussian surface,magnetic
field, magnetic flux, magnetic
monopole, magnetic permeability

Heat engine, kinetic theory

Boltzmann's constant, conjugate

variables, enthalpy, entropy, equation
of state, equipartition
theorem, thermodynamic free
energy, heat, ideal gas law,internal
energy, laws of
thermodynamics, Maxwell
relations, irreversible process, Ising
model, mechanical action, partition
function, pressure,reversible
process, spontaneous process, state
function, statistical
ensemble,temperature, thermodynami
c equilibrium, thermodynamic
potential,thermodynamic
processes, thermodynamic
state, thermodynamic
system,viscosity, volume, work, gran
ular material

Path integral formulation,scattering

theory,Schrdinger equation, quantum field
theory, quantum statistical mechanics

Adiabatic approximation, black-body

radiation, correspondence
principle, free
particle, Hamiltonian, Hilbert
space, identical particles, matrix
mechanics,Planck's
constant, observer
effect, operators, quanta, quantization
, quantum entanglement, quantum
harmonic oscillator, quantum

number, quantum
tunneling, Schrdinger's cat, Dirac
equation, spin, wave function, wave
mechanics, waveparticle
duality, zero-point energy, Pauli
exclusion principle,Heisenberg
uncertainty principle

Relativity

Special relativity,general relativity,Einstein

field equations

Covariance, Einstein
manifold, equivalence
principle, four-momentum, fourvector, general principle of
relativity, geodesic
motion, gravity,gravitoelectromagnet
ism, inertial frame of
reference, invariance, length
contraction, Lorentzian
manifold, Lorentz
transformation, massenergy
equivalence, metric, Minkowski
diagram, Minkowski space, principle
of relativity, proper length, proper
time, reference frame, rest
energy, rest mass,relativity of
simultaneity, spacetime, special
principle of relativity, speed of
light, stressenergy tensor, time
dilation, twin paradox, world line

References[edit]
1.

Jump up^ Feynman, Richard Phillips; Leighton, Robert

Benjamin;Sands, Matthew Linzee (1963). The Feynman Lectures on
Physics. p. 1-1. ISBN 0-201-02116-1.. Feynman begins with
the atomic hypothesis, as his most compact statement of all scientific
knowledge: "If, in some cataclysm, all of scientific knowledge were to
be destroyed, and only one sentence passed on to the next
generations ..., what statement would contain the most information in
the fewest words? I believe it is ... that all things are made up of atoms
little particles that move around in perpetual motion, attracting each
other when they are a little distance apart, but repelling upon being
squeezed into one another. ..." vol. I p. I2

2.

Jump up^ Perot, Pierre (1998). A to Z of Thermodynamics. Oxford

University Press. ISBN 0-19-856552-6.

3.

Jump up^ Clark, John, O.E. (2004). The Essential Dictionary of

Science. Barnes & Noble Books. ISBN 0-7607-4616-8.

4.

Jump up^ Clausius, Ruldolf (1850). "LXXIX". On the Motive Power of

Heat, and on the Laws which can be deduced from it for the Theory of
Heat. Poggendorff's Annalee dere Physic (Dover Reprint). ISBN 0486-59065-8.

5.

Jump up^ Van Ness, H.C. (1969). Understanding Thermodynamics.

Dover Publications, Inc. ISBN 0-486-63277-6.

6.

Jump up^ Dugdale, J. S. (1998). Entropy and its Physical Meaning.

Taylor and Francis. ISBN 0-7484-0569-0.

7.

Jump up^ Landau and Lifshitz (1951, 1962), The Classical Theory of
Fields, Library of Congress Card Number 62-9181, Chapters 14 (3rd
edition is ISBN 0-08-016019-0)

8.

Jump up^ Corson and Lorrain, Electromagnetic Fields and

WavesISBN 0-7167-1823-5

9.

Jump up^ Einstein, Albert (November 25, 1915). "Die

Feldgleichungen der Gravitation". Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin: 844847. Retrieved 200609-12.

10. Jump up^ Einstein, Albert (1916). "The Foundation of the General
Theory of Relativity" (PDF). Annalen der
Physik.Bibcode:1916AnP...354..769E.doi:10.1002/andp.19163540702.
Retrieved 2006-09-03.
[hide]

Branches of physics
Applied
Divisions

Experimental
Theoretical

Energ
y

Motio

Thermodynamics
Mechanics
Classical
Lagrangian

Hamiltonian
Continuum
Celestial
Statistical

Fluid
Quantum
Gravitation
Electromagnetism

Waves

Quantum field theory

Fields

Relativity
Special
General

By speciality

Accelerator
Acoustics
Astrophysics
Nuclear
Stellar
Heliophysics
Solar
Space
Astroparticle
Atomicmolecularoptical (AMO)
Computational
Condensed matter
Solid-state
Digital
Engineering
Material
Mathematical
Nuclear
Optics
Geometrical
Physical
Nonlinear
Quantum
Particle
Phenomenology
Plasma

Polymer
Statistical
Biophysics
Cardiophysics
Biomechanics
Medical
Neurophysics
Virophysics

Physics with

Agrophysics

other sciences

Soil
Atmospheric physics
Chemical
Econophysics
Geophysics
Psychophysics

Categories:

Physics

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