CHAPTER 2: HYDROSTATIC

Contents
Introduction To Hydrostatics
Pressure in Fluids
Pressure at a points and Pressure Variations (Pascals Law)
Pressure measurements

Hydrostatics Forces on Submerged Plane Surface

Pressure Distribution in Fluids

CHAPTER 2: HYDROSTATICS

WHAT HYDROSTATICS?
Defined as the balance of forces in a fluids at
rest (fluid static) free from any shear
stresses and forces due to static pressure.
Pressure?
A normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area.

P = Force/Area or (F/A)
Units:
1 N/m = 1 Pa
1 Bar = 105 Pa = 100 kPa
1 atm = 101,325 Pa = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 Bar

Statics of Fluid Systems

a) If a fluid is at rest, there will be no shearing forces acting and,
therefore, all forces (such as F in Fig. 2.1(a)) exerted between the
fluid and a solid boundary must act at right angles to the
boundary.

Fig. 2.1: Forces in a fluid at rest

Statics of Fluid Systems

b) If the boundary is curved (Fig. 2.1(b)), it can be considered to
be composed of a series of chords on each of which a force
F1,F2,..,Fn acts perpendicular at the surface at the section
concerned.

Fig. 2.1: Forces in a fluid at rest

Statics of Fluid Systems

c) Similarly, considering any plane drawn through a body of fluid
at rest (Fig. 2.1(c)), the force exerted by one portion of the
fluid on the other acts at right angles to this plane.

Fig. 2.1: Forces in a fluid at rest

Pressure
A fluid will exert a force normal to a solid boundary or any plane
drawn through the fluid.
Pressure p of the fluid is defined as the force exerted per unit
area.

Pr essure

Force exerted
Area of boundary

F
p
A

(N/m2)

Units: newtons per square metre (N/m2) or pascal (Pa)

1 bar = 105 N/m2

Atm., Absolute, Vacuum & Gauge Pressure

Atmospheric pressure (Pressure in the air around us), Pa
- Called reference pressure (10.35 m H2O or 760 mm Hg
- +ve pressure above atm.
- -ve pressure/vacuum below atm.
Vacuum pressure
- Below atm.
Absolute Pressure P gh Pa
- Actual pressure at a given point
- Measured relative to absolute vacuum (absolute zero pressure).
Mostly to read zero in the atm.
Gauge Pressure (measured using pressure gauge)
- Difference between the absolute pressure and the atm.
P gh
-

Atmospheric Pressure
The atmospheric pressure at sea level is assumed to
be equivalent to 760 mm of mercury (or 10.3 m of
water) at the temperature 15C and the density
1.225 kg/m3

Atmospheric pressure
patm = 1.013 bar = 1.013x105 N/m2 = 101.3 kN/m2
Note: 1 bar = 105 N/m2

Bourdon Gauge

Pressure and Head

In a liquid, the pressure p is measured from the free surface and the
pressure at the free surface will normally be atmospheric pressure,
patm
Pressure p = gh + patm (N/m2)

(2.16)

It is convenient to take atmospheric pressure as a datum.

Pressure measured above atmospheric pressure are known as
gauge pressures.

Pressure and Head

Pressure p = gh + patm

(2.16)

(absolute)

Taking patm as zero, equation (2.16) becomes

Pressure

p = gh

(2.17)

(gauge)

Gauge Pressure and Absolute Pressure

When pressure is measured relative to atmospheric pressure as a

base, it is called gauge pressure
If pressure is measured relative to absolute zero (perfect vacuum),
it is called absolute pressure

Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure

Atm., Absolute, Vacuum & Gauge

Pressure

Hydrostatic Paradox
Pressure at the base p = gh (N/m2)
Force at the base = pA = ghA (N)

Thus, although the weight of the fluid is obviously different in the four
cases, the force on the base of the vessels is the same, depending on the
depth h and the base area A.

Fig. 2.12: The hydrostatic paradox

Pressure measurement by Manometer

1) Pressure tube (or) Piezometer

2) U-tube manometer
3) Differential U-tube manometer
4) U-tube with one leg enlarged
5) U-tube with inclined leg
6) Inverted U-tube

Pressure at a Point
Pressure at any point in a
fluid is the same in all
direction (known as
Pascal Law)

It has magnitude but not

at specific direction
P1 = P2 = P3 = P

Pascals law for Pressure at a Point

Consider the equilibrium of a small fluid element in the form of a
triangular prism surrounding a point in the fluid (Fig. 2.3)

Fig. 2.3: Equality of pressure in all directions at a point

Pascals law for Pressure at a Point

(Forces) in x-direction = 0

Force due to px = px (Area ABFE) = px (yz)

Component of force due to ps= - ps (Area ABCD) sin
= - ps (sz)(y/s)
= - ps( yz)
Fx= 0
px (yz) - ps ( yz) = 0

px = ps

(1)

Pascals law for Pressure at a Point

(Forces) in y-direction = 0
Force due to py = py (Area CDEF) = py (xz)
Component of ps in y-direction = - ps (Area ABCD) cos
= - ps (sz)(x/s) = - ps (xz)
Own Weight = (Specific Weight)(Volume) = - g(xyz)

Fy= 0
py (xz) - ps (xz) g(xyz) = 0
Since x,y and z are very small quantities,(xyz) is negligible and
therefore
py = ps
(2)

Pascals law for Pressure at a Point

Thus from equations (1) and (2)

p s = px = py

Pascals Law:
The pressure at a point is the same in all directions.

Pressure variation with elevation (Pascals

Law)

Fluid at rest is
independent of the
shape or cross
section of the
container.

Pressure is the same

at all points on a
horizontal plane

Pressure changes
with vertical distance.

Pressure variation with elevation (Pascals Law)

Hydrostatic Paradox
Pressure at the base p = gh (N/m2)

Force at the base = pA = ghA (N)

Thus, although the weight of the fluid is obviously different in the four cases, the
force on the base of the vessels is the same, depending on the depth h and the
base area A.

Fig. 2.12: The hydrostatic paradox

Variation of Pressure vertically in a fluid under gravity

mg

Fig. 2.4: Vertical variation of pressure

In any fluid under gravitational attraction, pressure

decreases with increase of height z

Variation of Pressure vertically in a fluid under gravity

Force due to p1 on area A acting up = p1A

Force due to p2 on area A acting down = p2A

Force due to weight of the element W = mg = gVolume = gA(z2 - z1)

Fy= 0
pressure varies with height

mg

In any fluid under gravitational attraction, pressure decreases

with increase of height z

Equality of Pressure at the same level in a static fluid

Fig. 2.5: Equality of pressures at the same level

Fx= 0
p1A = p2A p1 = p2
The pressure at any two points at the same level in a body of
fluid at rest will be the same

Equality of Pressures
in a continuous body of fluid

Fig. 2.6: Equality of pr. in a continuous body of fluid

pR = pS
pR = pP + gz
pS = pQ + gz
pP + gz = pQ + gz
pP = pQ

Pressure in Fluid
Hydrostatic equation or
pressure in fluid:

P gh
Pressure will increase if the
water depth increases
(from the water surface)

Pressure Measurement
Barometer
Piezometer

Manometer
- Simple

- Differential, right U-tube

- Differential, inverted U-tube

Barometer
Device to measure
atmospheric pressure
By inverting mercury
tube into mercury
container that is open
to the atmosphere

Patm m gh

Patm 105 N / m 2
Patm m gh
Patm
105
h

760mmHg
g 13.56*9.81

Piezometer
To measure a pressure in flowing
liquid using piezometer tube
Principle: The liquid rises up the
piezometer tube until
atmospheric pressure and the
weight of the column of liquid in
the tube generate a pressure
equal the pressure in the
pipe/conduit.

The pressure at the center line of

the pipe flow is given as:

P gh

Piezometer
Piezometer is used to measure the
pressure of the liquids
If the top of the tube is open to atmosphere,
the pressure measured is gauge pressure

Pressure at A = Pressure due to column

of liquid of height h1
pA = gh1
Pressure at B = Pressure due to column
of liquid of height h2

pB = gh2
Fig. 2.13: Pressure tube or
Piezometer

Manometer (a) Simple

Pressure can be estimated by

measuring fluid elevation

Commonly used to measure

small or moderate pressure
P1 = P2 = gh

U-tube manometer
U-tube manometer is used to measure the pressure of either liquids
or gases
The bottom of the U-tube is filled with a manometric liquid (usually
mercury)

Pressure pB at B = Pressure pC at C

Fig. 2.14: U-tube manometer

U-tube manometer
Pressure pB at B = Pressure pC at C
For left-hand limb:
pB = pA + gh1

> For right-hand limb:

pC = patm + mangh2

Since pB = pC
pA + gh1 = mangh2

pA = mangh2 - gh1

(2.18)

(patm = 0)

Manometer (b & c) U-Tube

Ex 1: U-tube manometer
D

water

A
h2 = 0.9 m
h1 = 0.5 m

C
m

Calculate ? (when specify gravity of mercury =13.54)

Ex: 2: U-tube manometer

water

A
B

h1 = 0.1 m

C
h2 = 0.2 m

D
m

Calculate ? (when specify gravity of mercury =13.54 and the =101.3 kPa)

Differential U-tube manometer

Differential U-tube is used to measure the pressure difference
between two points in a pipe line.
Pressure at the same level CD in the two limbs must be the same,
since the fluid in the bottom of the U-tube is at rest.

Differential U-tube manometer

Pressure at the same level CD in the two limbs must be the same,
since the fluid in the bottom of the U-tube is at rest.

For left-hand limb:

pC = pA + ga

> For right-hand limb:

pD = pB + g(b-h) + mangh

Since pC = pD
pA + ga = pB + g(b-h) + mangh
pA - pB = g(b-a) + gh(man - )(2.19)

U-tube with one leg enlarged

The simple U-tube has the disadvantage that the movement of the liquid
in both limbs must be read.
By making the diameter of one leg very large as compared with the other,
it is possible to make the movement in the large leg very small, so that it is
only necessary to read the movement of the liquid in the narrow leg.

U-tube with one leg enlarged

Before the
connection

Dia. d

Dia. D

Fig. 2.16: U-tube with one leg enlarged

U-tube with one leg enlarged

P1

P2

Dia. d

Dia. D

X
Y

Ga
s

Z
Z(d/D)2

After the connection

Fig. 2.16: U-tube with one leg enlarged

Z + Z(d/D)2

X
Y

U-tube with one leg enlarged

P1

P2

Dia. d

Dia. D

X
Y

Ga
s

Z
Z(d/D)2

Z + Z(d/D)2

X
Y

Volume of liquid transferred from left-hand leg to right-hand leg = z(/4)d2

Fall in level of left-hand leg = Volume transferred/Area of left-hand leg
= z(/4)d2 / (/4)D2 = z(d/D)2

U-tube with one leg enlarged

P1

P2

Dia. d

Dia. D

Ga
s

Z
Z(d/D)2

p1 = p2 + g[z + z(d/D)2] = p2 + gz [1 + (d/D)2]

p1 p2 = gz [1 + (d/D)2]
(or) if D is large compared with d,

p1 p2 gz

Z + Z(d/D)2

X
Y

U-tube with inclined leg manometer

If the pressure difference to be measured is small, the leg of the U-tube
may be inclined.
The movement of the meniscus along the inclined leg, read off on the
scale, is considerably greater than the change in level z

Pressure difference, p1 p2 = gz = gxsin

Fig. 2.17: U-tube with inclined leg

Inverted U-tube manometer

The inverted U-tube is used for measuring pressure differences in liquids
The top of the U-tube is filled with a fluid, frequently air, which is less dense than
that connected to the instrument or pipeline
Since the fluid in the top is at rest, pressures at level XX will be the same in both
limbs

Inverted U-tube manometer

For left-hand limb:

> For right-hand limb:

pxx = pA - ga - mangh

pxx = pB - g(b + h)

pA - ga - mangh = pB - g(b + h)
pB - pA = g(b a) + gh( - man)
If A and B are at the same level:

pB - pA = ( - man)gh

If the top of the tube is filled with air, man is

negligible compared with and pB pA = gh.

Exercise
(Submit end of the class, mark will be given)

Problem 1:

Fig. 2.18: Inverted U-tube manometer

Problem 2

Problem 3:

L =the movement of the gauge fluid level when is applied

above the well. Specific gravity =0.87 and L=115mm. Neglect
the drop in fluid level in the well.
Calculate

Problem 4:

What is pressure at point A?