Examples

Example 1. Determine the 1day BOD and ultimate first

stage BOD for a wastewater
whose 5-day, 20C BOD is
200 mg/L. k = 0.23 day-1

Example 2. 5-day BOD at

20C for a domestic sewage
is 250 mg/L. Determine 5day BOD at 30C if k20= 0.1
day-1. Calculate also the
total number of days for the
value of BOD at 30C to
reduce to 250 mg/L. Plot
your results graphically and
explain the significance of
your findings.

Examples
Example 3. A laboratory
test was carried out to
determine the ultimate
BOD Lo and k for the
purpose of design. The
results are as below. Using
the appropriate linearised
plot, determine Lo and k.
Comment briefly on your
answer.

T (day)

yt (mg/L)

18.13

32.97

45.12

55.07

63.21

69.88

Examples
Example 4. Given the
following lab data,
determine the SOUR
values.

Time (min)

DO (mg/L)

7.00

6.95

6.90

6.85

6.80

6.75

6.70

6.65

6.60

10

6.55

11

6.50

12

6.45

13

6.40

14

6.35

15

6.30

Chemical
Constituents

Inorganic Matter

Source:
(1) Geologic formation with which the water comes in contact with.
(2) Treated or untreated wastewater that was discharged into it.
(3) Natural evaporation removes some of the surface water and leaves the inorganic
substances behind.
What are they?
(1) pH
(2) Chlorides
(3) Alkalinity
(4) Nitrogen
(5) Phosphorus
(6) Heavy metals

Chemical
Constituents

pH

Definition:
(1) Indicate Hydrogen-ion concentration [H+], acidic or alkaline water.
(2) Closely connected with the extent to which water molecule dissociate.
H2O H+ + OHpH = -log10[H+]
Source:
(1) Industrial wastewater.
Impact:
(1) Wastewater with extreme pH is difficult to treat by biological means, as microbial
survivals are highly dependent to the pH.
(2) May alter the pH of receiving water bodies.
(3) May affect treatment process efficiency and chemical dosage.
Measurement:
(1) pH meter (2) pH paper (3) Indicator solutions that change color with different pH.
Application:
pH 6.0-9.0 (Standard A, EQA 1974) and pH 5.5-9.0 (Standard B) for sewage, industrial and
leachate discharge.

pH meter

Chemical
Constituents

Chloride

Definition:
(1) Chloride is a negatively charged ion that is formed when chlorine gains an additional
electron.
(2) Chloride is generally found in the form of salts, most commonly sodium and potassium
salts, which are very soluble in water.
Source:
(1) Leaching of chloride-containing rocks and soils.
(2) Saltwater intrusion.
(3) Agricultural, industrial, and domestic wastewater discharge.
(4) Groundwater infiltration.
Impact:
Interfere the treatment processes.
Measurement:
Potentiometric method.
Application:
Not regulated under EQA 1974.

Potentiometric method for chloride

measurement

Chemical
Constituents

Alkalinity

Definition:
(1) Alkalinity is a measure of the capacity of water to neutralize acids.
(2) Alkalinity of water is due primarily to the presence of bicarbonate, carbonate, and hydroxide ions.
Salts of weak acids, such as borates, silicates and phosphates, may also contribute. Salts of certain
organic acids may contribute to alkalinity in polluted or anaerobic water, but their contribution
usually is negligible.
(3) Bicarbonate is the major form of alkalinity. Carbonates and hydroxide may be significant when algal
activity is high and in certain industrial water and wastewater, such as boiler water.
Source:
(1) The main sources for natural alkalinity are rocks which contain carbonate, bicarbonate, and
hydroxide compounds. Borates, silicates, and phosphates also may contribute to alkalinity.
(2) Limestone is rich in carbonates, so waters flowing through limestone regions or bedrock containing
carbonates generally have high alkalinity - hence good buffering capacity.
(3) Areas rich in granites and some conglomerates and sandstones may have low alkalinity and,
therefore, poor buffering capacity.
Impact:
Affect wastewater treatment process i.e. affect chlorine residual in water treatment effluent.
Measurement:
Titration against a standard acid. Unit: mg/L as CaCO3.
Application:
Not regulated under EQA 1974.

Alkalinity
measurement
using titration
method

Chemical
Constituents

Nitrogen

Definition:
Served as nutrients and important for biological growth (C:N:P ratio 100:5:1). Can be in a form of:
(1) Organic Nitrogen determine by Kjeldahl method.
(2) Ammonia (NH3 ) (3) Nitrate (NO3) (4) Nitrite ((NO2)
Source:
(1) Runoff from fertilized lawns and croplands.
(2) Runoff from animal manure.
(3) Failing septic tank.
(4) Wastewater treatment plant.
Impact:
(1) Exert oxygen demand in stream and wastewater.
(2) Algal bloom.
(3) Blue baby syndrome.
Measurement: Total Kjedahl Nitrogen Method.
Application:
(1) Ammoniacal nitrogen: 10 mg/L (Standard A,) and 20 mg/L (Standard B) for sewage and
industrial discharge. 5 mg/L for leachate discharge.
(2) Nitrate: 20 mg/L (Standard A,) and 50 mg/L (Standard B) for sewage discharge.

Total Kjedahl
Nitrogen

The kjeldahl nitrogen in the sample is

first converted to ammonia by metalcatalyzed acid digestion.
The resulting ammonia is then
separated from the sample by
distillation.
The ammonia released is captured in
a dilute sulfuric acid solution.

Chemical
Constituents

Phosphorus

Definition:
Served as nutrients and important for biological growth (C:N:P ratio 100:5:1). Can be
in a form of:
(1) Orthophosphate (2) Polyphosphate (3) Organic Phosphate
Source:
(1) Runoff from fertilized lawns and croplands.
Impact:
(1) Algal bloom.
Measurement:
Colorimetry technique.
Application:
5 mg/L (Standard A,) and 10 mg/L (Standard B) for sewage discharge.

Phosphorus
measurement

Chemical
Constituents

Heavy metals

Definition:
(1) Nickel (Ni), manganese (Mn), Lead (Pb), Chromium (Cr), Cadmium (Cd), Zinc (Zn),
Copper (Cu), Iron (Fe), and Mercury (Hg).
(2) Many of them are also classified as priority pollutants.
Source:
(1) Industrial wastewater.
Impact:
(1) Absence of sufficient quantity could limit growth of biological life.
(2) Presence in excessive quantities will become toxic and interfere biological treatment
processes.
Measurement:
Atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS) with graphite, inductive coupled plasma (ICP)
for detection.
Application:
(1) Not regulated for sewage discharge.
(2) Hg, Cd, Cr, As, Cn, Pb, Cu, Mn, Ni, Sn, Zn, B, Fe, Ag, Al, Se, Ba, Fl is regulated under EQA
1974 for industrial and leachate discharge.

Atomic Absorption
Spectrophotometer
& Periodic Table of
the Elements

Chemical
Constituents

Gases

What are they?

(1) Nitrogen N2
- Common gases in the atmosphere and will
be found in all waters exposed to the
atmosphere.
(2) Oxygen O2
- O2is only partly soluble in water. In the
water, expressed as dissolved oxygen
(DO).
- The solubility is highly affected by
temperature.
- Desirable because it presents the
formation of noxious order and crucial for
aquatic life.
(3) Carbon Dioxide CO2
- Common gases in the atmosphere and will
be found in all waters exposed to the
atmosphere.

(4) Hydrogen

Sulfide H2S
- Derived from the decomposition of the
organic matter present in wastewater.
- The blackening of wastewater and sludge
usually results from the formation of H2S
that has combined with the Iron present
to form Ferrous Sulfide (FeS).
(5) Ammonia NH3
- Derived from the decomposition of the
organic matter present in wastewater.
(6) Methane CH4
- The principal by-products of the anaerobic
decomposition of the organic matter
present in wastewater.
- Combustible hydrocarbon at high fuel
value.
- Highly combustible and explosive.

Gases are not regulated under EQA 1974.

Gas
Chromatography
for gas
measurement

Biological
Constituents

Pathogenic Organisms

Definition:
4 principal categories of pathogenic organisms:
(i) Bacteria salmonella typhi (caused typhoid
fever), vibrio cholerae (caused cholera),
salmonella (caused salmonellosis), E.coli
(caused gastroenteritis).
(ii) Viruses hepatitis A, meningitis, Japanese
Encephalitis (JE), ebola, influenza (caused
bird flu), H1N1 influenza.
(iii) Protozoa cryptosporodium (caused
cryptosporidiosis), giardia lamblia (caused
giardiasis).
(iv) Helminths trichuris trichiura (caused
trichuriasis)
Source:
Discharged by human beings who are infected
with disease or who are carriers of a particular
disease.
Application:
Not regulated under EQA 1974.

Indicator organisms

The most basic test for bacterial contamination

of a water supply is the test for total coliform
bacteria.

Total coliform counts give a general indication of

the sanitary condition of a water supply.

Total coliforms
Include bacteria that are found in the soil, in
water that has been influenced by surface
water, and in human or animal waste.
Includes Escherichia coli , Klebisella, Citrobactor,
Enterobacter.
Identified by incubation at 35C with LTB culture
medium.

Fecal coliforms
Sub group of total coliforms.
Considered to be present specifically in the gut
and feces of warm-blooded animals.
Identified by incubation at 44.5C with EC culture
medium.

Escherichia coli (E. coli)

Member of fecal coliforms group.
E. coli is considered to be the species of coliform
bacteria that is the best indicator of fecal
pollution and the possible presence of
pathogens.

Measurement: Multiple tube

fermentation technique
Principle: dilution to extinction.
1st step: Prepare a series of serial
dilution.

+
+
+

+
+

2nd step: Transfer 1 mL sample from each of the

serial dilutions to each of 3 or 5 fermentation
tubes containing culture medium and an
inverted gas collection tube.
3rd step: Total coliform determination: Incubate
at 35C for 24 hour (Culture medium: LTB).
4th step: Fecal Coliform determination: Incubate
at 44.5 C for 48 hour (Culture medium: EC
broth) or E.Coli determination: Incubate at 44.5
C for 48 hour (Culture medium: EC broth).
5th step: Read the results. Positive tubes are
turbid and has bubbles in the inverted tubes.
6th step: Use MPN table to get the MPN values.
Unit: MPN/100 ml (MPN = most probable
number) .

Example 5
No

100
No
dil.

10-1
1x
dil.

10-2
2x
dil.

10-3
3x
dil.

10-4
4x
dil.

5/5

5/5 5/5

5/5

5/5

5/5 5/5

5/5

10-5
5x
dil.

10-6
6x
dil.

Step 1:
Significant
dilution

Step 2:
MPN from table
Largest significant dilution

5/5 3/5 0/5

5-3-0

4/5

5/5 1/5 0/5

4-5-1

5/5 5/5

0/5

1/5 0/5 0/5

0-1-0

5/5

5/5 5/5

5/5

3/5 1/5 1/5

3-1-1

5/5

5/5 5/5

4/5

4/5 1/5 0/5

4-4-1

5/5

5/5 5/5

5/5

5/5 5/5 2/5

5-5-2

7.92

=
79,200
104

4.83

=
4,830
103

0.18

=
180
103

1.37

=
13,700
104

3.98

=
3,980
103

54.22

=
542,200
104

Measurement: Membrane filter technique

Measurement: Bacterial counter

technique.

Water Characterization Studies.

Clockwise: (1) Water sampler (2) Water flow velocity
measurement (3) Potable sampler for DO, temperature etc. (4)
Benthic organisms sampler.