Durham E-Theses

Silicate stabilization of soft granular materials for

sandwich plate cores
Ong, Keng H.

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Ong, Keng H. (1979)

Silicate stabilization of soft granular materials for sandwich plate cores, Durham

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THE

UNIVERSITY

OF DURHAM

Department of Engineering Science

S i l i c a t e S t a b i l i z a t i o n of s o f t granular m a t e r i a l s
for Sandwich P l a t e Cores

T h e s i s f o r Master of Science i n C i v i l Engineering

Keng H. ONG, B.Sc.(Eng.)(SUSSEX)

November, 1979

,
The copyright of this thesis rests with the author.
No quotation from it should be published without
his prior written consent and information derived
from it should be acknowledged.

IN
HEAVEN

CHRIST
AND

CHRIST
CHRIST

ON

ALL THINGS

WERE

EARTH, VISIBLE

IS BEFORE

ALL THINGS

CREATED, IN
AND

ALL THINGS,

HOLD

INVISIBLE.
AND IN

TOGETHER.

THE

HOLY

COLOSSIANS

BIBLE
1:(15-17)

CONTENTS

Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

(i)

ABSTRACT
LIST OF SYMBOLS

(ii)
( i i i )

PREFACE

(iv)

CHAPTER 1 - SANDWICH PLATES CONSTRUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

1.2 THE CORE

1.3 CHOOSING A BINDER
1.4 THE USAGES OF SODIUM SILICATE

2
2
4

CHAPTER 2 - THE BINDERS

2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5

CHEMICAL BINDERS IN FOUNDRIES

FUTURE AVAILABILITY OF RAW MATERIALS
THE SETTING OF SODIUM SILICATE
THE GEL OF SODIUM SILICATE
A REVIEW OF SODIUM SILICATE AS A BINDER
IN THE FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
2.6 OTHER REAGENTS OR ADDITIVES USED IN
CONJUNCTION WITH SODIUM SILICATES

8
9
11
13
14
17

CHAPTER 3 - SODIUM SILICATE COMPOSITE

3.1 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL BONDINGS
3.2 ADHESION
3.3 REINFORCEMENT OF SODIUM SILICATE COMPOSITE

20
20
21

CHAPTER 4 - STANDARDISATION OF EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

4.1 INTRODUCTION
22
4.2 SELECTION OF MATERIAL OF MOULD FOR 2"x4"
CYLINDRICAL SPECIMEN
23
4.3 MIXING
4.3.1
Dilution
23
4.3.2
Heating S i l i c a t e S o l u t i o n
4.3.3
Viscosity
4.3.4
Length of mixing time
4.4 TRIAL MIX DESIGN
24
4.5 TEST APPARATUS
25
4.5.1
Mixing
4.5.2
Compacting Apparatus
4.5.2.1 AFS Rammer^
4.5.2.2 Modified Aggregate Impact
T e s t e r - BS 812
4.5.2.3 S t a t i c Compaction System
4.5.3
Strength T e s t i n g
4.5.3.1 Unconfined Compression - 'E' type
Tensometer
4.5.3.2 Unconfined Compression - 'BS 1377'
T r i a x i a l Tester
4.5.3.3 T o r s i o n T e s t e r

4.6

GASSING TECHNIQUES

30

CHAPTER 5 - THE MATERIALS

5.1
5.2

32

AGGREGATES
BINDERS

33
34

5.3 FILLERS AND HARDENERS

38

CHAPTER 6 - TRIAL MIX DESIGN

6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 GEL TESTS

40
40

6.3 SOME EXAMPLES OF THE MIXES

41

CHAPTER 7 - TEST EQUIPMENT

7.1

INTRODUCTION

50

7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
CHAPTER 8 8.1
8.2

AFS SAND RAMMER (DIETERT DESIGN)

52
MODIFICATION TO THE AGGREGATE IMPACT TESTER 52
FINAL COMPACTION METHOD
54
COMPRESSION TESTER
55
TORSION TESTER
. 56'
DETAILED TESTS ON CHOSEN MIXES
OBJECTIVES
58
THEORY
59
8.2.1
Compression T e s t
59
8.2.2
Shear and T o r s i o n T e s t s
60
8.3 DEFINITION OF FINAL MIXES
61
8.3.1
Wall paper/P84/F0RMULA 2
8.3.2 DSF/P84/SECAR (HAC)
8.3.3
+2400 S h e l l Ep Beads/P84/(SECAR + LIME)
8.3.4
Perlite/C112/CO
8.4 RELEVANT TEST RESULTS
64
8.4.1
P a r t I - F i g u r e Legends
8.4.2
Part I I - Test Results
100
A - Type of Mixes
100
B - Summary of the d i f f e r e n t
Composite systems
101
C - Comparison of G and G
102
D - F a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g the r e s u l t s
of G and G
103
E - F a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g the strength
and s t i f f n e s s
105
8.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS
105
T

CHAPTER 9 - CONCLUSION

107

APPENDICES
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
APPENDIX

I
II
III
IV

REFERENCES

PHOTOGRAPHS
TEST APPARATUS
DERIVATION
SIEVE ANALYSIS GRAPH SHEET*& CHEMICAL ANALYSIS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Many people have c o n t r i b u t e d a great deal t o t h i s t h e s i s .

Some

a r e r e s e a r c h s c i e n t i s t s whose work produced the m a t e r i a l t h a t has been

recorded here.

Others have been co-operative correspondents

who took

the time t o d i s c o v e r , communicate, and c o l l a t e s i g n i f i c a n t information.

Information has been generously borrowed from a l l these people.

Those who deserve s p e c i a l thanks are my s u p e r v i s o r , Dr. Girvan

Meir Parton, whose v i s i o n l e d t o t h e c r e a t i o n of t h i s p r o j e c t a t t h i s
university;

Mr. G. W. Houlbrooke and Mr. B. Malpass, T e c h n i c a l Marketing

Department, A l k a l i Products, I . C . I . Mond D i v i s i o n , Cheshire, f o r prov i d i n g t e c h n i c a l information concerning t h e use o f sodium s i l i c a t e and
t h e i r g e n e r o s i t y towards t h e supply of raw m a t e r i a l s t o t h i s work;
Mr. L. J . Stewardson, Head of Information S e r v i c e s , B r i t i s h Cast I r o n
Research A s s o c i a t i o n (B.C.I.R.A.), Alvechurch, Birmingham, f o r using
t h e i r L i b r a r y t o c a r r y out a l i t e r a t u r e s e a r c h by means o f t h e L i b r a r y
catalogue;

and t h e B r i t i s h L i b r a r y personnel, Lending D i v i s i o n , Boston

Spa, Wetherby, West Y o r k s h i r e , who secured many r e f e r e n c e s .

Mrs. J . M. Chisholm, t h e I n t e r - L i b r a r y Loans S t a f f , deserves
s p e c i a l thanks f o r h e r help i n t h e a c q u i s i t i o n of many i n v a l u a b l e sources
of i n f o r m a t i o n .
I thank Mr. B r i a n P. S c u r r , who a t v a r i o u s times has helped with the
p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e equipment and apparatus.
F i n a l l y , I thank Sean Martin, f o r checking and c o r r e c t i n g the
original

manuscript.

- i i-

ABSTRACT

T h i s t h e s i s summarises t h e r e s e a r c h c a r r i e d out a t the

Department o f Engineering

S c i e n c e , U n i v e r s i t y of Durham, on

the mechanical p r o p e r t i e s and behaviour o f s i l i c a t e - s t a b i l i z e d

m a t e r i a l s used under l a b o r a t o r y

conditions.

I t d e a l s w i t h methods of a s s e s s i n g the s u i t a b i l i t y of
s t a b i l i z e d m a t e r i a l s f o r s t r u c t u r a l and n o n - s t r u c t u r a l sandwich
p l a t e cores and d e s c r i b e s the types of m a t e r i a l s t h a t can be
s t a b i l i z e d w i t h Sodium S i l i c a t e

( Soluble

S i l i c a t e ) and how

t h e i r chemical and p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s a f f e c t t h e i r
for stabilization.

suitability

The i n f l u e n c e of other f a c t o r s such a s

temperature, moulding p r e s s u r e , and dwelling time of a compressed

specimen f o r a m a t e r i a l s t a b i l i z e d by s i l i c a t e a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d .

L i t t l e attempt has been made t o improve the q u a l i t y o r

cost e f f e c t i v e n e s s of products, processes,

systems and s e r v i c e s

used i n c o n s t r u c t i o n .

R e l a t i o n s h i p s between the f a b r i c a t i o n process v a r i a b l e s

and t h e f i n a l s t r e n g t h p r o p e r t i e s o f the m a t e r i a l s a r e
established.

- i i i-

L I S T OF SYMBOLS

The symbols l i s t e d below are those o c c u r r i n g f r e q u e n t l y i n

the t e x t .

Other symbols used i n one p l a c e only are defined where they

occur and not i n c l u d e d here.

E

Young's Modulus of the m a t e r i a l , C designated f o r

sandwich p l a t e core.
10
For s t e e l , take E

20 x 10

, 2
N/m

Poisson's R a t i o
For s t e e l

0.291

Shear s t r e s s o f sandwich p l a t e core

Shear modulus of sandwich p l a t e core

C
For s t e e l , take G

E
2

/
p

Forming p r e s s u r e ,

Binder Content

Dry D e n s i t y ,

v )

= 7.8 x 10

10

N/m

, 2

V/mm

(%)
P

3
p

oi

Bulk Density,

Kg/m

Moisture Content,

(wet b a s i s )
2

Forming P r e s s u r e or Moulding P r e s s u r e ,

g a s s i n g time f o r C 0

d.t.

d w e l l i n g time of m a t e r i a l i n mould under a given P,

Strength

process,

seconds

. .This i s being r e f e r r e d to compression

, 2
2" x 4" specimen,

a(5%)

N/mm

N/mm

seconds

strength of a

Compressive s t r e n g t h a t 5% compression,
100 mm height compressed to 95

mm.

e.g. sample of

- iv-

PREFACE

Undesirable p r o p e r t i e s of the weak core and a l s o d i f f i c u l t i e s of

mass production i n the f i e l d r e s u l t i n sandwich panel s t r u c t u r e s s t i l l
causing problems i n b u i l d i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n .

The o b j e c t i v e s o f development

work a r e t o : (1)

Improve the i n s u l a t i o n , f i r e r e s i s t a n c e and mechanical p r o p e r t i e s of

the core.

(2)

Develop economic and simple c o n s t r u c t i o n techniques f o r mass prod u c t i o n purposes.

Consequently,

i t i s hoped t h a t the techniques

proposed w i l l help t o e s t a b l i s h guidance f o r standard design i n the

construction industry.

The conventional m a t e r i a l (binder) to c o n s t r u c t sandwich panels i s

P o r t l a n d Cement.

With motar f a c e s and some k i n d o f cement s t a b i l i s e d

porous core i n the middle o f the f a c e s .

D i f f i c u l t i e s i n handling, pro-

duction, t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and r e l a t i v e l y low strength/weight r a t i o a r e the

main disadvantages.

Where timing i s o f prime concern i n production, a

s e a r c h f o r a new m a t e r i a l , which may already be e s t a b l i s h e d i n another

industry, i s therefore necessary.

Sodium S i l i c a t e i s such a m a t e r i a l and

i t s importance i n foundry i n d u s t r y w i l l be d i s c u s s e d and reviewed i n the

following chapters.
T h i s r e p o r t c o n s i s t s o f two p a r t s .

The f i r s t seeks t o understand

the background o f some e s t a b l i s h e d B r i t i s h foundry processes which use

sodium s i l i c a t e t o bound sand p a r t i c l e s .

I t i s then hoped to impart some

of these i d e a s t o manufacture cores f o r sandwich p a n e l s .

The f a b r i c a t i o n

p r o c e s s e s mentioned i n the B r i t i s h foundry i n d u s t r y are i r r e l e v a n t t o t h i s

p r o j e c t f o r a v a r i e t y o f p r a c t i c a l reasons.

Where the former s e c t i o n i s

more concerned w i t h s i l i c a sand a s the main aggregate

i n the production

- V

of moulds and c o r e s , the l a t t e r w i l l be concerned with many products

u s i n g s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t m a t e r i a l s , such as pre-foamed p o l y s t y r e n e beads.
The s u i t a b i l i t y of these s o f t m a t e r i a l s f o r s t a b i l i z a t i o n w i t h sodium
s i l i c a t e i s therefore a necessary
subject for investigation.

Once the chemistry and f a b r i c a t i o n techniques are understood, the

second p a r t w i l l be devoted to the s t r e n g t h t e s t s of end products.
The compressive

s t r e n g t h , Young's modulus, shear modulus and shear

s t r e s s a r e t a b u l a t e d f o r each composite system.

On e v a l u a t i n g the shear modulus, a new approach of t e s t i n g
d r i c a l specimens i n shear and t o r s i o n has been proposed.

cylin-

Good r e p e a t a b i l i t y

and agreement of shear modulus obtained by t o r s i o n and shear methods i s

obtained, and the method proves u s e f u l f o r v e r i f y i n g the s u i t a b i l i t y of
m a t e r i a l s f o r s t a b i l i z a t i o n and f a b r i c a t i o n method.
As the work was mainly concerned

with the e v a l u a t i o n of s t r u c t u r a l

p r o p e r t i e s of s i l i c a t e s t a b i l i z e d m a t e r i a l s f o r sandwich p l a t e cores,
no attempts were made i n a c t u a l sandwich beam c o n s t r u c t i o n .

- 1 -

CHAPTER

SANDWICH PLATES CONSTRUCTION

1.1

Introduction
Sandwich P l a t e s (or Sandwich Panels) are a p a r t i c u l a r c l a s s of

laminates having two t h i n strong sheets of dense m a t e r i a l separated by

a t h i c k core o f low-density m a t e r i a l which i s l e s s s t i f f and strong.
T h i s arrangement combines s t i f f n e s s w i t h l i g h t n e s s , because t h e s t i f f
f a c e s a r e a t a maximum d i s t a n c e from the n e u t r a l a x i s , s i m i l a r t o the
f l a n g e s o f an I-beam.

The f a c e s c a r r y most o f the a x i a l loading and

t r a n s v e r s e bending s t r e s s e s .

The core c a r r i e s most of the shear and

a l s o s t a b i l i z e s the t h i n compressive

f a c e s a g a i n s t buckling.

The bond

between core and f a c e must r e s i s t shear and t r a n s v e r s e t e n s i l e s t r e s s

r e s u l t i n g from the w r i n k l i n g tendency o f the compressive

f a c e (Ref: 3 5 ) ,

Sandwich p a n e l s of a wide v a r i e t y a r e used e x t e n s i v e l y f o r i n t e r i o r

and e x t e r i o r w a l l s and r o o f s o f b u i l d i n g s .

T y p i c a l face materials

i n c l u d e aluminium, f i b r e - r e i n f o r c e d p l a s t i c s , plywood, gypsum board,

a s b e s t o s cement, and concrete.

T y p i c a l core m a t e r i a l s i n c l u d e foamed

polymers and i n o r g a n i c cements and v a r i o u s s t r u c t u r a l corrugated

shapes.

Corrugated and honeycomb cores a r e made i n a wide v a r i e t y of

materials:

paper, cotton, g l a s s c l o t h , aluminium f o i l , and combinations

w i t h p l a s t i c foam.

P l a s t i c impregnates such a s p h e n o l i c s , nylon-phenolics,

or p o l y e s t e r s a r e used w i t h t h e f i r s t three t o provide

rigidity

sufficient

(Ref: 3 5 ) .

The s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s i s and design o p t i m i z a t i o n with examples i s

w e l l e x e m p l i f i e d and e a s i l y followed i n N i c h o l l ' s book.
S t r u c t u r a l e f f i c i e n c y on a l a r g e r s c a l e can be gained by comb i n i n g sandwich p a n e l s i n t o v a r i o u s forms of folded p l a t e s t r u c t u r e s
(Ref:

Un IV

6,7,4,75,23,25).
5

SEP 1980

SECTION

- 2 -

1.2

The Core
The b a s i c requirements of a good core i n sandwich p l a t e con-

struction are:
(1)

R i g i d i t y - due t o good bonding between binder/cement and granular

materials.

(2)

Shrinkage i s minimised.

(3)

Low d e n s i t y but high s t r u c t u r a l s t r e n g t h .

(4)

Low c o s t - s i n g l e step method of c o n s t r u c t i o n .

(5)

Good thermal and sound i n s u l a t i o n , together w i t h f i r e r e s i s t a n c e .

(6)

Low water and gas p e r m e a b i l i t y - hence no condensation i n the

core and l o s s o f thermal property.

1.3

Choosing a binder/cement
Sodium S i l i c a t e has long been known to the foundry i n d u s t r y and

g r a d u a l l y , i t i s r e a l l y being recognised f o r i t s t r u e p o t e n t i a l .

This

m a t e r i a l i s a t p r e s e n t going through a most e x c i t i n g p e r i o d i n i t s

development.
Some p r o c e s s e s which are s t i l l used f r e q u e n t l y i n the B r i t i s h
foundry i n d u s t r y are v e r y worth c o n s i d e r i n g and t h i s i s reviewed and condensed i n Chapter 2.
Sodium S i l i c a t e i s a very v e r s a t i l e m a t e r i a l .
a b l e i n the U.K.,

i t i s s o l d by I . C . I , and o t h e r s .

Commercially a v a i l -

Sodium S i l i c a t e may

used as an i n o r g a n i c cement, or as a v o i d f i l l e r or grout.

be

I t i s usually

a v a i l a b l e i n v i s c o u s s o l u t i o n w i t h weight r a t i o s of SiO^ to Na^O ranging

from 1.6 t o 3.3 i n I . C . I , grades, and from 1.6 to 3.85 i n C r o s f i e l d grades.
The weight r a t i o of SiO^ to Na^O not o n l y determines whether the s o l u t i o n
i s more a l k a l i n e o r more s i l i c e o u s , but i t a f f e c t s a l s o the s e t t i n g time
of the s i l i c a t e g e l , i t s ' s o l u b i l i t y

i n water, r a t e of drying, chemical

r e s i s t a n c e , mechanical s t r e n g t h s , and many other p r o p e r t i e s .

For example:

- 3 -

There a r e l a r g e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t e x t u r e between l i q u i d s of the same v i s cosity.

T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y e v i d e n t a t the h i g h e s t v i s c o s i t i e s where,

w i t h t h e most s i l i c e o u s s i l i c a t e s ,
p r o p e r t i e s a r e met.

( i . e . higher SiO /Na 0 r a t i o ) , the e l a s t i c

The concentrated s o l u t i o n s have a j e l l y - l i k e t e x t u r e

and a r e t h i x o t r o p i c , and i n t h e i r s e m i - s o l i d c o n d i t i o n can be r o l l e d i n t o

b a l l s which bounce. (Ref: 67,68).
An average of many measurements shows an 80% c o e f f i c i e n t o f r e s t i t u t i o n , c o n s i d e r a b l y b e t t e r than a t e n n i s b a l l !

When subjected t o sudden

s t r e s s they break w i t h a v i t r e o u s o r conchoidal f r a c t u r e , although they

are s t i l l l i q u i d i n t h e sense t h a t they w i l l flow under t h e i r own weight
i f s u f f i c i e n t time

i s allowed.

By c o n t r a s t , s i l i c a t e s c o n t a i n i n g more a l k a l i r e l a t i v e t o the
s i l i c a a r e h e a v i e r ( i . e . lower SiO^/Na^O r a t i o ) , they c o n t a i n l e s s water
f o r a given v i s c o s i t y , and although t h e h i g h l y v i s c o u s product can be
r o l l e d i n t o b a l l s , they have no tendency t o bounce (Ref: 67,68).

I f an

attempt i s made t o break them by t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f sudden s t r e s s , they

may be drawn out i n t o long f i b r o u s streamers which have t h e appearance of
spun g l a s s (Ref: 67,68).
The v i s c o s i t y o f a given r a t i o of s i l i c a t e cannot be determined
a c c u r a t e l y because o f t h e f o l l o w i n g reasons:
(1)

D i f f i c u l t y i n p r e p a r i n g adequately homogeneous samples.

(2)

V a r i o u s i m p u r i t i e s l i k e CO^ from t h e a i r , contamination from sodium

+2
s a l t s introduced w i t h water which has been softened, or Ca

and

+2
Mg

s a l t s from hard water, w i l l s u f f i c i e n t l y a f f e c t the v i s c o s i t y

of t h e s o l u t i o n .
F o r t h i s reason, no s i n g l e f i g u r e can,generally, be quoted r e l a t i n g
the v i s c o s i t y o f a s i l i c a t e s o l u t i o n w i t h mechanical s t r e n g t h s , and other
structural properties.

- 4 -

1.4

The Usages
Much o f t h i s information i s obtained from Ref. 67,68.

c u l t t o t r a c e i f some o f the a p p l i c a t i o n s a r e s t i l l
(1)

I t i s diffi-

valid.

P r o t e c t i o n o f S o f t Metals

Much l i t e r a t u r e i s a v a i l a b l e on the use of s i l i c a t e s t o p r o t e c t

s o f t metals and t h e i r a l l o y s from c o r r o s i o n under v a r i e d c o n d i t i o n s .

This

has developed because t h e s i l i c a t e can be deposited on the metal s u r f a c e s

in a thin film.
(2)

Road C o n s t r u c t i o n

T a r s , bitumens, or p i t c h compositions

sometimes contain sodium

s i l i c a t e s t o s t a b i l i z e t h e cement and prevent ageing.

S i l i c a t e has been

used i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h a s p h a l t and bitumen emulsions and should, t h e r e f o r e , be compatible w i t h petroleum/bitumen ground f i l l e r s .

(3)

P r o t e c t i o n o f concrete s t r u c t u r e s

I t i s e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t P o r t l a n d Cement mortars a f t e r being

set

a r e improved by impregnating

fully

them w i t h s i l i c a t e s o l u t i o n s s u f f i c i e n t l y

d i l u t e t o p e n e t r a t e deeply i n t o t h e porous s t r u c t u r e of the s e t body.

Thus t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e conrete i s reduced, and i t s r e s i s t a n c e t o
wear i n c r e a s e d , a s shown by h y d r a u l i c and a b r a s i o n t e s t s and by long
experience i n t h e treatment of concrete s u r f a c e s t o prevent dusting and
the p e n e t r a t i o n of o i l y and aqueous l i q u i d .
On c u r i n g concrete s t r u c t u r e s , sodium s i l i c a t e i s being used t o
cut

down t h e c o s t of maintaining a wet s u r f a c e during the c u r i n g o f

concrete road s l a b s i n a r i d c o u n t r i e s .
The technique i s v e r y simple.
Na 0:3.3 SiO
2
2

A s i n g l e f i l m of 41 Be'

( I . C . I . P84) i s brushed on t h e road s u r f a c e .

Silicate

c u r i n g i s a t t r a c t i v e to t h e c o n t r a c t o r on account o f i t s s i m p l i c i t y and
the f a c t t h a t a f t e r c u r i n g no expense f o r removal of t h e c u r i n g medium
i s required.

N a t u r a l s u r f a c e colour of t h e " f i n i s h e d work i s another

desirable feature.
P o r t l a n d cement made up with sea water i s n o t o r i o u s l y u n s a t i s f a c t o r y .
Mixtures o f sodium s i l i c a t e s , C a C l ^ f Alum, and aluminium hydroxide are
s a i d to l a r g e l y overcome t h i s d i f f i c u l t y .
improved flow

Mixtures s a i d to

provide

( i n c r e a s e w o r k a b i l i t y ) , g r e a t e r s t r e n g t h and d e n s i t y , pro-

t e c t i o n a g a i n s t the segregation of cement suspension,

accelerated setting,

and s u i t a b i l i t y f o r use below the temperature of f r e e z i n g water.

They

c o n s i s t of C a C l ^ f amorphous s i l i c a t e , sodium s i l i c a t e s , and impalpable

f i l l e r s suspended i n an aqueous tannin

s o l u t i o n w i t h or without the

a d d i t i o n of i n e r t c o l o u r i n g m a t e r i a l s .
Powdered anhydrous s i l i c a t e s

(a slowly s o l u b l e type, u s u a l l y

the h i g h / s i l i c a r a t i o s g i v e the b e s t r e s u l t s ) have been added to the

P o r t l a n d cement to i n c r e a s e the water r e s i s t a n c e , and decrease the d e n s i t y
and s e t t i n g time without l e s s e n i n g the hardness or decreasing the t e n s i l e
strength.
cement.

T h i s r e f e r s to amounts o f 5 to 10% on the weight of the Portland

F i g u r e 1 shows one of the examples of s i l i c a t e s used i n conjunction

w i t h o r d i n a r y P o r t l a n d cement.

The compressive strength of concrete i s

shown to be i n c r e a s e d by the a d d i t i o n of sodium s i l i c a t e powder.

A(lb)
Cement

15.4

15.4

Sand

34.2

34.2

Gravel

73.2

73.2

S p e c i a l Mixture
Water/Cement

5000

B(lb)

1.6
0.4

0.4

For S p e c i a l Mixture
4000

Sodium S i l i c a t e , e.g. P84,

3000

0.57

lb

' '*"''"' 0.23

lb

Potassium Alum

0.23

lb

Dia'tomaceous earths

0.57

lb

CaCl

2000

1000

10

15

20

Figure 1

25

30

"35

- 6 -

(4) L u t e s and S e a l i n g Cements

For

v e r y quick s e t t i n g s to g i v e temporary stoppage of l e a k s ,

s i l i c a t e s o l u t i o n s and dry p o r t l a n d cements are o f t e n u s e f u l , but such

mixtures must be a p p l i e d a t once and should be backed up by a slower
s e t t i n g and u l t i m a t e l y stronger composition.
(5) Other a r e a s
(a)

Compounds f o r stopping i n a c c e s s i b l e l e a k s i n systems, where water

c i r c u l a t e s , a s through an automobile r a d i a t o r , are recommended f o r temp o r a r y , and sometimes permanent c l o s u r e of small apertures.
(b)

As l e a k s e a l i n g compounds f o r auto f i r e s , p i p e s , r e f r i g e r a t o r

cooling pipes etc.

(c)

As adhesive f o r paper boards and corrugated boxed.

(d)

I n the c u t t i n g t o o l s i n d u s t r y g r i n d i n g wheels are made from

granular abrasives.

S i l i c a t e b i n d e r s may e f f i c i e n t l y be matured to high

s t r e n g t h a t low temperatures.
(6)

Sodium S i l i c a t e / H i g h Alumina Cement

Sodium s i l i c a t e / H . A . C . composites are used i n many p r a c t i c a l

applications.

For example, sodium s i l i c a t e w i t h high-alumina cement as

a non-flamable replacement f o r the i n o r g a n i c r e s i n s t r a d i t i o n a l l y used

for

rock b o l t i n g purposes i n the mining i n d u s t r y .

(7) Foundry

Industry

Worldwide i n the foundry i n d u s t r y sodium s i l i c a t e i s used as a

non-flamable, non-toxic i n o r g a n i c r e f r a c t o r y cement f o r binding sand
p a r t i c l e s i n c o r e s and mould production.
(8) As a binder/cement
Numerous waste aggregates have been bonded w i t h s i l i c a t e
o b v i o u s l y any aggregate must be considered i n i t s own

right.

and

- 7 -

The a p p l i c a t i o n of s i l i c a t e s i n the cement, ceramics and r e f r a c t o r y f i e l d s i s extremely d i v e r s e .

There a r e a number of p a t e n t s , e s p e c i a l l y Japanese, covering
mixtures of t h i s s o r t , e i t h e r f o r producing l i g h t w e i g h t aggregates or
f o r s t a b i l i z i n g l i q u i d wastes.

- 8 -

CHAPTER

THE

2.1

Chemical

BINDERS

Binders^ i n Foundries

(Ref:

34)

B r i t i s h Cast I r o n Research Association, Alvechurch

England) h e l d a conference
in

foundries.

i n 1976

(Birmingham,

d e a l i n g w i t h the use of chemical

T h i s c o v e r e d not o n l y the use of s i l i c a t e s ,

e m p h a s i s upon t h e u s e o f o t h e r
F o r a more d e t a i l e d

binders

but a l s o

laid

binders.

study,

the r e a d e r i s r e f e r r e d to the

Conference

Report.
(a)

Sodium S i l i c a t e B i n d e r s

(Inorganic) Cold

Sodium s i l i c a t e a s a b i n d e r f o r s a n d was
when i t was
t i o n was

h a r d e n e d by c a r b o n

dioxide gas.

first

u s e d i n c o r e making

T h i s method o f c o r e p r o d u c -

d e v e l o p e d i n Germany d u r i n g World War

t h i s process being

Process

II.

The

first

record of

i n t r o d u c e d i n a B r i t i s h f o u n d r y i s i n 1952.

The

American

f o u n d r i e s i n . . g e n e r a l d i d n o t seem t o r e c o g n i s e t h e p o t e n t i a l o f t h i s
u n t i l as l a t e as

binder

1956-57.

Samples o f carbon

dioxide-silicate

c o r e a f t e r a n n e a l i n g a t 1060C f o r

13 h o u r s r e s u l t i n a h a r d c o r e , a s h a r d a s a house b r i c k .

This

causes

delays i n production.
O t h e r d r a w b a c k s o f t h i s b i n d e r b e s i d e s t h e breakdown d i f f i c u l t y i s
t h a t the s i n t e r p o i n t of sand i s reduced

by t h e a l k a l i n e sodium

silicate.

T h i s r e s u l t e d i n a q u i e t p e r i o d i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f sodium s i l i c a t e a s a
binder.

During

t h i s t i m e we

binders appearing
and o x i d i s i n g

saw

a p r o l i f i c number o f o t h e r c o l d - s e t t i n g

on t h e m a r k e t , e.g.

catalysts, etc.

good c o l l a p s i b i l i t y , b u t
a l s o they were v e r y

furane d i s t i l l a t e s of L i n s e e d o i l

B u t t h e s e too had b i g d r a w b a c k s .

l a c k e d hot

strength '"*'" t o r e s i s t m e t a l

They

penetration,

expensive.

I n c o n s t r u c t i o n and
preferred.

tt

Strength a t high

civil

engineering terminology,

temperature.

had

'stabilizer' i s

- 9 -

So f r o m 1964 on we
as i t i s r e l a t i v e l y

see a gradual

i n e x p e n s i v e and

s w i n g b a c k t o sodium

silicate

s i n c e t h e breakdown p r o b l e m i s b e i n g

overcome.

(b) R e s i n b i n d e r s
The

(Organic) Cold/Hot

Process

c o r e - m a k i n g and m o u l d i n g p r o c e s s e s b a s e d

b i n d e r s have been used

on t h e u s e o f

i n t h e f o u n d r y i n d u s t r y f o r many y e a r s .

i n s t a n c e , t h e hot-box p r o c e s s and

resin

For

t h e s h e l l p r o c e s s a r e long e s t a b l i s h e d

and u s e d w i d e l y t h r o u g h o u t t h e f o u n d r y i n d u s t r y i n a l l i n d u s t r i a l c o u n t r i e s .
G e n e r a l l y speaking

t h e r e s i n b a s e d p r o c e s s e s a r e aimed a t p r o -

d u c i n g more a c c u r a t e moulds and

and p r o d u c t i o n
production
r a t e s and
and

rates.

quality

production

overcome t h e d e c l i n i n g a v a i l a b i l i t y o f s k i l l e d m o u l d e r s

core-makers.
i n t h e manufacture o f foundry r e s i n s have

t h e i r o r i g i n i n the o i l o r petroleum
production

o f p h e n o l and

industry.

C e r t a i n l y the

commercial

formaldehyde i s today d e r i v e d almost wholly

from

source.

(c) O i l B i n d e r s

2.2

casting

c o r e s h a s b e e n m e c h a n i s e d t o s p e e d up

Most raw m a t e r i a l s u s e d

this

improving

A t t h e same t i m e much o f t h e work e n t a i l e d i n t h e

o f m o u l d s and
thereby

cores, thereby

( O r g a n i c ) Hot

F u t u r e A v a i l a b i l i t y o f Raw
(I)

M a t e r i a l s (Ref:

34)

Binders

Binder
a d e q u a r e and

process

s u p p l i e r s and

continued

f o u n d r i e s a l i k e a r e dependent upon t h e

a v a i l a b i l i t y o f c h e m i c a l s e s s e n t i a l f o r t h e manu-

facture of binder formulations.

S e r i o u s m a t e r i a l shortages i n the p a s t

h a v e b e e n c a u s e d , i n n e a r l y a l l c a s e s , by r e l a t i v e l y sudden c h a n g e s o f
manufacture or marketing

s t r a t e g y w i t h i n the b a s i c feedstock i n d u s t r y

f r o m w h i c h t h e c h e m i c a l raw m a t e r i a l s a r e d e r i v e d .

I n these

circumstances

the b i n d e r s u p p l i e r has l i t t l e

o r no

control.

I n o r d e r to t r y to a s s e s s the f u t u r e a v a i l a b i l i t y of binder

raw

m a t e r i a l s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o r e c o g n i z e t h e o r i g i n a l s o u r c e from w h i c h
they are

obtained.
Most raw m a t e r i a l s u s e d

i n the manufacture of foundry

t h e i r o r i g i n i n the o i l or petroleum

industry.

The

r e s i n s have

continued

availability

of these m a t e r i a l s i s , t h e r e f o r e , f a i r l y w e l l assured provided

a d e q u a t e o i l s o u r c e s and r e f i n i n g f a c i l i t i e s a r e m a i n t a i n e d .

that
I t i s well

known t h a t w o r l d o i l r e s o u r c e s a r e b e i n g r a p i d l y u s e d up and t h a t t h e r e
is

an u r g e n t n e e d t o d e v e l o p

o t h e r s o u r c e s of energy.

k i n d e x p e r i e n c e d e a r l y i n 1974

can have a d r a m a t i c i n f l u e n c e t h a t

p e r s i s t over a long p e r i o d .
(A)

Resin Binders

(B)
The

Raw

O i l Binders

the

may

(Organic) Cold/Hot P r o c e s s

Examples are phenol,

f u r f u r y l alcohol (FA).

O i l c r i s e s of

formaldehyde.

Raw

materials -

petroleum;

materials - oats, rice, etc.

( O r g a n i c ) Hot

Process

raw m a t e r i a l s u s e d f o r t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f o i l b i n d e r s a r e

m a i n l y o f v e g e t a b l e o r i g i n , e.g.

(C)

linseed,

Sodium S i l i c a t e B i n d e r s

cotton seed, e t c .

(Inorganic) Cold Process

F o r most c o u n t r i e s , t h e r e q u i r e d m a t e r i a l s a r e i n d i g e n o u s l y
freely available.

Raw

materials, s i l i c a

s a n d and

sodium c a r b o n a t e ,

t h e o n l y raw m a t e r i a l s n e e d e d t o p r o d u c e t h e p r e s e n t r a n g e o f

and
are

silicate-

sand b i n d e r s .

(II)

C a t a l y s t s / H a r d e n e r s / G e l l i n g Agents
(A)

For Resin O i l Binders

C a t a l y s t s f o r r e s i n and o i l b i n d e r s a r e a g a i n , o r i g i n a t e d i n t h e
basic oil-refining processes.

Others, l i k e phosphoric

acid,

however,

-11-

a r e s y n t h e s i z e d from n a t u r a l l y - o c c u r r i n g p h o s p h a t e m a t e r i a l s .
Perhaps phosphates should

be r e s e r v e d f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l a n d

n u t r i t i o n a l u s e s where t h e y a r e i n d i s p e n s a b l e , r a t h e r t h a n

for

industrial

processes.

(B)
The

F o r Sodium S i l i c a t e
production

material shortages.
predicted
On

Binders

o f CO^ g a s h a s been l a r g e l y u n a f f e c t e d by a n y raw

Production

sources

requirements.
t h e o t h e r hand, t h e s i t u a t i o n f o r

for cold-setting s i l i c a t e processes,

The

a r e t o t a l l y a d e q u a t e t o meet

ester-hardeners,

i s somewhat d i f f e r e n t from

glycol.

natural fats or oils

For g l y c e r o l , i t i s p a r t l y derived

A c e t i c a c i d and e t h y l e n e

g l y c o l b o t h o r i g i n a t e from o i l - f r a c t i o n a t e d p r o d u c t s ,
that the ester-hardeners,
the continued
The
materials.

i n common w i t h r e s i n s ,

s o i t c a n be s e e n

a r e s t r o n g l y dependent

a v a i l a b i l i t y and p r o c e s s i n g o f o i l f e e d s t o c k .

f o u n d r y i n d u s t r y , i n f a c t , i s o n l y a s m a l l consumer o f t h e s e
T r i a c e t i n i s used i n c i g a r e t t ef i l t e r - t i p s ,

l e s s widely

used elsewhere.

intermediates, p l a s t i c s ,

2.3

Silicates

T h e S e t t i n g o f Sodium
Consider

the following

Si0

Na 0
2

2H 0

H 0

d i a c e t i n , however,

Glycerol has extensive o u t l e t s i n the

manufacture o f p a i n t chemical

It

from

e x t r a c t e d from a n i m a l l i v e s t o c k , and p a r t l y s y n t h e s i z e d

from p r o p y l e n e - w h i c h i s a n o i l d e r i v a t i v e .

is

CO^.

raw m a t e r i a l s r e q u i r e d f o r t h e i r manufacture i n c l u d e g l y c e r o l a c e t i c

a c i d , and e t h y l e n e

on

required

and drugs.

reactions:-

-* S i ( O H )

-* 2NaOH

i s o b v i o u s t h a t sodium s i l i c a t e

(Weak a c i d )

' (Strong

alkaline)

i s t h e s a l t o f a weak a c i d ,

a c i d a n d a s t r o n g b a s e sodium h y d r o x i d e .

F o r t h i s reason,

silicic

the solutions

o f sodium s i l i c a t e

c a n be m i l d

The f o l l o w i n g
explain

alkaline or neutral.

e q u a t i o n s m e n t i o n e d i n W a r r e n ' s p a p e r ( R e f : 62)

a number o f c h e m i c a l a n d p h y s i c a l

Na

solution
> - mNa

H.. , S i O .
m
(4-m)
4

(H..
.SiO.) "
(4-m)
4

properties.

mHO
2

m+

H,
,SiO
(4-m)
4

s i (OH).
4

where m i s d e p e n d e n t on t h e g r a d e o f t h e s i l i c a t e
the

ratio

how s o l u b l e

(2)

and i s a f u n c t i o n o f

the complicated explanation

silicate

a generalised

of the true picture of

i s s e t o r g e l l e d by some known

reagents/catalysts,

t h e o r y c a n be drawn a s f o l l o w s :

Silicate

i s s e t by e i t h e r t h e r e m o v a l o f N a

to increase the v i s c o s i t y .

i s by p r e c i p i t a t i o n .
out

m oH~

(Si0 :Na 0).

To e l i m i n a t e

is

(1)

much q u i c k e r ,

This

One way t h a t N a

o r H2'

P i

ipl

c a n be removed from Na^O

i n c r e a s e s t h e S i O ^ N a ^ O r a t i o and hence d r i e s

and i n a d d i t i o n

there

i s a s i g n i f i c a n t increase i n

viscosity.
Equation

(2) s u g g e s t s a r e v e r s i b l e r e a c t i o n .

t o t h e l e f t when t h e pH v a l u e
condition
left
(OH).

o f the s o l u t i o n i s reduced.

p r o m o t e s t h e r e a c t i o n t o go r i g h t .

favourably

A more a l k a l i n e

T h e r e a c t i o n t h a t goes t o t h e

i s sometimes c a l l e d t h e c h e m i c a l n e u t r a l i z a t i o n o f t h e hydroxy1 i o n
This

leads

t h e pH v a l u e .
boron phosphate

t o t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n o f h a r d e n i n g p r o c e s s by r e d u c i n g

T h i s i s f u r t h e r c o n f i r m e d i n many p a t e n t s ,
(Ref: 1 4 ) , organic

To s u m m a r i s e : basic

I t goes

types:-

e s t e r s or other

The s e t t i n g p r o c e s s e s

which use 2

hardeners.

c a n be c l a s s i f i e d

into

three

-13-

Type A

Chemical n e u t r a l i z a t i o n of the
of

OH

i n the

P h y s i c a l or c h e m i c a l dehydration of the

Type C

The

c o m b i n a t i o n o f T y p e A and

possible

The
It

( i . e . removal

Na )

Type B

2.4

solution

has

Type B i s no

mechanisms t o h a r d e n

Gel of

Sodium

not

silicate

gel.

doubt one

of

the

silicate.

Silicate

been o f d i r e c t c o n c e r n i n t h i s p r o j e c t f o r a study

to

-2
be

made o f t h e

t r a n s i t i o n from s i l i c a t e a n i o n s

a g g r e g a t i o n s w h i c h become c o l l o i d a l and
The

reasons for coagulation,

and

exploited

by

It

has

(Ref:

eventually

s e t i n t o the

This

The

bringing

in

true

s c a l e of

into consideration

any

then

appearance

the

finally

of

deterioration.

adopted i n t h i s p r o j e c t .

The

(1)

a r i s e of v i s c o s i t y ,

(2)

an

(3)

a change i n c o l o u r

(4)

explained

d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f g e l t i m e a s u s e d i n f o u n d r y p r a c t i c e has

increase

agents

gel.

68).

t r a n s f o r m a t i o n from a q u e o u s c l o u d y t h r o u g h t o p l a s t i c g e l and

e f f l o r e s c e n c e or

solid

i s also well described

been f e l t advantageous to determine the

t o s e t t i n g s o l i d and

larger

s y n e r e s i s , ageing e t c . are very w e l l

c o l l o i d a l chemists.

V a i l ' s book, V o l . 1

(e.g. SiO^ ) to

i n the

phenomenon t o o k p l a c e

been

with

a b i l i t y t o s c a t t e r beams o f

light,

from c l o u d y to m i l k y

other coloured

( i f no

present),

s e t t i n g o c c u r r e d u s u a l l y ^ f r o m u p p e r l e v e l downward f o r t h e
silicious

types,

e.g.

I . C . I . P84

most

grade.
*

The

rate

of formation of

s i l i c a t e g e l v a r i e s w i t h many f a c t o r s ;

Such as type of hardener or c a t a l y s t used, concentration

of

silicate

-14-

s o l u t i o n , r a t i o of SiO^ t o

N a

value of the mixture,

( n o t a b l e when u s i n g o r g a n i c e s t e r s ) , p r e s e n c e
compounds a n d s o f o r t h .
gel

o f i m p u r i t i e s and m i n e r a l

The r e a c t i o n f r o m c o l l o i d a l s o l u t i o n t o s o l i d

c a n be i n t e r r u p t e d o r u n d e r some c o n d i t i o n s r e v e r s e d

g e l time

ranges

temperature

(Ref: 6 8 ) . The

f r o m i n s t a n t a n e o u s t o an i n d e f i n i t e p e r i o d .

The l o n g e r

t h e g e l was a l l o w e d t o s e t a n d s y n e r i z e , t h e s t r o n g e r i t became ( R e f : 6 8 ) .
During

t h e s y n e r e s i s p r o c e s s t h e g e l was o b s e r v e d

t o s h r i n k and i n some

cases i t developed c r a c k s .
It
allowed

i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o f i n d t h a t f r e s h g e l s when b r o k e n a n d t h e n

to rest

show a t e n d e n c y t o r e f o r m ,

but not with t h e i r

strength.

( R e f : 6 8 ) . The e x c e s s w a t e r

syneresis

s e q u e n c e c a n be a d j u s t e d by m e c h a n i c a l

The

formation

o r f l u i d produced during the

i s compressed;

with this.

One way t o p r a c t i c a l l y overcome t h i s

l o s s e s of soft g e l are usually associated

to g e l the s i l i c a t e

solution rather

A l t e r n a t i v e l y , one may c h a n g e t h e w e i g h t
solution.

2.5

means.

o f e x c e s s H^O a f t e r s e t t i n g c a n be a p r o b l e m when

the mixture

reagents

original

i s to select

milder

t h a n more r e a c t i v e

types.

r a t i o of 3102^3^0 of s i l i c a t e

A n o t h e r method i s t o p r e s s t h e s a m p l e a f t e r t h e g e l h a s s e t .

A R e v i e w o f Sodium S i l i c a t e

as a Binder

i n t h e Foundry I n d u s t r y

E x a m p l e s a r e g i v e n on t h e c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e p r o c e s s e s i n t h e
British

and f o r e i g n f o u n d r i e s based

are given

Example 1

concerning

on T y p e s A, B a n d C.

t h e weaknesses o f the

CO^ P r o c e s s

( T y p e s A a n d B)

various processes.

( R e f : 55,"6Z)* .f~

T h i s p r o c e s s was i n t r o d u c e d o r i g i n a l l y
1.6 o r 2.0 r a t i o

silicates

No comments

(weight r a t i o ) .

i n Great B r i t a i n

using

F o r more d e t a i l e d r e f e r e n c e

t h e r e - i s a n e x c e l l e n t book by N i c h o l a s on 'The C 0 ~ S i l i c a t e P r o c e s s i n
2

Foundries*

(Ref: 8 8 ) .

-15-

The

mechanism o f t h e CO^ p r o c e s s i s n o t f u l l y

Materials used f o r t h i s process

clay

others with

The

s h o u l d be d r y , c l e a n and

Nishyama P r o c e s s

C10O

c o r e s and

by T. N i s h i y a m a i n 1963.
p h y s i c a l dehydration
C a r e must be

An

(Type B)

( R e f : 69,55,13,62)

f a c i n g s a n d f o r moulds, was

o f the sand which permits

+ m Si

+ 2m B^O

Recommended I . C . I , g r a d e s a r e C100,

Alkaset Process

first

exothermic r e a c t i o n takes place

taken as hydrogen i s e v o l v e d

Na 0 . n S i 0

-* N a 0 . m S i 0
2

C112,

causing

t h e mould t o be

as a r e a c t i o n

hardened.

product.

n Si0

2m H f
2

E100.''"

(Type A + Type B)

( R e f : 55,62)

d e v e l o p e d i n R u s s i a by L i a s s and B o r s u k i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 6 0 * s .
contains di-calcium s i l i c a t e

compounds o f P o r t l a n d Cement.
proportion

ferro-

described

T h i s i s sometimes known a s t h e R u s s i a n F l u i d s a n d p r o c e s s ,

(basically)

and

the f i g u r e s .

method, w h i c h u s e s t h e r e a c t i o n o f sodium s i l i c a t e and

s i l i c o n i n binding

E x a m p l e 3:

f r e e from

Recommended I . C . I , g r a d e s a r e C112,

*C' d e s c r i b e d b e f o r e

E x a m p l e 2:

understood.

(2CaO . S i 0 ) , one
2

A s y n t h e t i c product

originally

Alkaset

o f t h e main

which contains a smaller

o f d i - c a l c i u m s i l i c a t e i s u n d e r t h e t r a d e name

'Cetos .

Recommended I . C . I , g r a d e i s L96."'"

E x a m p l e 4:

Organic

The

hardening

f o r many y e a r s

Esters Process

(Type A)

( R e f : 55,63,10,62,72)

o f Sodium S i l i c a t e by o r g a n i c e s t e r s h a s been known-*'Ifefto

( R e f : 67) .

T h i s p r o c e s s i s b e l i e v e d t o have o r i g i n a t e d

^ The recommended I . C . I , g r a d e s a r e more s u i t a b l e f o r bonding s a n d .

O t h e r r a t i o s c a n be u s e d , b u t t h e s e t t i n g t i m e and q u a l i t y o f
b o n d i n g w i l l be a f f e c t e d .

-16-

in

the

U.S.A. a r o u n d 1967.

I t was n o t

i n t o G r e a t B r i t a i n (Ref:
glycol

37).

Triacetin

and

K95.
For

(TRI).

r e f r a c t o r y mortars and s o i l

These l a t t e r

following

grades a r e used w i t h

consolidation,

(e.g.

the

Juston Process)

preferred

slower hydrolysing

(Ref: 4 8 ,

e s t e r s such as

The r e a c t i v i t y o f t h e s e h a r d e n e r s i s

>

EGMA

>

r e a c t i v i t y i s also temperature

E x a m p l e 5:

(DIA)

generally

descending order o f r e a c t i v i t y : -

DIA

The

(EGMA), D i a c e t i n

h i g h e r r a t i o s P84 a n d Q79 a r e

Triacetin o r ethyl acetate.

the

The m o s t commonly u s e d e s t e r s a r e e t h y l e n e

T h e recommended I . C . I , g r a d e s o f s i l i c a t e a r e HlOO

u s i n g e s t e r s and CaCl^, the

in

1969 t h a t i t was i n t r o d u c e d

D i a c e t a t e : (EGDA), e t h y l e n e g l y c o l Mono A c e t a t e

and

67).

until

Calcium Salts

Process

Some e x a m p l e s e x t r a c t e d

EGDA

>

TRIA

dependent.

(Type A) ( R e f : 6 7 )
f r o m V a i l ' s Book

(Ref:

6 7 ) a r e as f o l l o w s ,

+2
(soluble

sitive

and i n s o l u b l e
(a)

CaC0

The

reaction

Compounds).

(Insoluble)

o f calcium carborate with

whereas w i t h

alkaline
the

silicates rises

siliceous

100

C140 a n d A140,

silicates,

i n less

began t o s e t

in

than twohours.

six
High

s i l i c a t e s l i k e Q79 g r a d e , a t 30C b e g a n t o s e t a t

h o u r s a n d 20 h o u r s a t 4 0 c
CaCO^ o c c u r s n a t u r a l l y i n l i m e s t o n e

the

sen-

r a t i o s , t h e r e may b e n o a p p a r e n t change f o r a l o n g

e.g. I . C . I , grades o f s i l i c a t e

(more s i l i c e o u s )

i svery

The v i s c o s i t y o f

r a p i d l y , e.g. 2 r a t i o

h o u r s a t 30C, w h i l e a t 40C i t b e g a n t o s e t
ratio

sodium s i l i c a t e

t o c r y s t a l form, temperature, and s i l i c a t e r a t i o .

mixtures with

period,

Ca

l a t t e r being a reactive

(b)

CaCl

calcium

( c a l c i t e ) and chalk

(aragonite),

carborate-.

(Soluble)

C l a y t h a t i s n a t u r a l l y h i g h i n c a l c i u m may b e t r e a t e d w i t h

sodium

-17-

silicate
if

solutions.

further

This provides

t r e a t e d w i t h CaCl^ serve

cements.

For

reference

67.

a gelatinous texture.

s e t w i t h i n a few m i n u t e s ,

stabilizing
limestone
rock

sort,

l i q u i d wastes

and

i n road

E x a m p l e 6:

either

(Ref:

c o n s t r u c t i o n . (Ref:

s u r f a c e o f HAC

hydrogen

2.6

(Type B)

e.g.

hard

(Ref:

H i g h A l u m i n a Cement

i n this

cement, t r e a t m e n t o f

s o l u t i o n has

little

the

beneficial

32,11,48).

compounds h a v e b e e n u s e d t o g i v e t h e T y p e B
by

the production of

are abundant.

applying abrasive

I t has

been used t o

explosive

grains i n a s i l i c a t e

d e g r e e Baume c o a t i n g ) .

repair

solution

They a r e r e a d y f o r use

(A140

after

air^drying.

Other Reagents o r a d d i t i v e s used i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h sodium

The

these

the coarse

example f r o m t h e g r i n d i n g i n d u s t r y where aluminous

grains or granules

o f 59.5

24 h o u r s

50%.

gas.

g r i n d i n g d i s c s by
o r C140

content of a t least

67).

D i f f i c u l t i e s have been envisaged

T h i s i s an
abrasive

waterglass

the s l u r r y of f r e e l y d i v i d e d

concrete w i t h sodium s i l i c a t e

H o w e v e r , many a l u m i n i u m
reaction.

p a r t o f commercial

i s used t o s t a b i l i s e

free lime present

a c t i o n i n o r d i n a r y circumstances

see

l i g h t w e i g h t aggregates or f o r

3 2 ) , e.g.

(P84)

A l u m i n i u m Compounds

retardant treatment,

( e s p e c i a l l y Japanese) c o v e r i n g mix-

f o r producing

sodium s i l i c a t e

S i n c e t h e r e i s no

t o one

even w i t h a water

T h e r e a r e a number o f p a t e n t s
tures of this

with fire

( e . g . P o r t l a n d Cement)

A m i x t u r e o f a b o u t 10 p a r t s OPC
will

said mixtures,

as p l a s t i c i z i n g a g e n t s f o r - P o r t l a n d

o t h e r uses i n c o n n e c t i o n

( c ) C e m e n t i t i o u s Compounds

The

reader

should consult the references

substances.

silicates

f o r the reasons f o r u s i n g

-18-

E x a m p l e 1:

S u r f a c t a n t e . g . ' P e n t r o n e ON
P e n t r o n e ON

E x a m p l e 2:

but a s u r f a c e a c t i v e

reagent

and c a n be u s e d w i t h a l l t h e s i l i c a t e s .

and c o n c e n t r a t i o n

o f t h e foam

( R e f : 2)

i s not a hardener,

w i t h a c o n t r o l l e d foam l i f e
alkalinity

of

the s i l i c a t e

The

does i n f l u e n c e t h e l e n g t h

life.

Resin
Some r e s i n / s i l i c a t e

systems

h a v e been p r o p o s e d .

The most

r e c e n t s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n by t h e B r i t i s h C a s t I r o n R e s e a r c h A s s o c i a t i o n
and a p h e n o l i c r e s i n C I R I O h a s b e e n d e v e l o p e d .

E x a m p l e 3:

Siliconate

e . g . 'R221 and R222'

T h e u s e o f masonry w a t e r

r e p e l l e n t s w i t h sodium s i l i c a t e ,

the addition of e s t e r s to g e l s i l i c a t e
information i s not r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e .

E x a m p l e 4:

and

a r e c o n t r o l l e d by p a t e n t s and
(Ref: 17,48).

P o r t l a n d Cement
Sodium s i l i c a t e

the chemical
lime

(Ref:1 5 ) .

i s used

as a surface treatment

for increasing

r e s i s t a n c e o f P o r t l a n d c o n c r e t e by r e a c t i n g w i t h t h e f r e e

present.

E x a m p l e 5:

making
place.

Powdered

Anhydrite

Powdered

Anyhydrite

i tdifficult

(CaSO^)

with s i l i c a t e solutions,

t o form a c o h e r e n t mass b e f o r e t h e r e a c t i o n h a s t a k e n

The f i n e r t h e p a r t i c l e s ,

i s p o s s i b l e to blend

r e a c t s immediately

t h e more r e a c t i v e i s t h e m i x t u r e .

+200 B.S. M e s h , * C a S 0

I t

(75-80 ym) i n v a r i o u s p r o p o r -

t i o n s w i t h any o f t h e known s o l u b l e - s i l i c a t e c e m e n t s .

-19-

It
silicates

i s i m p o r t a n t t o note t h a t t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f anhydrous
(powder) a r e e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t from t h o s e o b t a i n e d

h y d r a t e d p o w d e r s o r s o l u t i o n s o f t h e same

with

ratio.

O t h e r r e a c t a n t m a t e r i a l s w h i c h h a v e been u s e f u l l y c o a t e d
silicate

f i l m s i n c l u d e CuSO^ C a C l , Fe ( S O ^ ,

The l i s t

c o u l d be g r e a t l y e x t e n d e d .

sodium

MgCl

and

with

Al^SO^.

-20-

CHAPTER

SODIUM S I L I C A T E COMPOSITES

3.1

P h y s i c a l and C h e m i c a l B o n d i n g s
In

paste

concrete,

t h e bond s t r e n g t h b e t w e e n t h e a g g r e g a t e and cement

i s u s u a l l y t h e w e a k e s t l i n k i n t h e s y s t e m and p l a y s an i m p o r t a n t

r o l e i n determining the properties

The

f o r c e s which b i n d / s t a b i l i z e s i l i c a t e paste/gel

may be p h y s i c a l a n d
The
The

of t h e composite m a t e r i a l .
t o an a g g r e g a t e

chemical.

p h y s i c a l f o r c e s a r e due t o a d h e s i o n a n d m e c h a n i c a l i n t e r l o c k .

c h e m i c a l f o r c e s a r e due t o t h e f o r m a t i o n o f s u r f a c e r e a c t i o n p r o d u c t s ,

usually as a thin film

deposit.

C a t a l y s t s o r h a r d e n e r s , when added w i t h

silicate

solutions,

should

f o r m a c o h e r e n t mass b e f o r e t h e c h e m i c a l r e a c t i o n h a s t a k e n p l a c e , ( i . e .
a rise

3.2

on v i s c o s i t y o f t h e b i n d e r ) .

Adhesion
The

first

c r i t e r i o n f o r good b o n d i n g i s t h a t t h e b i n d e r and t h e

s u b s t r a t e m u s t be i n i n t i m a t e

contact.

Thus, any f l a w s a t t h e phase

b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n t h e a d h e s i v e a n d s u b s t r a t e must be b r i d g e d and t h e s u r face of the substrate

It

wetted.

i s f o u n d t h a t on l e a v i n g a drop o f s i l i c a t e

s u r f a c e o f expanded p o l y s t y r e n e
the

silicate

s o l u t i o n on t h e

b o a r d , a s p h e r e i s formed, p r o v i n g

s o l u t i o n c a n n o t r e a d i l y wet t h e expanded p o l y s t y r e n e

that
surface.

P e n t r o n e - o n , a s u r f a c e a c t i v e a g e n t , was u s e d a n d p r e - m i x e d w i t h

the dry

b e a d s a n d t h i s p r o v i d e d good w o r k a b i l i t y and i n c r e a s e d a d h e s i o n .

Since

t h e beads were o f s o f t m a t e r i a l
after

coating.

little

improvement i n s t r e n g t h was f o u n d

- 21-

POOR WETTING '

IMPROVED IN WETTING

Silicate

Drop

Expanded P o l y s t y r e n e

Same s u r f a c e a f t e r

Board u n t r e a t e d w i t h

treatment

PENTRON-ON

PENTRON-ON

with

Figure 2

3.3

R e i n f o r c e m e n t o f Sodium

Silicate

Composite

The r e i n f o r c e m e n t o f polym e r s and cements by f i l l e r s ,

f i b r o u s and p a r t i c u l a t e ,

both

i s i n common p r a c t i c e .

An a t t e m p t h a s b e e n made i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y t o i n c o r p o r a t e
additional foreign f i l l e r s
glass fibres.

s u c h a s wood

wool a n d d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f

A l t h o u g h t h e a t t e m p t s were n o t s y s t e m a t i c , t h e t r i a l s

w e r e c o n s i d e r e d t o be u n s u c c e s s f u l .

T h e added f i b r e s a d v e r s e l y

affected

b o t h w o r k a b i l i t y a n d s t r e n g t h b e c a u s e o f p o o r a d h e s i o n between t h e f i b r e s
and t h e s i l i c a t e

matrix.

However, o t h e r f i l l e r s

s u c h a s L e i g h t o n B u z z a r d sand, High Alumina

Cement, q u a r t z powders f r o m s o l i d g l a s s s p h e r e s a n d a r t i f i c i a l p o z z o l a n a
like p.f.a a l l
b y t h i s method

showed

improvement

i n c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h when employed

-22-

CHAPTER
STANDARDISATION
4.1.

OF

EXPERIMENTAL

Introduc tion
As m e n t i o n e d

i n t h e P r e f a c e , t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d y c o n s i s t s o f two

parts.

The f i r s t

British

f o u n d r y p r o c e s s w h i c h use sodium

The
to

PROCEDURES

second

seeks

t o understand t h e background
silicate

of the established

t o bond sand

s e c t i o n r e v i e w s t h e work w h i c h has been done w h i l e

particles.
attempting

a d a p t some o f t h e s e i d e a s t o t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f c o r e s f o r s a n d w i c h

panels.
The
in

c h e m i s t r y o f sodium

the foundry industry

soft

information

grannular materials,

beads, t o produce
mentioned

1.2.

For t h i s

practical

on t h e s i l i c a t e

p u l p and expanded

panels w i t h

bonding

polystyrene

the characteristics

reason, d e t a i l e d

t e s t i n g programmes f o r such m a t e r i a l s

applications

a r e w e l l known. ( R e f . 9 5 )

i s available

s u c h as p a p e r

cores f o r sandwich

i n Chapter

and i t s w i d e

and i n g e o t e c h n i c a l work

However, v e r y l i t t l e
of

silicate

s o r t i n g and s t r e n g t h

bonded w i t h s i l i c a t e were

carried

out.
As

a first

was

necessary

and

sodium

the mixture of soft

s t r e n g t h , Young's m o d u l u s ,

s h e a r modulus and s h e a r

materials

The
strength

o n l y when t h e C o m p a c t i o n

i s satisfactory.
There

it

t e s t i n g programme i t

b i n d e r w h i c h c o u l d be r e p r o d u c e d r e l i a b l y .

a c o m p o s i t e s y s t e m c a n be e v a l u a t e d r e l i a b l y

System

and

out the strength

t o d e v i s e a method o f c o m p a c t i n g

silicate

compressive
of

step i n carrying

a r e many m a t e r i a l s

i n view o f t h e l i m i t a t i o n

t h a t c a n be b o n d e d w i t h s o d i u m

i n t i m e and r e s o u r c e s i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y ,

was deemed t o be m o r e i m p o r t a n t

as p o s s i b l e ;
The

relationships

to investigate

no t e s t s w e r e made o n a c t u a l s a n d w i c h

experimental

silicate,

i n v e s t i g a t i o n ended w i t h

between t h e f a b r i c a t i o n

as many c o r e m a t e r i a l s
beam c o n s t r u c t i o n .

the establishment ofthe

p r o c e s s v a r i a b l e s and t h e f i n a l

-23-

strength

4.2

properties

Selection

o f t h ecore

of material

materials.

o f m o u l d f o r 2 " x 4" c y l i n d r i c a l

Perspex and s t e e l a r e s u i t a b l e m a t e r i a l s
use

w i t h sodium

compaction s t a t e o f m a t e r i a l s
However, i t i s n e c e s s a r y
and a b r a s i v e

tests

on specimens

4.3

Mixing
The

p r o v i d e s a means o f i n s p e c t i n g

inside

t h e mould.

for

the actual

(Photographs 31 & 33).

t o u s e s t e e l m o u l d s i f t h e a g g r e g a t e used i s t o o

i nnature.

When c o n d u c t i n g

t h e t o r s i o n and

shearing

i n t h e i r m o u l d , t h e s e h a d t o be c o n s t r u c t e d ' i n s t e e l .

s t r e n g t h , h a r d n e s s and d e n s i t y

of concrete,

f o r mould c o n s t r u c t i o n

silicate.

Perspex, being t r a n s p a r e n t ,

hard

specimen

are directly

agents f o r gauging.

o f sodium s i l i c a t e

like

those

r e l a t e d t o t h e q u a n t i t y o f w a t e r and o t h e r

T h e s e w e t a d m i x t u r e s m u s t be k e p t t o a minimum

commensurate w i t h adequate w o r k a b i l i t y .
In
ensured

this

e x p e r i m e n t a l work, l i q u i d

s o d i u m s i l i c a t e was u s e d as t h i s

t h e homogeneous q u a l i t y p r o v i d e d

Viscosity

by c o m m e r c i a l

i n t h e r a n g e o f 100 t o 8 5 0 c P was f o u n d v e r y

When g a u g i n g t h e s a m p l e s t h e f o l l o w i n g p o i n t s

suppliers.
suitable.

h a d t o be s t r i c t l y

observed.
4.3.1. P i lution
It
silicate

i s possible

t o add w a t e r

t o a tank c o n t a i n i n g

solutions.

However, l o c a l d i f f e r e n c e s

to a f f e c t t h e performance o f t h e l i q u i d
superficially.

(Ref.

48).

So, d i l u t i o n

4.3.2. H e a t i n g S i l i c a t e
Water evaporates
but

if-"'the

one o f t h e c o m m e r c i a l

o f concentration
mixture

i sgenerally

is stirred

are s u f f i c i e n t
only

avoided.

Solution

from t h e f r e e surface

d o e s s o m o s t r a p i d l y when t h e b o i l i n g

o f any s i l i c a t e

solution

p o i n t o f water i s reached,

leaving

-24-

a s k i n w h i c h a t f i r s t appears l i k e a t r a n s p a r e n t p l a s t i c , and which, i f

n o t s t i r r e d w e l l i n t o the l i q u i d , becomes p r o g r e s s i v e l y h a r d e r and

thicker

u n t i l a u n i f o r m m i x t u r e can o n l y be achieved w i t h g r e a t d i f f i c u l t y , i f
at

all.
Such f i l m s are t h e r e s u l t o f the r a p i d r i s e o f v i s c o s i t y w i t h s m a l l

losses o f water,
the

(Ref. 67,68).

more s i l i c e o u s p r o d u c t s

This i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , p a r t i c u l a r l y , of

( f o r example, p.84) h a v i n g h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n .

T h e r e f o r e , i n t h i s work, h e a t i n g s i l i c a t e s o l u t i o n i s a v o i d e d .
4.3.3. V i s c o s i t y
Sodium s i l i c a t e s o l u t i o n s are t h e r m o d y n a m i c a l l y u n s t a b l e and
e v e n t u a l l y form c r y s t a l s .
is

I f t h e r e i s any

may

l o s s o f w a t e r , o r carbon d i o x i d e

absorbed f r o m t h e atmosphere the s o l u t i o n would show an i n c r e a s e o f

v i s c o s i t y i n a much s h o r t e r t i m e than i n i n t e n d e d i n the commercial

f o r m u l a t i o n o f the s o l u t i o n .

A l s o i t i s found t h a t s h e l f l i f e

by s m a l l amounts o f i m p u r i t i e s such as may

water

(Ref.

is affected

be i n t r o d u c e d by t h e use o f hard

67,68).

4.3.4. Length o f M i x i n g

time

I t has been found from o t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s

(Ref. 48) t h a t a p r o l o n g e d

m i x i n g t i m e r e s u l t s i n a decrease o f t h e s t r e n g t h because o f
b e f o r e t h e m i x t u r e i s p l a c e d and compacted.

On

hardening

the o t h e r hand, too s h o r t

a m i x i n g t i m e cannot p r o v i d e a p r o p e r d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e s i l i c a t e on the
aggregate g r a i n s .
4.3.5. Under no c i r c u m s t a n c e s

s h o u l d one

a t t e m p t t o retemper c a s t i n g

s i l i c a t e s , by t h e a d d i t i o n o f f u r t h e r s i l i c a t e s o l u t i o n o r by

agitation

a f t e r the s e t has commenced.

4.4

T r i a l Mix Design
T h i s i s e s s e n t i a l because i t enables

one

t o f o r e s e e t h e problems

-25w i l l be encountered
compaction.

when m i x t u r e s o f m a t e r i a l s are u n s u i t a b l e f o r

I t a l s o enables one

t o f i n d o u t the amount o f Binder r e q u i r e d

( O p t i m a l Binder C o n t e n t ) t o mix w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r type o f aggregate or

m i x t u r e of aggregates,

t o g i v e the h i g h e s t s t r e n g t h .

T h i s can be achieved

by

v a r y i n g the q u a n t i t y o f s i l i c a t e w h i l e k e e p i n g c o n s t a n t the amount o f

aggregates used.

The

s i m i l a r as p o s s i b l e .
and

c o n d i t i o n s and method o f p r e p a r a t i o n are k e p t

At l e a s t t h r e e specimens are r e q u i r e d per

the r e s u l t s are p r e s e n t e d

be found

i n Chapter 8.

i n Chapter 6.

as

batch

G r a p h i c a l p r e s e n t a t i o n can

Hence, the o p t i m a l b i n d e r c o n t e n t t o g i v e the

b e s t s t r e n g t h o f a p a r t i c u l a r composite system can be e s t a b l i s h e d .

e x p e r i e n c e , m i x t u r e s w h i c h have s t r e n g t h s t h a t f a l l

By

i n the r e g i o n

t h a t cannot even f a c i l i t a t e s a f e h a n d l i n g w i l l be d i s c a r d e d .

The c y l i n d e r

-2
c r u s h i n g s t r e n g t h o f 0.01

N mm

with safety.

- 6.6.)

( T a b l e 6.2.

The e f f e c t

i s about t h e s m a l l e s t which can be

i n Chapter.6, show some o f the f i n d i n g s .

o f adding one o f a number o f reagents

was

i n v e s t i g a t e d . The

4.5

Test Apparatus

handled

t o the s i l i c a t e m i x t u r e

r e s u l t s are shown i n Chapter 6, Table

6.1.

4.5.1. M i x i n g
A p p a r a t u s i s needed t o c r e a t e a u n i f o r m
a H o b a r r t m i x e r was
to perform

adopted, a m i x i n g blade

the m i x i n g i n a s t a i n l e s s s t e e l

mixture.. For t h i s purpose

s i m i l a r t o a dough hook was

used

bowl.

4.5.2. Compacting Apparatus

S e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t t e c h n i q u e s were i n v e s t i g a t e d t o assess t h e i r

suitability

f o r compacting s o f t grannular m a t e r i a l s to a prescribed d e n s i t y ,

4.5.2,1. A.F.S. Rammer
The

f i r s t t o be t r i e d was

foundry i n d u s t r y .
ii
i t suitable.

the d e v i c e used i n the American

C e r t a i n m o d i f i c a t i o n s were made i n an attempt t o make

-26-

However, i t was found

t o be u n s u i t a b l e .

I t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o compact

paper p u l p t o h i g h d e n s i t y u s i n g t h e A.F.S. rammer.

T h i s has a 14 pounds

w e i g h t w h i c h i s dropped from a h e i g h t o f s i x i n c h e s .

T h i s does n o t have t h e

r e q u i r e d e f f e c t on t h e r e l a t i v e l y s o f t , r e s i l e n t m a t e r i a l .
i s t h a t no method c o u l d be d e v i s e d
t h i s equipment.
of

More c r i t i c a l

f o r compacting a n n u l a r specimens u s i n g

These a r e r e q u i r e d f o r t o r s i o n and shear t e s t s , two methods

o b t a i n i n g t h e shear modulus.

For these reasons, p r i n c i p a l l y , t h e A.F.S.

method, was d i s c a r d e d .
4.5.2.2. M o d i f i e d Aggregate Impact T e s t e r , BS 812 (Photograph
The

32).

second t o be t r i e d was t h e d e v i c e used i n BS 812. (Ref. 8 2 ) .

T h i s apparatus

was examined because i t i s p r o v i d e d w i t h a 4.5. kg

rammer w h i c h c o u l d be dropped from a maximum,height o f about 28 i n c h e s .

as compared w i t h t h e A.F.S. apparatus

This,

(which uses 14 pounds rammer d r o p p i n g

f r o m a h e i g h t o f s i x i n c h e s ) i s a more p r o m i s i n g p i e c e o f equipment t o achieve

good c o m p a c t i o n on m i x t u r e s i n t h e mould.
A n o t h e r a t t r a c t i v e f e a t u r e was t h a t ample space was p r o v i d e d t o enable
the c o m p a c t i o n o f a n n u l a r

specimens.

A f t e r considerable experimental

i n v e s t i g a t i o n , i t was found t h a t a v e r y

h i g h number o f d r o p s ( b l o w s ) o f t h i s 4.5. k g rammer s t i l l

c o u l d n o t compact

s a t i s f a c t o r y ! t h e h i g h l y r e s i l e n t m a t e r i a l s , such as expanded p o l y s t y r e n e beads.

(Photograph
had

7).

A number o f blows as h i g h as 50 were a p p l i e d .

t o be a d j u s t e d a f t e r each s u c c e s s i v e

energy f o r each blow.

The h e i g h t

blow t o ensure minimum c o n s t a n t

The number o f blows f o r m a t e r i a l s i n t h e mould was

found t o be an u n r e l a t e d parameter f o r d e s i g n

purposes.

Subsequent r e f l e c t i o n on t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f f e r e d by t h e impact
gave

impact

apparatus

r i s e t o d o u b t s about t h e u s e f u l n e s s o f such a t e s t i n any p o s s i b l e

industrial

application.

T h i s i s because, i n p r a c t i s e , i t would be d i f f i c u l t

t o d e v i s e an apparatus

t o compact, s a y , 2 inches o f sandwich p l a t e core by impact energy; the mass

-27-

of the rammer would be enormous and i t i s d o u b t f u l whether i t c o u l d ever

produce c o r e s o f r e p e a t a b l e q u a l i t y i n a s h o r t time o f o p e r a t i o n .

However, f o r h a r d m a t e r i a l s such as expanded foam s l a g s , i t was

t h a t t h i s d e v i c e was
the
at
the

u s a b l e , a l t h o u g h n o t t o be recommended.

r i s k o f b r e a k i n g up t h e aggregates

T h i s i s because

i n t o s m a l l e r p a r t i c l e s cannot be avoided

the expense o f a h i g h e r number o f blows.

m o d i f i e d Aggregate

found

For these reasons,

Impact T e s t e r , BS 812 was

principally,

rejected.

4.5.2.3. S t a t i c Compaction System

As energy o f c o m p a c t i o n / p e n e t r a t i o n can be a p p l i e d
d y n a m i c a l l y o r s t a t i c a l l y , t h e t h i r d compacting
the

one used i n s o i l
The

apparatus

either

t o be t r i e d

was

testing.

l o a d i n g frame i s n o r m a l l y used i n s o i l mechanics t e s t i n g .

(Photograph 1 5 ) .

I t i s t h e c o n s t a n t r a t e o f s t r a i n mechanical/manual l o a d i n g

system used i n t h e t r i a x i a l t e s t i n g o f s o i l s .
A f t e r m i x i n g t h e m a t e r i a l / a g g r e g a t e w i t h sodium s i l i c a t e i n a H o b a r r t
m i x e r , the wet m i x t u r e had
the

t o be compacted t o the c o r r e c t volume, u s i n g

c o r r e c t amount o f m a t e r i a l i n w e i g h t .

For these reasons, m a t e r i a l s was

f i r s t w e i g h t e d , and c a r e f u l l y t r a n s f e r r e d i n t o the perspex mould, ( o r s t e e l

in
the

t h e case o f a n n u l a r specimens).

the

a p p l i e d manually by r o t a t i n g

handle and t h e p r e s s u r e a p p l i e d c o u l d be measured from the d i a l gauge

permanently
to

Pressure was

f i x e d on the p r o v i n g r i n g .

Assuming t h a t l a t e r a l expansion

i n t e r n a l p r e s s u r e i n the mould i s n e g l i g i b l e , the c r o s s e c t i o n a l area o f

mould remains

unchanged.

The volume o f t h e specimen t h e r e f o r e can

c a l c u l a t e d i f i t s h e i g h t (under compression)

i s known.

p r e s s u r e s h o u l d be m a i n t a i n e d w h i l e the sample s e t .
p r e s s u r e i s u n a v o i d a b l e due
of

due

o p e r a t i o n was

known i n i t i a l
time l i m i t .

I t was

be

critical

that

However, some l o s s o f

t o creep o f t h e aggregate.

The whole process

q u i c k , s i m p l e and v e r y r e l i a b l e . < For a g i v e n b l e n d w i t h

g e l l i n g t i m e , . s t a t i c compaction

has

t o be performed w i t h i n a

For t h i s reason, c a t a l y s t s were chosen t h a t gave an

initial

-28-

g e l l i n g t i m e o f t e n m i n u t e s . T h i s f i g u r e was d e r i v e d by e x p e r i e n c e from
the sum o f 3 minutes m i x i n g i n t h e H o b a r r t m i x e r , | minute f o r t r a n s f e r o f
m a t e r i a l i n t o t h e mould w i t h c a p p i n g s , and l | minutes f o r o b s e r v i n g and
a d j u s t i n g t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e a p p l i e d t o t h e m a t e r i a l i n t h e mould., The t o t a l

t i m e r e q u i r e d t o produce 3 .sample c y l i n d e r s was

t h e r e f o r e e s t i m a t e d t o be t e n mi

I n summary, t h i s method p r o v i d e s ; (1)

easy access f o r compacting

(2)

easy access t o g a s s i n g w i t h carbon d i o x i d e o r hot a i r , w h i l e

p r e s s u r e was

(3)

a n n u l a r and non a n n u l a r specimens,

maintained.

r e l i a b l e , s i m p l e and q u i c k o p e r a t i o n f o r compacting

soft materials

and
(4)

moulding

p r e s s u r e was

a prime f a b r i c a t i o n parameter and

therefore

can be e s t a b l i s h e d f o r each composite m a t e r i a l system.

4.5.3. S t r e n g t h t e s t i n g
4.5.3.1. Unconfined Compression - 'E' Type Tensometer
The

method o f t e s t i n g was

s i m i l a r to concrete t e s t i n g .

Primarily,

i n p r i n c i p a l , the r a t e o f l o a d i n g and the magnitude o f a g i v e n l o a d were the

two i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s .
The E Type Tensometer t e s t e r was

first

was

found t o be u n s u i t a b l e because i t was

was

made t o a p p l y

The

friction

investigated.

This device

e s s e n t i a l l y a tension device

compression by means of a system o f p l a t e s and s l i d i n g r o d s .

on t h e s l i d i n g rods was

found t o be s i g n i f i c a n t despote

t o r e - a l i g n t h e rods t o p r o v i d e v e r t i c a l upward a x i a l movement.

r e a s o n s , the apparatus was

t e s t i n g was
the

For

an a t t e m p t
these

abandoned.

4.5.3.2. Unconfined Compression - BS

The

and

1377

triaxial

tester

second d e v i c e i n v e s t i g a t e d f o r u n c o n f i n e d compression s t r e n g t h

t h e c o n s t a n t s t r a i n t e s t i n g a p p a r a t u s . w i t h p r o v i n g r i n g used i n

t r i a x i a l compression t e s t i n g o f

soil.

-29-

A l t h o u g h i t was n o t an i d e a l t e s t e r , i t was found t o be r e l i a b l e . I t

was
of

f i n a l l y d e c i d e d t o use t h i s d e v i c e t o d e t e r m i n e a l l c r u s h i n g s t r e n g t h
c y l i n d e r s and modulus o f e l a s t i c i t y under

compression.

The o t h e r method o f o b t a i n i n g shear modulus o f an a n n u l a r specimen by

v e r t i c a l s h e a r i n g was found f e a s i b l e i n u s i n g t h i s d e v i c e .
I n summary, t h e BS 1377 t r i a x i a l
(1)

t e s t e r p r o v i d e s these f e a t u r e s : -

f o r s a t i s f a c t o r y compaction

of s o f t m a t e r i a l s i n 2 inch inner

d i a m e t e r mould,
(2)

f o r e v a l u a t i n g t h e c r u s h i n g s t r e n g t h and modulus o f a c y l i n d e r ,

and
for

e v a l u a t i n g t h e shear modulus o f an a n n u l a r specimen.

4.5.3.3. T o r s i o n T e s t e r
The Swedish made t o r s i o n t e s t e r as shown i n Photograph
used f o r a l l t o r s i o n t e s t s .

T h i s apparatus

i s designed

t o f i n d t h e shear

modulus and shear s t r e s s o f s t a i n l e s s s t e e l and o t h e r a l l o y s .

the

reason,

There was a l s o a n o t h e r p r a c t i c a l d i f f i c u l t y o f how t o assemble

r e l a t i v e l y s o f t c y l i n d e r s onto the t e s t e r .
F i r s t , t o overcome t h e mounting

they c o u l d be removed w h i l e compacting

for

For t h i s

t o r q u e measured from a s p r i n g b a l a n c e , was found u n s u i t a b l e f o r t h e m a t e r i a l s

i n t h i s study.
the

18 was

t o r s i o n t e s t i n g (Photograph 2 4 ) .

Appendices.

problem,

cappings were made so t h a t

m a t e r i a l i n t o t h e mould and f i x e d

rigidly

The drawings o f these caps are i n the

To make t h e c o n v e r s i o n l e s s c o m p l i c a t e d , one p i e c e o f s t a n d a r d

s t e e l t o r s i o n specimen, w i t h hexagonal heads, was c u t i n t o two pieces and

they were s e p a r a t e l y f i x e d o n t o t h e caps..

The s h o r t e r bar was welded on t h e

base oap w h i l e t h e l o n g e r p i e c e was screwed r i g h t i n t o t h e c e n t r e s t e e l r o d

spacer.

(Photographs

Secondly,
the

25,26,27,28,19).

t o overcome t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f g e t t i n g t o r q u e r e a d i n g s from .

s p r i n g s c a l e , an i n d i r e c t method was adopted f o r t h e measurement o f the

torque .

-30i
!
j

A t w i s t - m e t e r was

a t t a c h e d t o the l e n g t h o f s t e e l r o d between the

specimen mounting

and the chuck, measuring angle o f t w i s t on a 50 mm

length.

c a l i b r a t e d t o read t o r q u e .

T h i s was

t h e r e was

t e s t was

stopped when

no more t r a v e l o f t h e needle on t h e t w i s t ^ m e t e r . A t

jthis t o r q u e , i t was

found t h a t sample was

f o r t h i s r e a s o n , t h e same sample was

of

The

gauge

n o t damaged by t o r s i o n a t a l l and

t e s t e d f o r s h e a r i n g u s i n g an a d a p t a t i o n

the c o n s t a n t s t r a i n compression t e s t e r (Photograph

15).

The m a t e r i a l ' s

p r o p e r t i e s had t o be k e p t as s i m i l a r as p o s s i b l e t o draw any f a i r comparison

l
between the two t e s t s . For t h e shear t e s t , t h e specimen was placed as shown
i n Photograph 15. Two d i a l gauges were used,one was needed t o f i n d the t o t a l
I
v e r t i c a l s h e a r i n g d i s p l a c e m e n t o f the specimen, and the o t h e r was used i n
i
the p r o v i n g r i n g t o f i n d t h e shear f o r c e a p p l i e d t o produce such d i s p l a c e m e n t .
i
The l o a d i n g was a t c o n s t a n t mechanical r a t e o f s t r a i n i n g .
I
,
1.125 mm/mi n.
I

'

4.6.

'

Two

Gassing

techniques

methods o f a p p l y i n g carbon d i o x i d e o r a m i x t u r e o f carbon d i o x i d e

w i t h a compressed a i r were e x p e r i m e n t e d .
f r o m the bottom

(Photographs

The major problem

jto e l i m i n a t e blockage
as p o s s i b l e .

compaction,

35,32,33).

t o overcome f i r s t was

t o know the best g a s s i n g pressure

and f o r c i n g the gas t o p e n e t r a t e e v e n l y and as deeply

S e c o n d l y , i t was

technique f o r blowing

e i t h e r b l o w i n g the gas

30 and 34) o r s p r e a d i n g e v e n l y from t o p t o bottom

f r o m a c e n t r a l s o u r c e . (Photographs
!

T h i s was

gas

necessary

t o assess the s u i t a b i l i t y o f e i t h e r

i n t o t h e s o f t m i x t u r e , where, a f t e r s u c c e s s f u l

v e r y l i t t l e pour s p a c i n g remains f o r the passage o f the carbon

dioxide.
The

problems were n o t s i m p l e t o t a c k l e b e a r i n g i n mind the l i m i t e d

a v a i l a b l e t o t r y on o t h e r c a t a l y s t hardened systems.
and e x p e r i m e n t a l l y , a s i m p l e approach was

adopted.

time

To study these problems

T h i s was

u s i n g the 1^

-31-

t o n c a p a c i t y v e h i c l e h y d r a u l i c j a c k as a method o f compacting
i n t h e mould.

The

i n i t i a l w e i g h t o f m a t e r i a l s were n o t e d and the

.compressed by pumping the h y d r a u l i c j a c k t o a s p e c i f i c h e i g h t .

was

the aggregates
aggregates

Then the gas

blown e i t h e r from the bottom upward o r t h e t o p downward,.as shown i n

photograph

34 and

35.

A f t e r a few u n s u c c e s s f u l a t t e m p t s , the f i n a l c h o i c e was

o f probe.
randomly

I t was

130 mm

w i t h 1 mm

extreme end was

i n l e n g t h , 5-6

mm

t o use one

size

i n t e r n a l d i a m e t e r and was p i e r c e d

d i a m e t e r f i n e h o l e s f r o m the t o p downward.

The o t h e r

s e a l e d t o m a i n t a i n a h i g h p r e s s u r e p r o f i l e downward.

A few s i m p l e comparisons o f the f e a s i b i l i t y o f t h e gassed specimens

r e s u l t e d showed t h a t the bottom g a s s i n g t e c h n i q u e was
and t h i s was

adopted.

the most s a t i s f a c t o r y

However, the l a c k o f permeable v o i d s i n the s o f t specimens"

made g a s s i n g an u n s a t i s f a c t o r y t e c h n i q u e w i t h these m a t e r i a l s and i t was

a f t e r s u f f i c i e n t e x p e r i e n c e had been g a i n e d . t o j u s t i f y
Expanded p e r l i t e , b e i n g h a r d e r and more a n g u l a r

this.
m a t e r i a l , although

t h a t i t r e q u i r e d more b i n d e r t h a n o t h e r , l e s s a n g u l a r aggregates, c o u l d
be a d e q u a t e l y gassed and gave adequate c o r e s t r e n g t h .
f a c t o n l y when eacy passage o f gas was
be e f f e c t i v e .

(See f i n d i n g s i n Chapter

available w i l l
8, P a r t I I ,

abandoned

T h i s demonstrated
the c h e m i c a l

still
the

bonding

for perlite-silicate

system).
To summarise, the Carbon d i o x i d e methods had t h e f o l l o w i n g drawbacks
(1)

No g u a r a n t e e o f good p e n e t r a t i o n o f gas i n t o the mix ( s o f t t y p e )

(2)

Wastage was

(3)

Gradual
the a i r .

high

l o s s o f s t r e n g t h as specimen absorded water vapour from

(Ref. 3 6 ) .

T h e r e f o r e , t h e Carbon-Dioxide
to provide r e l i a b l e reproducible

s i l i c a t e process was

strength

findings.

found very d o u b t f u l

-32-

' CHAPTER
' THE

MATERIALS

I t i s i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e approximate c o s t o f each m a t e r i a l
s h o u l d be checked and compared b e f o r e any d e c i s i o n i s made about t h e
s u i t a b i l i t y o f the material.

For i n s t a n c e , Sodium S i l i c a t e , a r a t h e r

cheap and abundant m a t e r i a l , would be an economical b i n d e r when used w i t h

sand because sand i s n o t e x p e n s i v e e i t h e r .

However, o t h e r a d m i x t u r e s o r

a g g r e g a t e s must be f o u n d w h i c h w i l l g i v e t h e p r o d u c t t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f
particular interest i n this project.

I n g e n e r a l , m a t e r i a l s a r e needed

t h a t a r e w i d e l y a v a i l a b l e and c h e m i c a l l y c o m p a t i b l e w i t h a l l o t h e r constituents.

Aggregates t h a t have good F i r e r a t i n g , L i g h t n e s s and low U

v a l u e w i l l be s e l e c t e d f o r s t u d y (F.L.U.)

M a t e r i a l s t h a t are w e l l estab-

l i s h e d , w h i c h may be mixed w i t h l i t t l e d i f f i c u l t y and have a l r e a d y

a t t r a c t e d commercial i n t e r e s t s a r e n o t s u b j e c t t o t h i s r e s e a r c h .

For

example, sand/sodium s i l i c a t e mixed w e l l t o g e t h e r i n t h e f o u n d r y i n d u s t r y .

O t h e r m a t e r i a l s t h a t have been f o u n d d i f f i c u l t
this investigation.

t o mix, w i l l be s u b j e c t t o

F o r example, paper pulps/cement can be mixed o n l y w i t h

g r e a t d i f f i c u l t y a t average water/cement r a t i o .
The p o s s i b i l i t y o f r e p l a c i n g cement g r o u t by sodium s i l i c a t e
would be an i n t e r e s t i n g s u b j e c t f o r i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
F i n a l l y , some u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f each
a g g r e g a t e , such as i t s a n g u l a r i t y , p o r o s i t y , hardness and s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y
are

(a)

o f some i m p o r t a n c e t o o .

The r u l e o f thumb i s :

t h e h a r d e r t h e m a t e r i a l t h e more d i f f i c u l t

i t i s t o be com-

p r e s s e d o r compacted.
(b)

Aggregate t h a t i s more porous tends t o be l e s s h a r d and e a s i l y

c r u s h e d t o powder by p r e s s u r e d u r i n g compaction.

-33-

Cc)

Lack o f roundness o f aggregates

w i l l r e q u i r e h i g h e r b i n d e r con-

t e n t t o g i v e s u f f i c i e n t c h e m i c a l bonding between two p a r t i c l e s .

(d)

Higher binder content w i l l r e s u l t i n a longer time f o r achieving

complete d e h y d r a t i o n , r e s u l t i n g i n poor e a r l y development i n
strength.

This chapter i s d i v i d e d i n t o three sections:

5.1

w i l l d e a l w i t h t h e t y p e s o f aggregates

used i n t h i s s t u d y .

are t a b u l a t e d and t h e reasons o f choosing p a r t i c u l a r

w i l l be d i s c u s s e d
5.2

w i l l be devoted

They

aggregates

later.

t o d e s c r i b i n g t h e v a r i o u s aspects o f u s i n g

a r t i f i c i a l f i l l e r s , ! c a t a l y s t s , c o n d i t i o n e r s and pozzolanas,

to

improve s e t t i n g r a t e and s t r e n g t h .
5.3

w i l l o u t l i n e t h e t y p e s o f I . C . I . Sodium S i l i c a t e b i n d e r used.
T h e i r advantages and l i m i t a t i o n s w i l l a l s o be

5.1

reviewed.

Aggregates
The

t y p e s o f aggregate

It is difficult

used i n t h i s work are t a b u l a t e d i n Table

5.1

t o o b t a i n up t o d a t e i n f o r m a t i o n about t h e e x a c t c o s t p e r

tonne o f each m a t e r i a l .

I n f o r m a t i o n , i f o b t a i n e d , w i l l soon be o u t o f

d a t e and w o u l d be u n r e a l i s t i c t o p r e s e n t t o t h e r e a d e r .
500 p e r tonne would be a v e r y o p t i m i s t i c

As a g u i d e ,

figure.

Expanded P e r l i t e i s t h e o n l y m a t e r i a l t h a t has t o r e l y
on o v e r s e a s s u p p l y

(Greece and I c e l a n d ) .

s i n g by T i l c o n i s c a l l e d PUMICE.

The

completely

raw m a t e r i a l b e f o r e p r o c e s -

This i s , e s s e n t i a l l y , a s o l i d i f i e d aerated

lava, usually acid i n c o n s t i t u e n t character

(Granitic).

The q u a l i t y o f pumice v a r i e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e season o f e r r u p t i o n

and a l s o depends on t h e g e o l o g i c a l r e g i o n o f t h e v o l c a n o .
the

For example,

Greek pumices are p u r e r and w h i t e r , and hence more expensive

than

-34-

Icelandic types.

One t h i n g d i s t i n c t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t between some pumice

and p e r l i t e i s i n t h e i r p o r e s t r u c t u r e s ;

where pumice has c l o s e d c e l l s ,

p e r l i t e on t h e o t h e r hand, has opened c e l l s

(interconnected). This

e x p l a i n s why p e r l i t e i s q u i t e ready t o absorb l i q u i d from t h e s u r r o u n d i n g s .

Because o f t h e i r porous n a t u r e , b o t h m a t e r i a l s a r e l i g h t , f i r e

resistant,

and have good t h e r m a l i n s u l a t i o n v a l u e .

The l i g h t e s t o f a l l aggregates

was expanded p o l y s t y r e n e beads.

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h i s m a t e r i a l has no f i r e r e s i s t i n g c a p a b i l i t y and s o f t e n s
o
a t 70 C.

I t has h i g h r e s i l i e n t q u a l i t y .

Other disadvantages

p o s s i b l e a t t a c k by some o r g a n i c s o l v e n t s .
d i s s o l v e d t h e beads w i t h i n an hour.

include i t s

I t was found t h a t D i a c e t i n

P o l y s t y r e n e c o n c r e t e has been used

s u c c e s s f u l l y i n l i g h t w e i g h t n o n - s t r u c t u r a l p a n e l s , f l o o r i n g d e s i g n , and
marine concrete

(Ref: 5 3 ) .

S e g g r e g a t i o n between t h e l i g h t e r beads and

h e a v i e r m o r t a r i s s t i l l a c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o b l e m t o be s o l v e d .
o f t h e f i n a l p r o d u c t i s a n o t h e r area o f concern.

Poor s t r e n g t h

I t was t h o u g h t t h a t by

v a r y i n g t h e c e m e n t / s i l i c a t e r a t i o s these problems can be t a c k l e d .

V e r m i c u l i t e has a l l t h e 'F.L.U.
i n the beginning o f t h i s chapter.
particle size.

advantages as p r e v i o u s l y d e f i n e d

I t resembles sawdust when a t same

I t w i l l be shown l a t e r , by e x p e r i e n c e , t h a t t h i s m a t e r i a l

p r o v e d t o be t h e e a s i e s t t o h a n d l e , t o compact, and has s t r e n g t h from

moderate t o h i g h v a l u e s .
Expanded p e r l i t e , expanded p o l y s t y r e n e beads and e x f o l i a t e d
v e r m i c u l i t e a r e used s u c c e s s f u l l y i n l i g h t w e i g h t c o n c r e t e .

The m a t e r i a l s

are e a s i l y o b t a i n a b l e and have met most o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s p r e v i o u s l y

defined i n the beginning o f t h i s chapter.

(F.L.U.)

Paper p u l p s , when r e c y c l e d , a r e o n l y used by t h e paper m i l l as

a secondary f i b r e .

The b e s t optimum w a t e r c o n t e n t found by Scapa

E n g i n e e r i n g L t d . was 4o-50%.

T h i s enabled t h e compressed p u l p s t o be

-35-

h a n d l e d w i t h , l i t t l e breakdown d u r i n g t r a n s p o r t a t i o n .

However, t h e p u l p s

we r e c e i v e d f r o m SCAPA c o n t a i n e d some 60-70% w a t e r c o n t e n t , which

highly undesirable.

was

But t o enable p a r a l l e l s t u d y w i t h o t h e r f o u r t y p e s

o f aggregate. , i t was

d e c i d e d t o oven-dry t h e p u l p s b e f o r e t h e y were

mixed w i t h s i l i c a t e .

L a t e r i n t h e s t u d y t h e optimum w a t e r c o n t e n t r e q u i r e d

t o be mixed w i t h a t y p e o f s i l i c a t e w i l l be examined.
c h o o s i n g paper p u l p s was

t h e o b v i o u s one.

The reason f o r

Today paper r e c y c l i n g i s a f a s t

expanding b u s i n e s s .
F i n a l l y , reasons f o r c h o o s i n g V a c u - b l a s t beads were:
(1)

Economy

(2)

Very h i g h S i 0

(3)

H a r d e s t among t h e o t h e r f o u r a g g r e g a t e s .

content

As e x p l a i n e d e a r l i e r , c e r t a i n c h e m i c a l s t h a t a r e p r e s e n t t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e
m a t e r i a l , may

e i t h e r speed up t h e s e t t i n g t i m e , o r r e t a r d i t .

SiO^ c o n t e n t

i n t h e sand i s b e l i e v e d t o be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e r a p i d s e t t i n g i n the
sand/silicate/C0

5*2

process.

Binders
Three t y p e s o f I . C . I , sodium s i l i c a t e were used i n t h i s s t u d y .

They were P84

The

(silicious),

C112

( a l k a l i n e ) and K95

(moderate).

c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n o f these b i n d e r s i a t a b u l a t e d i n Table

5.2

There were s e v e r a l q u i t e d i f f e r e n t reasons f o r choosing these

binders.

One

o f t h e reasons was

t h e recommendation o f I . C . I .

O t h e r s , as

a l r e a d y mentioned e a r l i e r i n Chapter 2, are t o do w i t h t h e p r o p e r t i e s and

behaviour.

The more s i l i c i o u s m a t e r i a l ,

g i v e s more e l a s t i c b o n d i n g .

(e.g. P84), d r i e s q u i c k e r and

On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e a l k a l i n e t y p e , (C112),

e x h i b i t s bondings t h a t are l e s s e l a s t i c and are more s o l u b l e i n w a t e r t h a n

t h e s i l i c i o u s t y p e , e.g.

P84.

-36tn

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-37-

Grade

Weight R a t i o
S i 0 : Na 0
2

Molecular R a t i o
SiO : Na0
2
2

S p e c i f i c Gravity
Degree Baume

Approximate
Viscosity at
20C(centipoisesf

A140

1.6

1.65

59.5

25,000

C140

2.0

2.05

59.5

90,000

C125

2.0

2.05

55.8

4,500

C112

2.0

2.05

51.8

850

C100

2.0

2.05

48.1

200

E100

2.2

2.28

48.1

220

HlOO

2.4

2.50

48.1

310

H112

2.4

2.50

51.8

2,500

K95

2.7

2.80

46.7

350

L96

2.85

2.95

46.8

500

M75

2.9

3.0

39.4

100

P84

3.2

3.3

42.7

850

Q79

3.3

3.4

40.8

350

1 p o i s e = 100 c e n t i p o i s e .
of 1 c e n t i p o i s e .

Water has absolute

O l i v e O i l has a v i s c o s i t y of 84 c e n t i p o i s e ,
o

C a s t o r O i l has a v i s c o s i t y of 990 c e n t i p o i s e
The

Table 5.2

pH

viscosity

( a l l a t 20 C) .

o f Sodium S i l i c a t e S o l u t i o n s l i e i n the range 1 0 - 1 2 .

Some T y p i c a l Data f o r the Grades of S i l i c a t e

made by I . C . I .

(Ref': 48)

-38-

5.3

F i l l e r s and

hardeners

I n t h e c o n c r e t e b l o c k m a n u f a c t u r i n g i n d u s t r y , t h e use o f a' f i l l e r ,
such as P u l v e r i z e d ash, has two r o l e s ?

t o reduce t h e P o r t l a n d Cement

r e q u i r e m e n t and t o p r o v i d e a f i n e i n e r t f i l l e r .

A hardener,

o r sometimes

c a l l e d c a t a l y s t , i s an a g e n t t h a t a c c e l e r a t e s c e r t a i n chemical r e a c t i o n s .
J u s t as cement can be i n o r g a n i c and o r g a n i c , hardeners
c l a s s i f i e d as i n o r g a n i c and o r g a n i c .
and gas.

f o r s i l i c a t e are a l s o

They t a k e t h e forms o f powder, l i q u i d

For example, an e s t e r ( o r g a n i c ) i s i n l i q u i d f o r m , most c a l c i u m

s a l t s a r e i n powder and CC^ i s a gas o b t a i n e d from p r e s s u r i s e d c y l i n d e r s .

I n C h a p t e r 2, S e c t i o n 3 and S e c t i o n 4
h a r d e n i n g o f s i l i c a t e has been d i s c u s s e d .

t h e mechanism i n v o l v e d i n t h e

D u r i n g t h e chemical r e a c t i o n

c e r t a i n h a r m l e s s b y - p r o d u c t s , l i k e w a t e r and gas, s h o u l d be c o n t r o l l e d t o
the

minimum.

A r a p i d l o s s o f w a t e r f r o m t h e g e l w i l l cause a s e r i o u s

s h r i n k a g e problem.
the

Massive p r o d u c t i o n o f gas w i l l subsequently

amount o f t r a p p e d a i r i n t h e s e t g e l .

critically

increase

I n b o t h cases.- s t r e n g t h w i l l

be

reduced.

I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t t h e speed o f s e t t i n g t h e s i l i c a t e i s
independent

o f the f i n a l s t r e n g t h .

For more r e a c t i v e response, t h e

s t r e n g t h can be h i g h e r t h a n t h e l e s s r e a c t i v e ones.
showed by o t h e r suggested

initial

However, experience

t h a t t h e f i n a l s t r e n g t h o f a speedy r e a c t i o n t y p e

i s e x p e c t i n g t o be l o w e r t h a n t h e m i l d e r r e a c t i o n t y p e . (Ref. 36

).

t h i s r e a s o n , t h e r e q u i r e d p r o p o r t i o n o f a f i l l e r and a c a t l y s t can be
It will

For
vital.

be shown l a t e r t h a t t h e amount used o f a f i l l e r and a hardener i s

r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e s t i f f n e s s and compressive s t r e n g t h o f t h e end p r o d u c t .

The

s i m p l e g e l t e s t suggested

by Ref. t 3

was

adopted.

For most p r e -

p a r a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s , an i n i t i a l g e l t i m e o f f i f t e e n minutes, was
for

p r a c t i c a l reasons.
Table

5.3

'

shows t h e l i s t o f f i l l e r s and hardeners

comments f o r t h e i r

use.

acceptable

used and t h e g e n e r a l

-39-

T a b l e 5.3
L i s t o f m a t e r i a l s used.
F i l l e r or
Hardener

Name

General comments f o r i t s use

B u r n t Lime,
CaO

F + H

100% p a s s i n g 3mm, 40% p a s s i n g 150 microns.

A c t i v e CaO c o n t e n t about 92%. Colour White

H y d r a t e d Lime,
Ca(OH)

F + H

95% p a s s i n g

75 m i c r o n s .

Colour w h i t e

Leighton
Sand

Buzzard

850

V a c u - B l a s t Beads
( S o l i d Glass
Spheres,S.G.S.)

A t y p e o f soda-lime g l a s s bubble.
Bulk d e n s i t y
about 1500 Kg/m^. P a r t i c l e r a n g i n g from 400 t o
600 m i c r o n s , and 55-100 microns.
Softening
p o i n t a t 730C. 9.15 p e r 25 kg. C o l o u r l e s s .
L a r g e l y used i n i m p a c t f i n i s h i n g i n d u s t r y .

Cenospheres
(p.f.a.)

F + H

A t y p e o f s i l i c e o u s and aluminous m a t e r i a l . No
f i r e r e s i s t a n c e . S p h e r i c a l , mean diameter o f
100 urn, a p p a r e n t d e n s i t y 500 kg/m^. Cost
v i r t u a l l y n o t h i n g . Grey i n c o l o u r .

A.M.I. Armospheres
(Hollow Glass
Sphere,H.G.S.)

F + H

M a j o r i t y o f t h e b a l l o o n s f a l l i n g i n t h e 80-100
micron s i z e . Also r i c h i n s i l i c e o u s content.
Grey i n c o l o u r .

t o 1200 m i c r o n s , p a r t i c l e s i z e .

SECAR
250

A t y p e o f h i g h a l u m i n a cement. Very r i c h i n
aluminous c o n t e n t . White i n c o l o u r .

DIACETIN
(DIA)

Leek's O r g a n i c e s t e r , C o l o u r l e s s . A t t a c k p o l y s t y r e n e beads. Most r e a c t i v e t y p e . 600-800

per m e t r i c t o n .

TRIACETIN
(TRI)

Leek's Organic e s t e r , c o l o u r l e s s . 600-800 p e r

metric ton.

Ethylene Glycol
Mono A c e t a t e
(E.G.M.A.)

Leek's o r g a n i c e s t e r , c o l o u r l e s s , E600-E800
per metric t o n .

Ethylene Glycol
Diacetin(E.G.D.A.)

Leek's Organic e s t e r , c o l o u r l e s s . The l e a s t

r e a c t i v e t y p e . 600-800 p e r m e t r i c t o n .

Carbon D i o x i d e (CO
Ashland Organic
E s t e r s 3300 & 4000

R221

& R222

PENTRON-ON

2>

D i s t i l l e r ' s type. I n pressurised c y l i n d e r .

B a s i c a l l y s i m i l a r t o t h e Leek's t y p e mentioned
above. An American p r o d u c t , hence expected t o
be more expensive t h a n Leek's. C o l o u r l e s s i n
l i q u i d form.

Conditioner
(liquid)

I . C I . Masonry Water r e p e l l e n t s . Compatible w i t h

a l l s i l i c a t e and i n c r e a s e i n s o l u b i l i t y o f t h e
g e l . Very expensive m a t e r i a l .

Conditioner
(liquid)

A.B.M. Chemical's t y p e . An a n i o n i c s u r f a c e agent,

t h e sodium s a l t o f 2 e t h y l h e x y l s u l p h a t e .
I t is
b a s i c a l l y assemble t o washing-up l i q u i d (hence
cheap), w h i c h i s b e l i e v e d t o be t h e i n i t i a t o r .
Foam l i f e i s a f f e c t e d by t h e a l k a l i n i t y o f t h e
s i l i c a t e ( r e d u c e d ) . I t can i n c r e a s e t h e worka b i l i t y o f the mixture.

-40-

CHAPTER 6

TRIAL

6.1

MIX DESIGN

Introduction
Paper pulp aggregate was i n t i a l l y chosen f o r mixing w i t h s i l i c a t e

binder.

This i s because the department had been offered a large supply

of the m a t e r i a l by a commercial undertaking which planned t o construct

a p l a n t f o r the r e c y l i n g of waste paper nearby.

This promised supply

never m a t e r i a l i s e d , however, so t h a t other aggregates were sought and used,

even though f u t u r e prospects o f paper-pulp p e l l e t s may be a t t r a c t i v e .
Laboratory t r i a l s were attempted t o produce paper pulp from waste
hand-towels obtained from various places w i t h i n the department.

A Hobarrt

mincer was borrowed t o t r y t o break down the paper f i b r e and hopefully

t o compress i n t o paper p e l l e t s .

The attempts were unsuccessful because

there was n o t enough power t o compress and c u t down the paper i n t o pulp.
I t was f i n a l l y decided t o use shredded paper as raw m a t e r i a l .

I t was

hoped t h a t by b o i l i n g the shredded paper and f u r t h e r soaking f o r about

one day, t h a t the d i f f i c u l t i e s would be overcome.

Later i t was found and

proved t h a t t h e Hobarrt mincer was s t i l l incapable o f handling paper.

As paper pulp was n o t a v a i l a b l e as promised, an attempt was made
t o f i n d mixes t h a t would produce s i m i l a r r e s u l t s w i t h available

materials.

This brought o u t the need t o develop mixes which would s a t i s f y the same
requirements - l i g h t w e i g h t , good i n s u l a t i o n , s u f f i c i e n t shear s t i f f n e s s
and r e p e a t a b i l i t y , and would be s u i t a b l e f o r a s i m i l a r range o f assessment
t e s t s , as would have s u i t e d the p a p e r / s i l i c a t e .

6.2

Gel t e s t s
This t e s t was intended t o f i n d o u t the time required t o g e l the

sodium s i l i c a t e s o l u t i o n by a given c a t a l y s t .

The g e l time i s d i r e c t l y

-41-

r e l a t e d t o the type o f s i l i c a t e used and t o the q u a n t i t y o f the hardener

employed.

For a known s i l i c a t e , 100 gm o f t h i s s o l u t i o n was mixed w i t h

10 gm o f a given c a t a l y s t suggested p r e v i o u s l y i n Chapter 5. Gel time

was taken as the time r e q u i r e d t o stop f l u i d from pouring from the corner
of the container.
surface.

By experience, s e m i - r i g i d g e l was formed on the top

The f i n a l - s e t time was the time taken when the gel changed com-

pletely into solid.

The f i n a l colour o f the s o l i d depended very much on

the o r i g i n a l colour o f the c a t a l y s t i t s e l f .

hour was discarded.
the c a t a l y s t .

Gel time greater than one

The t e s t was repeated by increasing the amount o f

Catalysts t h a t had been t r i e d and found s a t i s f a c t o r y are

t a b u l a t e d i n Table 6. 1

Some c a t a l y s t s were known t o be unsuitable under

the c o n d i t i o n s o f the t e s t , and would have proved unsuitable i n p r a c t i c e .

This was demonstrated

i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y before the materials were rejected.

6.3 Some examples o f the mixes

Example 1:

Perlite/Cl12/C0

The aggregate was expanded p e r l i t e and the s i l i c a t e used was

I . C . I . C112 grade.

The c a t a l y s t was CC^ gas.

The aggregates were sieved

mechanically and c o l l e c t e d as + 300 urn, +600 um and +850 urn.

The volume o f the aggregate was measured from a beaker and the
volume o f s i l i c a t e used was also noted.
p o r t a b l e e l e c t r i c mixer.
(1)

The mixing was done by a small

Two problems arose during mixing.

They were:

The aggregates absorbed q u i t e r e a d i l y the s i l i c a t e present. For

t h i s reason, the f i n a l required s i l i c a t e content was high i n
order t o give a s u f f i c i e n t l y wet mix.

(2)

Aggregates were found broken i n t o smaller pieces and f o r t h i s

reason, mixing had t o be c a r r i e d out w i t h e x t r a care.

-42-

The mixture was t r a n s f e r r e d i n t o the 2" diameter mould and f i n a l l y

compacted.

The AFS sand rammer was used.

This rammer i s widely used

i n the foundry f o r compacting s a n d / s i l i c a t e mixture.

A f t e r some exper-

ience i t was found t h a t t h i s rammer was n o t s u i t a b l e .

Larger p a r t i c l e s

were n o t s u i t a b l y and e a s i l y compacted by a 14 pound

weight rammer

dropping from a height o f approximately -6 inches.

However, some samples

were compacted and gassed by CO^. Table 6.2 shows the f i n d i n g s .

I t was

discovered t h a t the +300 (smallest) gave higher strength than the others.
As most of the p a r t i c l e rangings f e l l i n +2400 region (see
Appendix f o r p a r t i c l e d i s t r i b u t i o n ) , i t was decided t o carry out t e s t s
using +2400 p e r l i t e .
weight.

This time the analysis was c a r r i e d out completely by

This made i t possible t o f i n d the a c t u a l binder content used by

weight. Table 6.3 shows the f i n d i n g s .

The A.F.3. rammer was again used.

Example 2: Monsanto Beads/C112/C0

The beads were unexpanded.

Again, the A.F.S. hammer was used.

As

the beads were very much harder than p e r l i t e , s a t i s f a c t o r y compaction would

have been achieved more r e a d i l y by v i b r a t i o n .
findings.

Table 6.4 summarises the

CO^ flow r a t e a t 34 l i t / m i n and a t 20 p . s . i ,

I n the above s e r i e s o f t e s t s (Example 2 ) , there was doubt about

the p e n e t r a t i o n o f CO t o the mixture evently. For t h i s reason, an organic
c a t a l y s t was used.
Table

The A.F. . rammer was used f o r compacting the p a r t i c l e s .

6.5shows the f i n d i n g s .

Example 3:

+1200 Shell/C112/C0

'

Expanded polystyrene beads of +1200 jam were supplied by S h e l l

Petrochemical

(U.K.) L i m i t e d . Aggregates containing p a r t i c l e s t h a t

are l a r g e r than 1.2 mm were found u n s u i t a b l e . This i s because the r e s i l i e n t

-4 3-

property of the beads prevented the beads from being stuck together by
the s i l i c a t e .

Experience showed t h a t n e i t h e r dynamic nor v i b r a t i o n

compaction was appropriate.

S t a t i c ompaction by applying heavy loads

on top of the specimen showed some e l i m i n a t i o n of the r e s i l i e n t

recovery of the beads. Table 6.6 shows the f i n d i n g s .
The above examples suggest t h a t strength i s r e l a t e d t o the method
of compaction.

Other f a c t o r s are the a n g u l a r i t y and size of the aggregates

and t h e i r hardness.

The CO^ process was found t o give much b e t t e r strength

development than the organic-ester method.

Monsanto beads were found

unsuitable f o r s t a b i l i z a t i o n by sodium s i l i c a t e .
dense specimen y e t very weak i n strength.

They formed a very

Unless the method of compaction

i s modified f o r +1200 expanded polystyrene beads, there i s l i t t l e hope f o r

expecting any cohesion among p a r t i c l e s by the presence of sodium s i l i c a t e
binder.

The examples demonstrate t h a t the choice of method of compaction,

f o r example, whether i t should be dynamic or s t a t i c , w i l l depend on the

type of aggregate t o be used.

-44-

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a 3 i 3

O (X o

in

GO

IM

o
o

ii

<U

1-1

0.

n:

o
u
o

Ul

13 O "3
o ui in in
CM <
u 0)

CK

<0

11

in
U

01
U

p-

o ai
c
in d)

id

-0

o
o

o
u

y
s

o 01
41 c

o
rsi

WflJin
E-

>.

CD

2
-

0
o
rH

O 13
^ a

0)

1c3
HI

S in
B

0
0

TJ
C

CI
Ct) r-l
as in

-45-

Table 6.2

Perllte/Cll-2/CO
C0 flow r a t e = 34 l i t / m i n . a t 20 p s i

Particle
size
(um)

+ 300

Perlite/
C112
(by vol.)

C0 gasstime
(sec)

33 : 1

30

51.6 : 1

30

53.3 : 1

30

15.3 : 1

Age a t
test
(day)

No. o f
blows o f
hammer

Height o f
specimen/
diameter
ratio

(N/mm )

1.1

0.46

0.7

0.89

1.0

0.49

30

0.6

0.09

15 : 1

30

0.9

0.07

24.6 : 1

30

1.0

0.22

24.6 : 1

30

'5

0.9

0.58

10 : 1

30

0.6

0.15

16 : 1

30

0.6

0.14

16.5 : 1

30

0.6

0.23

+ 600

+ 850

Comp.
Strength

-46-

Table 6. 3:

+ 2400 Perlite/Cll-2/CO

CO. flow r a t e a t 34 l i t / m i n and a t 20 p s i

Perlite/
C112
(by wt.)

C0

gasstime
(sec)
2

Age a t
test
(day)

129 gm/
255 gm

No o f
blows

0.5

30

" 1079

1.2

Comp.
Strength
(N/mm*)

0.10

990

0.04

66

30

Bulk
Binder
Content, density
Kg/m
% by wt.

0.8

1
0.5

Height/
diameter
ratio

1.1

1054

0.05

0.9

590

0.11

0.7

585

.0.17

0.7

573

0.16

568

0.10

1.0

66

1-2

592

0.07

1.1

600

0.08

where:
Binder Content

wt. o f S i l i c a t e Binder
wt. o f S i l i c a t e Binder + wt. o f Aggregate

100%

-47-

Table 6.4: + 850 M0NSANT0/C112/C0

Monsanto/Cll2
by wt.

CO^ gass- Age

(day)
time
(sec)

No. o f
blows

Height/
Diameter
ratio

Comp.
Bulk
Binder
Content Density Strength
% by wt. Kg/m
(N/ram )

797/76
= 10.5

30

1.5

8.7

717

0. 13

704

0. 18

702

0. 16

0. 13t

797/117
= 6.8

30

1.0

13

612

0. 3 7

0. 3 7

0. 41 c

without C0

w i t h o u t capping
w i t h wooden cappings
w i t h cinter-brass cappings

-48-

Table 6 . 5 : + 850 MONSANTO/Cl12/EGMA

Monsanto/
C112
(by wt.)

EGMA Age No. o f

(gm) (day) blows

Height/ Binder
Bulk
Diameter Content Density
r a t i o % by wt. Kg/m
3

797/119
=

6.7

1.0

13

1389

Coinp.
Strength
(N/mm^)

Curing
Method

0.09

Baked a t
70C f o r
18 h r s .
then
followed
by a i r
drying

0.07
0.07

0.03
6.7

1.0

13

1389

0.01
0.01

0.06
6.7

11

1.0

13

1389

0.03
0.06

Baked a t
70C f o r
lk hrs.
then
followed
by a i r
drying

-49-

Table 6.6:

+ 1200 Shell/Cll2/C0

CO^ flow r a t e a t 34 l i t / m i n a t 20 p s i
30 pound dead load was applied on the top
of the specimen.

During t h i s process, some

binder was l o s t due t o squeezing

effect

by the load.

Shell/Cll2
(by wt.)

CC>2 gasstime
(sec.)

Age
(day)

Bulk
Density
Kg/in
3

Binder
Content
(% by wt.)

0.0094

53/196
= 0.27

Comp.
Strength
N/mm

30

110

78

0.0074
0.0094
0.0062
0.0064
0.0046

Av.

0.0072

-50-

CHAPTER 7

TEST EQUIPMENT

7.1

Introduction
As described e a r l i e r i n Chapter 6, expanded p e r l i t e , unexpanded

beads and expanded polystyrene beads range from hard spherical p a r t i c l e s

to

s o f t grannular ones.

The choice o f compaction f o r s o f t m a t e r i a l , l i k e

expanded polystyrene beads, would be e i t h e r by the use o f dropping a

dead weight (dynamic method) o r by a s t a t i c loading method, f o r example,
using a h y d r a u l i c loading method.
The, i d e a l stage o f compaction would be when aggregates achieved
good i n t e r l o c k i n g by a mechanical means as w e l l as good bonding strength
achieved a t adjacent aggregate p a r t i c l e s by the assistance o f a chemical
binder.

The p h y s i c a l (mechanical) bonding i s predominantly important when

chemical r e a c t i o n i s s t i l l progressing t o achieve stronger bonds. A

device was, t h e r e f o r e , needed which would be able t o provide good mechanical
compaction w h i l e chemical bonding by s i l i c a t e was s t i l l taking place.
Several devices were suggested and t r i e d i n the laboratory.
performances ranged from unacceptable t o acceptable l e v e l .

Their

They were:-

(i)

A.F.S. sand rammer,

(ii)

BS 812.. Aggregate Impact t e s t apparatus

(iii)

BS 1377 Standard compaction apparatus

(iv)

S t a t i c loading using a mechanical loading device designed f o r use

in

(i)

s o i l mechanics

testing.

The A.F.S. sand rammer was designed s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r the foundry

i n d u s t r y where sand and s i l i c a t e mixture can be r e a d i l y compacted i n t o

2" by 2" specimens.

This method i s very u s e f u l f o r aggregates having

about the same p a r t i c l e size and hardness as sand.

to

The basic p r i n c i p l e i s

allow a dead weight o f a 14 pound rammer t o drop from a height of

-51-

s i x inches. The degree of compaction i s achieved by varying the number

of drops of t h i s rammer.

(ii) & ( i i i )
BS1377 suggests two dynamic methods; by allowing a 2.5 Kg rammer
or a 4.5 Kg rammer t o drop from a s p e c i f i e d height.

The apparatus

resembles the B r i t i s h Standard Aggregate Impact t e s t e r .

For the purpose

of s o i l , t h i s device enables the dry density moisture content r e l a t i o n s h i p

t o be found.

This was a more a t t r a c t i v e apparatus because i t provided

much higher dynamic impact pressure than the A.F.S. sand rammer method.
Another advantage was i t s ample space a t the base p l a t e where the s t e e l
mould i s clamped.

For t h i s reason one can envisage t h a t the rammer may

be modified t o enable an annular specimen t o be s a t i s f a c t o r i l y

compacted.

This has important i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r l a t e r work i n t h i s p r o j e c t .

(iv)

BS1377 Unconfined compression apparatus s t i l l remains an

e f f e c t i v e means o f determining the shear strength of s o i l s - which are

taken from shallow bore holes or t r i a l p i t s during the design of roads,
runways and l i g h t b u i l d i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n .

This apparatus u t i l i s e s a

10 kN (2250 l b f ) capacity mechanical load frame which can be supplied

e i t h e r hand operated or motorised. The load frame was i d e a l l y 'suited
f o r the compaction o f silicated-aggregates as w e l l as f o r carrying out
the unconfined compression t e s t .

This device, as w i l l be discussed i n

the next ^section, was l a t e r adopted t o compact most silicate/aggregate

mixes.

Samples were then s t r i p p e d and tested i n unconfined compression,

using the same loading frame.

With^ve^ry l i t t l e improvement of t h i s

apparatus, i t w i l l be shown i n the next s e c t i o n how i t was also adopted

t o f i n d the shear modulus of an annular specimen by two methods.

-52-

7.2

A.F.S. Sand Rammer ( D i e t e r t Design) with, accessories

The A.F.S. stands f o r American Foundry Standard.

This rammer

i s intended f o r standard s t r e n g t h t e s t under compression o f a 2" by 2"

s a n d / s i l i c a t e specimen.

Because sand i s r e l a t i v e l y harder and more uniform

i n shape than some o f the s o f t , grannular m a t e r i a l s such as expanded p e r l i t e

and expanded v e r m i c u l i t e , there i s no d i f f i c u l t y i n compacting

satisfac-

t o r i l y by a small e f f o r t and hence a small rammer.

The general i n s t r u c t i o n concerning the use o f t h i s rammer has
been discussed p r e v i o u s l y , but a more d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n should be cons u l t e d i n the Appendix.
As sand was not the i n t e r e s t o f t h i s work, one can envisage many
disadvantages and problems a r i s i n g when using i t f o r compacting materials
other than sand.

One o f the major

reasons f o r abandoning t h i s appartus

was t h a t i t l e f t no choice f o r one t o prepare annular specimens f o r

t o r s i o n and shear t e s t s , two methods of obtaining the shear modulus.
This was an important aspect o f t h i s study.

For t h i s reason, i t cannot

be regarded as s a t i s f y i n g standard laboratory needs i n t h i s work.

7.3

M o d i f i c a t i o n s t o the Aggregate Impact Tester

The o b j e c t i v e when working w i t h t h i s piece o f apparatus was t o

design a dynamic compaction device t o compact s o f t materials i n a mould

( e i t h e r made from perspex or s t e e l ) , w i t h b e t t e r compactive e f f o r t than
can be achieved by the A.F.S. rammer.
The f i r s t , simple m o d i f i c a t i o n o f the standard design enables
specimens t o be compacted, gassed and r e a d i l y removed from the base plate-.
A second rammer w i t h a hollow section was designed so t h a t
specimens can be prepared f o r shear or t o r s i o n t e s t s .
d e t a i l i n g s are shown i n the Appendix.

The features and

-53-

Major d i f f i c u l t i e s encountered were;

(i)

I t was found t o be impossible t o compact expanded polystyrene beads

satisfactorily.

This was mainly due t o the high recover or r e s i l i e n t

nature o f the beads.

This c h a r a c t e r i s t i c made i t impossible, i n p r a c t i c e ,

t o form the specimens so t h a t the ends were p a r a l l e l and l e v e l l e d w i t h the

platens o f the compression t e s t e r .

Clamps were designed i n which the ends

of the specimen could be made smooth and p a r a l l e l a f t e r compaction.

Other

methods, such as applying s t a t i c loads on the top of the mould, a l l proved

very i n e f f i c i e n t .

(ii)

. A t high binder content, losses o f s i l i c a t e gels o f t e n occurred.

The impact load forced the f l u i d t o e j e c t from the ends o f the mould. The
loss o f gels was h i g h l y undesirable because the actual amount o f gels l e f t
p r i o r t o hardening was d i f f i c u l t t o determine.

This o f t e n occurred w i t h

p o l y s t y r e n e / s i l i c a t e mix as expanded polystyrene beads are h i g h l y impermeable

and do not absorb any f l u i d or moiture e a s i l y .

(iii)

The s e t t i n g times o f gels have t o be chosen so t h a t s u f f i c i e n t time

i s allowed f o r the formation and compaction o f the specimen.

Gel times o f

30 minutes t o one hour were found t o be s u i t a b l e .

(iv)

The number o f drops (or number o f blows) o f rammer was high f o r s o f t

materials.

This caused p h y s i c a l exhaustion i n the operator.

For example,

7 t o 20 blows a t a constant drop height.

(v)

The present design d i d not provide an easy adjustment towards the

c o n t r o l o f h e i g h t o f the rammer.

(vi)

There was a s i g n i f i c a n t loss i n compaction energy during each drop

of rammer.

E f f i c i e n t compaction i s not r e a d i l y obtainable using t h i s

dynamics compaction technique w i t h s o f t granular m a t e r i a l s .

-54-

I t was
relatively

found t h a t s p e c i m e n s

p r e p a r e d by t h i s

apparatus

have

low s t r e n g t h , u n l e s s t h e r e q u i r e d number o f blows be

drastically

increased.

W i t h h a r d e r m a t e r i a l s , f o r e x a m p l e , expanded p e r l i t e ,

t r o u b l e was

e x p e r i e n c e i n o b t a i n i n g good c o m p a c t i o n e f f o r t

of

blows.

The

s t e e l mould was

no

w i t h a low number

p r e f e r r e d t o t h e p e r s p e x mould f o r h a r d e r

materials.

T h i s i s because

to

a l a r g e b u r s t i n g f o r c e on t h e mould, w h e r e a s t h e r e s i l i e n c e

generate

h a r d e r m a t e r i a l s c o u l d be compacted w e l l enough

the s o f t e r m a t e r i a l s prevented
was

this.

For t h i s reason, the perspex

n o t u s e d f o r expanded p e r l i t e / s i l i c a t e mix,

this

of

mould

i s t o a v o i d damage t o

t h e mould.
The
diameter

r e a s o n s f o r c h o o s i n g p e r s p e x moulds were t h a t t h e y were 2" i n n e r

and

transparent.

T h e r e f o r e the i n s t a n t c a l c u l a t i o n of the bulk

d e n s i t y c a n be c a r r i e d o u t b e c a u s e

t h e volume c o u l d be

p r o v i d e d e a s y a c c e s s f o r the c o n t r o l of specimen
s t a t e of the compaction e f f o r t
c r a c k s c a n be
the l o c a l
of

s p o t t e d more e a s i l y .

difference

blows.

The

c a n be p r e v i e w e d .

assessed.

They a l s o

height to 4 inches.

I n some c a s e s , c o m p a c t i o n

C o m p a c t i o n c r a c k s were formed due

i n d e n s i t y and m o i s t u r e

to

c o n t e n t a t v e r y h i g h numbers

c r a c k s were l a r g e enough t o be v i s i b l e and o c c u r r e d

along the p l a n e of the specimen.

The

radially

When s t a t i c l o a d s were a p p l i e d , p e r s p e x

2
h a d b e e n t e s t e d up t o 1.5
w i t h o u t any

7.4

c l i p s on t h e o u t e r w a l l .

C o m p a c t i o n Method

two methods, by A.F.S. and t h e m o d i f i e d a g g r e g a t e

a p p a r a t u s both have t h e i r
good c o m p a c t i o n .

The

limitations.

results

h i g h b i n d e r c o n t e n t was

impact

They d i d n o t f a c i l i t a t e

of s t r e n g t h t e s t s

r e q u i r e d because

w i t h the aggregate p a r t i c l e s .
of

o f i n t e r n a l p r e s s u r e (or moulding p r e s s u r e )

r e i n f o r c e m e n t by c i r c u l a r h c o s e

Final
The

N/mm

l a t e r suggested

sufficiently
that very

of the poor compaction a c h i e v e d

To p r o v i d e a d e q u a t e v o i d - f i l l i n g ,

b i n d e r c o n t e n t would h a v e b e e n r e q u i r e d .

At such high b i n d e r

40%-50%
content,

-55-

loss o f sodium s i l i c a t e during dynamic compaction usually occurred. For

t h i s reason, s t r e n g t h t e s t r e s u l t s gave poor r e p e a t a b i l i t y .
As the number o f drops o f the rammer are d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o
the compactive e f f o r t , the dynamic energy can also be r e l a t e d t o the
equivalent s t a t i c energy.

I t was decided f i n a l l y t o use the BS1377

unconfined compression apparatus as the f i n a l choice f o r the specimen's

compaction.
The motive power f o r applying pressure can be e i t h e r e l e c t r i c a l ,
at uniform s t r a i n r a t e , or manual.. .Good r e p e a t a b i l i t y was achieved and
t h e r e f o r e the number o f specimens required t o obtain r e l i a b l e r e s u l t s was
g r e a t l y reduced.
The present moulding pressure (or forming pressure) can be operated
2
from 0.0 t o 4.9 N/mm

( 0.0 t o 715 p s i ) .

Provided t h a t the maximum applied

load does not exceed the allowable load of the proving r i n g and the mould
sustained t h i s pressure. Proving r i n g of 1 tonne (1000 kg) capacity was
found more than adequate f o r compressing s o f t materials i n the perspex
mould.
7.5

Compression Tester
This device, the BS 1377 unconfined compression apparatus, i s a

simple t e s t f o r f i n d i n g the strength of the m a t e r i a l , and can be made t o

give a rough idea of the modulus, E.

The loading rate f o r u n i a x i a l -

unconfined - compression t e s t on c y l i n d r i c a l a specimen was 1.125 mm/min.

Another advantage of t h i s simple device was i t s use i n f i n d i n g the
shear modulus, G, of,.the specimen.

There were two proposed methods of

f i n d i n g G from the same specimen.

The f i r s t one was obtained by a x i a l

shearing and the other was by t o r s i o n .

When the specimen was applied

under shear or t o r s i o n , there i s a method of obtaining i t s shear modulus.

-56-

The

s i l i c a t e mixture was

s t a t i c compression.

f i r s t p l a c e d i n the mould and compacted by

The r e q u i r e d p r e s s u r e was noted.

A f t e r the elapse

of a given dwell time a t a given p r e s s u r e , the specimen was

and s t o r e d .

T h i s specimen was

s t r e n g t h and E.

extracted

l a t e r used f o r f i n d i n g the compressive

To f i n d the shear modulus, a d i f f e r e n t specimen had

be prepared by s l i g h t m o d i f i c a t i o n on the compactive rammer.

For

to

preparing

a shear specimen, the rammer had to be hollow so as to accommodation the

s t e e l rod

(plunger).

T h i s s p e c i a l l y d r i l l e d rammer was

the mixture, while the s t e e l rod was

apparatus was

loaded on top of

standing upright i n the mould.

The

c a r e f u l l y designed so t h a t the f r i c t i o n between the mould

and the rammer, and between the rammer and the plunger, were kept to a
minimum.

A f t e r s u c c e s s i v e a p p l i c a t i o n of loads, the charged mould was

s t o r e d f o r one day.

The mould together with the plunger, which was

out from the rim of the mould, was

tester.;

The

load was

c a r e f u l l y p l a c e d on the compression

gently a p p l i e d i n i t i a l l y by manual means u n t i l con-

t a c t between the p l a t e n of the proving

was

achieved.

Then the t e s t e r was

ensure uniform s t r a i n r a t e .
recorded
was

sticking

r i n g to the surface of the plunger

switched to e l e c t r i c a l c o n t r o l to

The maximum d e f l e c t i o n of the proving

from the d i a l gauge and the force (or load) found.

r i n g was

Shear modulus

found using the expression i n Appendix HL .

7.6

Torsion Tester
The

work.

The

t o r s i o n t e s t e r i s p r i m a r i l y designed f o r undergraduate laboratory

t o r s i o n specimen i s u s u a l l y an a l l o y bar with two hexagonal ends

f o r attachment to the g r i p s of the m a c h i n e y T h i s simple device enables

to determine the, G, the shear modulus, and the shear s t r e s s a t the
of p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y and f a c i l i t a t e s the study of the general
of the m a t e r i a l under the a c t i o n of a torque.
the t o r s i o n t e s t i n g machine.

one

limit

characteristics

The specimen i s mounted i n

Load i s a p p l i e d and i n c r e a s e d slowly to

-57-

failure.

At each increment of load, the t o r s i o n a l s t r a i n i s recorded using

the angular measuring d e v i c e and the angle of t w i s t over a gauge length of

50 mm

as recorded, by the t o r s i o n meter.

T h i s device was the only means a t hand f o r obtaining the modulus, G,

by a t o r s i o n t e s t .

Before i t could be used i t was necessary to modify the

apparatus so t h a t a specimen

can be mounted i n the t o r s i o n t e s t e r .

The

method of applying t o r s i o n to the specimen was s i m i l a r to t h a t used f o r the

more u s u a l metal specimen.

The socket has a permanent hexagonal

p r o j e c t i n g a x i a l l y from the base of the c o l l a r .

attachment

The plunger was

threaded

so as to a l l o w a hexagonal bar to be screwed i n t o i t . The c o l l a r r i n g was

designed so t h a t the mould can be r i g i d l y mounted i n t o i t , t h i s being the
r o t a t i n g end.

I t was contemplated

t h a t the t e s t s be c a r r i e d out on the

same sample as had been used f o r the a x i a l - l o a d shear t e s t .

specimen

The annular

f i r s t t e s t e d under a x i a l s h e a r i n g , was then t r a n s f e r r e d to the

torsion t e s t e r for a destructive torsion test.

I n the event, two

were made a t the same compaction c o n d i t i o n and binder content.

t e s t e d i n a x i a l shear and the other by t o r s i o n .
with those obtained u s i n g the same specimen
t h a t r e s u l t s of G f o r the specimen

One

specimens
was

The r e s u l t s were compared

i n both the t e s t s .

I t was found

f i r s t t e s t e d by shear then by t o r s i o n

were s i m i l a r to the separated t e s t s on two specimens.

This j u s t i f i e d a

saving i n time, r e l i a b i l i t y of the t e s t s and a l s o s a t i s f i e d the intended

design o b j e c t i v e .

-58-

CHAPTER

DETAILED TESTS ON CHOSEN MIXES

8.1

Objectives
Four main types o f composite mixes were f i n a l l y chosen. They were

( i ) Wall P a p e r / S i l i c a t e ,

( i i ) DSF V e r m i c u l i t e / S i l i c a t e ,

( i i i ) Expanded

P o l y s t y r e n e B e a d s / S i l i c a t e and ( i v ) Expanded P e r l i t e / S i l i c a t e .

Four grades

of I . C . I . S i l i c a t e were s e l e c t e d , namely, P84,

C112;

L96,

3 1 0 2 ^ 3 ^ 0 r a t i o s ranging from 3.3 to 2.0 r e s p e c t i v e l y .

K95

and

the

There were four

d i f f e r e n t powder hardeners used, namely, 50/50 by weight of CETOS/SGS,*

SECAR (H.A.C.),

SECAR + Burnt Lime (CaO) and CETOS*alone.

was a l s o used as a c a t a l y s t .

One e s t e r blend

T h i s was 50/50 by weight of DIA/EGDA.

Finally,

for the CO2 p r o c e s s , CO^ gas was used as a c a t a l y s t .

The reasons f o r the f i n a l choice of these m a t e r i a l s to be used were
q u i t e obvious.

A d i v e r s i t y i n the c h a r a c t e r of raw m a t e r i a l s was intended,

but t h e r e were g e n e r a l s i m i l a r i t i e s .
and i n g r a n u l a r forms.

They were a l l l i g h t w e i g h t when d r i e d

They were a l s o found to be e a s i l y mixed with S i l i c a t e

and compatible to the compaction apparatus.

T h i s r e s u l t e d i n good repeat-

a b i l i t y and reduced i n a c t u a l time f o r preparing a sample.

The t e s t programme was centred upon two main areas of concern.

First,

t h e r e was a t e s t to e s t a b l i s h f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g the s t r u c t u r a l strength

and s t i f f n e s s of the m a t e r i a l s and mixes;

and secondly, a t e s t f o r the

e v a l u a t i o n . a n d v e r i f i c a t i o n o f the shear modulus of the m a t e r i a l s by two

methods.
The t h e o r e t i c a l b a s i s f o r the t e s t s w i l l a l s o be o u t l i n e d , and i n
p a r t i c u l a r , the proposed shear t e s t s , which were o r i g i n a t e d i n t h i s p r o j e c t
f o r t h i s s p e c i f i c purpose.
*

SGS

Solid-Soda lime - g l a s s spheres

CETOS

Dicalcium S i l i c a t e .

___

-59-

8.2

Theory

8.2.1

Compression

Test

The compressive s t r e n g t h t e s t i s used l a r g e l y f o r concrete specimens

and i t was adopted f o r t h i s work.

T h i s was a simple, conventional, unconfined

compressive s t r e n g t h t e s t on c y l i n d e r specimens.
r a t i o was kept c l o s e to 2.
100 mm,

The height to diameter

A l l the height of specimens was c o n t r o l l e d to

and t h e r e f o r e , the diameter of the specimens was kept to 50

mm.

Some v a r i a t i o n s i n dimensions happened, e s p e c i a l l y i n the more r e s i l i e n t

aggregate, such as expanded p o l y s t y r e n e beads.
The a c t u a l amount of mixture (by weight) was measured and the comp a c t i o n e f f o r t i n terms of a p r e s s u r e to form a specimen of height of 100 mm
was a l s o taken.

By t r i a l and e r r o r , the minimum q u a n t i t y of m a t e r i a l

r e q u i r e d to provide s a f e handling can be obtained.

A c o n s t a n t - r a t e - o f - s t r a i n screw j a c k and loading frame such as may
be used f o r t r i a x i a l t e s t i n g o f s o i l s was used.
proving r i n g

The load was read from the

a t t a c h e d to the mechanical load frame.

The t o t a l deformation

when compression took p l a c e was taken from a separate d i a l gauge, which was
i n c o n t a c t with the p l a t t e n .
S t r e s s and s t r a i n a t f r a c t u r e and specimen modulus were obtained
from the s t r a i g h t l i n e s t r e s s - s t r a i n graphs.

-60-

8.2.2

Shear and t o r s i o n t e s t s

Load N

SHEAR

Wall of s t e e l

TEST

mould 'or
perspex mould
Stress =

N
Cross s e c t i o n a l Area

i
i .

supports from p l a t e n

TORSION

TEST

T = T x area

where R

53.93

26.96

(mm)

9.53

(mm)

R.
i

19.05

Therefore
max

and

2 1TR. L

5987.8

x.

2irR

2TTR.

L
L

-61-

The two t e s t s were performed on the same specimen geometry.

the t o r s i o n

From

test,

(V^l

SET
T

\ R

and from shear t e s t , i t can be shown t h a t ,

(8.2)

2TTL

D e r i v a t i o n of these e x p r e s s i o n s may be found i n the Appendix. M..

8.3

D e f i n i t i o n of f i n a l mixes

8.3.1

Wall Paper/P84/Formula 2

The main d i f f i c u l t y concerned w i t h the raw paper pulp

granules) was the high amount of moisture content i n i t .
was noted.

(V to h inch,

As high as 6 0 %

Such a high moisture content would have impaired the s t r e n g t h

of specimens due to d i l u t i o n of the g e l during mixing, and due to the l o s s

of s i l i c a t e g e l during compaction.

To avoid such u n d e s i r a b l e r e s u l t s , the

pulps were d r i e d completely p r i o r to mixing w i t h the s i l i c a t e .

The composite i s a mixture of w a l l paper mixed with P84 sodium
s i l i c a t e , s u p p l i e d by I . C . I . , and hardened by the powder mixture known as
'formula 2

which was blended by 5 0 % by weight of CETOS ( + 2 5 0 um) and 5 0 %

by weight of s o l i d - soda lime - g l a s s spheres

A notable c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
of f i n a l product.

(about - 1 5 0 u\m) .

of t h i s mixture was the extreme l i g h t n e s s

The dry g r a n u l a r p e l l e t s were hard and l i g h t .

I n order

to a l l o w s u f f i c i e n t l y wetting to the p a r t i c l e s , the amount of P84 was cons i d e r e d to be high and mixing time u s u a l l y longer than other mixes
5 minutes f o r 1 0 0 gm of dry paper p u l p s ) .

(about

I n some i n s t a n c e s , PENTRON-ON

-62-

s o l u t i o n was added t o i n c r e a s e

workability.

The b i n d e r content, B%,

i s the r a t i o o f s i l i c a t e by weight to

the sum o f the weights o f d r i e d aggregates and sodium s i l i c a t e expessed

as a percentage.

A t y p i c a l binder content a s , say 58%.

Other parameters

r e f e r r e d to a r e : -

Aggregate/Binder

7 ^

0.2

0.2

loo

and

2 8

Hardener/Binder

TTT
loo

These a r e r e f e r r e d to l a t e r i n the chapter..

8.3.2

DSF/P84/SECAR (H.A.C.)

T h i s composite r e f e r r e d to a mixture o f DSF grade e x f l o i a t e d v e r m i c u l i t e

(+ 1200 uM) mixed w i t h P84 grade I . C . I , s i l i c a t e .

The c a t a l y s t used was

SECAR, a white powder of very high alumina content (+ 150 um) .

one of the blends of h i g h alumina cement.

SECAR i s

DSF grade was chosen because

of i t resembled the sawdust.

Binder content was about as high as f o r paper pulp system, due to
i t s p h y s i c a l nature i n absorbing l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f l i q u i d .

8.3.3

+2400 S h e l l EP Beads/P84/(Secar + Lime)

T h i s r e f e r s to the mixing o f +2400 urn s h e l l expanded p o l y s t y r e n e

white beads.with P84 grade I . C . I , s i l i c a t e .

The hardener was a mixture

of SECAR (+ 150 um) and burnt lime (+ 150 um) .

The symbol o f 50/50

SECAR/LIME s i g n i f i e s 50% by weight of SECAR, and 50% by weight of burnt

lime i n the powder mixture.
The +2400 beads gave a s u i t a b l y low d e n s i t y a s s o c i a t e d with s u i t a b l e
w o r k a b i l i t y i n s i l i c a t e environment.
c u l t to mix.

L a r g e r beads were found very d i f f i -

The r u l e of thumb i s t h a t r e s i l i e n c y decreases as the d e n s i t y

-63-

of

beads i n c r e a s e .

T h i s i s not s u r p r i s i n g s i n c e as the volume o f beads

i n c r e a s e d t h e r e was more trapped a i r i n s i d e the beads, and t h e r e f o r e the

mixture was found t o be more r e s i l i e n t and l i g h t e r .

The beads hardly

absorbed any l i q u i d a t a l l .
An important c h a r a c t e r i s t i c was i t s r e s i s t a n c e to wettness by
silicate.

F o r t h i s reason, PENTRON-ON was mixed w i t h beads p r i o r t o the

addition of s i l i c a t e solution.

PENTRON-ON was not a hardener nor a

r e t a r d e r but i s a type o f foaming agent o r sometimes i s r e f e r r e d to a s a

water r e d u c i n g agent, o r wetting agent.

However, l i t t l e improvement i n

c o a t i n g was found i n the p o l y s t y r e n e beads system.

8.3.4

Perlite/Cll2/C0

P e r l i t e i s here r e f e r r e d t o as expanded p e r l i t e .
was C112, I . C . I , grade.

The c a t a l y s t was C 0

Company i n the form of a c y l i n d e r .

very high SiO^ content.

The s i l i c a t e used

gas s u p p l i e d by the D i s t i l l e r

An unusual property o f P e r l i t e i s i t s

T h i s resembles sand ( s i l i c a sand) thus CO^ -

s i l i c a t e p r o c e s s was chosen.

The l a c k of roundness o f i t s p a r t i c l e s and

i t s requirement to absorb a c o n s i d e r a b l e amount o f s i l i c a t e f o r thorough

wetting were the major drawbacks.

Therefore, the p e r l i t e was s i e v e d ,

m e c h a n i c a l l y , to a p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n between 75 um to 850 urn.

I t was hoped t h a t the f i n e r p a r t i c l e s would s t a b i l i s e the l a r g e r p a r t i c l e s
and provide a h i g h e r s t r u c t u r a l s t r e n g t h .

For i r r e g u l a r p a r t i c l e s i z e s ,

l i k e p e r l i t e , i t was found t h a t the binder content was a l s o high.

recorded.

52% was

-64-

8.4

Relevant Test

8.4.1

Results

F i g u r e Legends

(i)

For Wall Paper / S i l i c a t e

System, s e e F i g u r e A

(ii)

F o r DSF / S i l i c a t e

(iii)

F o r S h e l l EP B e a d s / S i l i c a t e

(iv)

For P e r l i t e / S i l i c a t e

System, see F i g . B

System,

(114)

(1-75)

System, see F i g . C

see F i g . D

(1-13)

(1-12).

PART

PIG.

A.

( 1 - 2 ) - on p a g e

70

F I G . A/

(3-6).

WALL PAPER/P8VH 0/F0R.2

WALL PAPER/P8VH^O/FOR.2

P = 0.84
600

1000

AGE= 24 days

B = 50%
FOR.2=20%
d.t.=l4- min

to

P= 1.12

w400

900
M
CO

7 mm

M
CO
CO

B=50%

3800

Paper/P84= 1
F0R.2/P84= 0.2

31

10

37

35

33

P = 0.84

P4 200

STRAIN

MOISTURE' CONTENT , %

20

30

x10
5)

(3)

P = 1.4
AGE= 24 days
1200

BULK DENSITY = 650

1200

f & = 732

B = 50%
FOR.2 = 20%
P = 0.84

800

800

P=1.12
400

400

3 min

0.8

DEFLECTION

1.2

mm

DEFLECTION, mm
WALL PAPER/P84/H0/FOR.2

WALL PAPER/P84/JLO/FOR.2

(4)

(6)-

-66-

F I G . A,

(7-10)

WALL P A P E R / P 8 V H 0 / F 0 R . 2

WALL P A P E R / P 8 V F 0 R . 2

P = 1.4

CM

E
S

AGE= 24 days

FOR.2 = 20$
CO
CO

500

CO

-200 +

mm

s
o 300
M
CO
CO
W

mm

a
a*
s 100
o
o
30

100 +

50

STRAIN --j x 1 0

1.

- 5

DEFLECTION , mm
(9)

(7)

r\J 19
E

AGE:2k day

g
O
H

>

11

M
CO
CO

E = 1 . 3 2 N/

_ d.t.=1-J - 5 mins

P-l '

o
o

820
1100

1200

1300

BULK DENSITY , kg/W

WALL PAPER / P84 / H 0 / F 0 R . 2

STRAIN , x 1 0
WALL PAPER / PSk /FOR. 2

(8)

(10)

FIG. A

(11-14)

CURVE I : B= 58%

CURVE I I :

B= 50%

w= 30 .J
d

t.=90 sec.

w=3L^
d.t.=l800 sec.

<r(*W . 1 4 /mm
=0

(T (I 5 % ) = 0 . 7 5 N/am

PAPER/P84 = 0 . 7 2 4 PAPER/P84=1.0
-fb

=710kg/M

=1000 kg/M

WALL PAPER/P84/FOR.2

WALL PAPER/P8k/U 0/FOR.2

FORMULAR 2/P84 = 0 . 2
s
AGE=24 h r s .

l ~

c
o

CO

rl
(0

05

M
CO
2

G = 1.003
G, = 2.420
b
G = 0.550
c

10

30

0.8

0.6

ft
E
O

0.5

O
co .**
00 oj
w

0.3

o
o

50 60

1200

ROTATION , x10" (RADIANS)

BULK DENSITY , kg/M^

.,

( I D

AGE' = 24 DAYS

"

(13)-

1500
1300

d.t.= 8 min.

0,4
EH
II
CO
2

1100'
900
r r . =, / mm.

8 0.2

700
m 500

COMPRESSIVE MODULUS,N/W

0.2 0 . 6 1 1.4 1.8

1
1 1
1
1
^ d . t . = 8 min.
^
.
* d.t.=7 min.
%'d.t.=5 min.

2.4 2.8
' c
d.t.=3 inin.
d.t.=1-j min.
2

FORMING PRESSURE , N/mm

WALL PAPER / P84 / FOR.2

(12)

WALL PAPER / P84 / H 0 A 0 R . 2

2

(14)

FIG.

B ,

(I]

-68-

o
PS
^ ^ ^

COCOCOOO
j -

^ ^.

-d--3-

^
"sSLcR

^ K M A l A O O ^ )
i A - d - -d- -d-

4
-

II
ii
||
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
p p p Q C Q P Q p Q C Q C Q C Q P Q P Q P Q

o oo o o o

<- t>-CO

K \
O
C N - d " OJ o o OO

-d" OJ

OJ-d"

cvi

o o o o o o o o o
II J J J !
o oos'p^ps

PC-PS

c=a

2
M

2
H

PS

2 2
M M

2 2
M M
"

aa
a$
H
2
Q
PS

PS PC

U
2

ps

M
2 2

O
Q
PS PS

11

PS

w w w w

2 Q
H 2
cq M
PS

PS

Q
PS

Q Q
PS PS

2 2

Q
2
M

Q
2
M

Q
2
M

PS PS PS

w y
2

Q
PS

Q
PS

y
2

PM
10
<u

-Pip

P-I
M
PS
EH

H
E

PS

CM
-P

CQ
td
0)
H
-P

T3

Q
PS

<
PS
H
<C
2
H

PS
C3
O

P3

<

<< 2 :

2
O H
C/3
C0

CM
OJ

O
O

PS

CM
PS

o
-d-

CO
PH

INCREASE i n HARDENER/P84EH-

EH
O
2

W
PS
EH
W

<M
E

F I G . B,

-p
CO
PS

oj
PS
PS
OJ

K>

PS

a
!-3 3

Q
PS

PS

&4

s J- s

2:

PS CO

PS

PS

O P-i o

J-

PS

oj

o o

J- J-

J-

to

a^

fc*

PH

>

Q
H
M
P5
Q
PS
H
<
PS
O

>>

OO < 00 CO 00

J"
OJ

co

do

Q
W
PS
O

P^I

eg co co
Q

$3. 55
Q

5.

.C

-70-

FIG.

(3-4)

B,

FIG.

A,

(1-2)

WALL PAPER/P8VH 0/F0R.2

2

DSF / P84 / SECAR

DSF VERMICULITE +1200

700

II

/Cured
ured i n AIR
/

<

2.8

AGE= 24. h r s

to

500

300

Cured i n
mould

!/
100

CO

P=0.42
B=48.3%
.=821
AGE= 24 h r s

2%

2.0

CO

co

16%
On

DEFLECTION

1000

1100

1200

49.4%

5L6%

49.6%

1300

43%

mm

(3)

CO

00

(Cured i n
II

1300

ed i n
Mould

CO

1200

00
co

7 min
B = 50%
Paper/P84= 1
F0R.2/P84= 0.2

rH

EL=
16
II

CO

3 1100

fa= 821

$00

P = 0.42
B ='48.3%
24 h r s
AGE

a.

pq

1000

10
STRAIN

50

30

x10

DSF / P84 / SECAR

4)

31

33

35

37

MOISTURE CONTENT , %
WALL PAPER/P84/ILO/FOR.2
(2)

-71F I G . B ( 3 - 4 ) on f r o n t page

F I B . B,

(5-8)

DSF / P8k / FORMULAR 2

DSF / P8^+ / FORMULAR 2

-+1200 DSF VERMICULITE

+1200 DSF VERMICULITE

AGE= 1 to 2 days

S 600

oA

0.5

kOO

0.6

FORMING.^PRESSURE, N/mm'

600

800

1000
3

DRY DENSITY , kg/M

(5)

(7)

e
I

EH

AGE= 1 t o 2 days

0.25

0.20

- 650-

S 600

Av P= 0.6

2k

16

32

MOISTURE CONTENT , %
DSF / P8^ / FORMULAR 2

(6)

20

P8^

kO

30

50

CONTENT ,

DSF / P84 / FORMULAR 2

(8)

-72-

F I G . B,

(9-12)

DSF / ?8k / FORMULAR 2

DSF / P84 / FORMULAR 2

+1200 DSF VERMICULITE

+1200 DSF VERMICULITE

50

FOR.2/P84= 0 . 2
as.

.8

40
S
E-<

30

2
O
O

oo
0<

10

20

14

12

DSF / E84 RATIO (by w t )

28

MOISTURE CONTENT , %
(ID

(9)

(M

20

DSF/P84=4
FOR^/PS^O^

Av. P=0.8

33

1.4

Av. P=0.6

./I
H

300
BULK

700
DENSITY

1100

1500

kg/M

DSF / P84 / FORMULAR 2

(10)

10

30

50

P84 CONTENT
DSF / PSk / FORMULAR 2

(12)

F I G . B,

(13-16)

DSF / P84 / NO HARDENER

DSF / P84 / NO HARDENER

+1200 DSF VERMICULITE

+ 1 2 0

VERMICULITE

OJ

B= 40%"

AGE= 14 days

1400-

50
CO

AGE= 14 days
/

o 40

1000

B= 33.3%

/
AV.7A= 723
/

CO

600

OS

B= 20%
o

20

200
0.3

1.1

0.7

DEFLECTION

/
/
20

40

30

P84 CONTENT

mm
(13)

15)

OJ

OJ

700

40%"

AGE= 14 days

AGE= 14 days
CD

CO

go.8

PS

EH

-< 500

CO

CO

33.3!^
3>/c

4%Compress

> 0.6
CO
CO

CO

co 300
PS
PH

2%Compression

B = 20%

100
4

12

16

STRAIN , x 10"

DSF / P84 / NO HARDENER

(14)

. 20
*

4o

30

P84 CONTENT , %
DSF / P84 / NO HARDENER

(16).

-74-

F I B . B, (17-20)-

DSF / P84 / FORMULAR 2

DSF / P8*f / NO HARDENER

CM

B
50

23

AGE= 14 days

CO
CO
HH

B = 33%

ko

t o 40%

-21

EH

w
>
"5
CO

19
o

30

CO
EH
CO
M

0<
s

8 20

B = 20%

t o 30%

715

720

BULK DENSITY , kg/M

2:

725

17

15

730

J
30

20

40

P84 CONTENT , %
(17)

(19)

oj
E

0.
EC
EH
O
S3
P5
EH
CO

>
H
CO

AGE = 14 days
3
a t STRAIN=14x10"

P84 / FOR.2 = 5 (by wt)

/

# /

0.6i
EH

/ *

0.^4

a
s
o 0.2
o

g.
0.55
723

/ *"
20

30

P84 CONTENT

NO HARDENJ

30

40

,%

C3

20

WITH HARDENER

EH
CO

10
20

30

P84 CONTENT , %
DSF / P84 / HARDENER
+

DSF / P84 / NO HARDENER

(18)

40

(20)

-75-

F I G . B,

(21-24)

DSF / P84 / NO HARDENER

DSF / P84 / CO.

+1200 DSF VERMICULITE

-+1200 DSF VERMICULITE

AGE= 1 h r .
0.23'

*725

EH

0.19
P=0.k
B=kS.2%
d.t.=2-J min.
f&=740

EH
CO

0.15

715"
0.11
10

20

30
C0

MOISTURE CONTENT , %

J21)

E
E

GASS-TIME , MINUTES
(23)

1 hr.

s~ 12

Av. P=0.62

EH

g8

P=0.4
B=48.2#
d.t.=2-j min

EH
CO

10

20

30

MOISTURE CONTENT , %
DSF / P84 / NO HARDENER

(22)

C 0 GASS-TIME , MINUTES
2

DSF / C112 / CO.

(24)

-76-

F I B . B,

(25-28)

DSF / P84 / ESTER

DSF / P84 / FOR. 2

ESTER = ASHLAND SERIES

P=0.35
B=50%
ffc=778

0.7

oj
E
E

0.7

4 days \^
o

0.5

d.t.=2-5- nam

EH

0.5

EH
CO

P=0.65

B=4p.e%

ac
EH

48 hrs

0.3

d.t.=2i
2
min
^- 4300
' 3300

Q
W
M
>H

1 HOUR
0.1

EH
CO

0.3

l-H
H .
M
>H

0.1

f
20

40

20

60

40

FORMULAR 2 CONTENT , %

ASHLAND ESTER CONTENT , %

(25.)^

(27)

CM

CM

E
E

1.1 t
0.6
EH

48 h r s
P=0.68
B=33.3%
f&=790
d.t.=2-2-min

2.
EH
CO

0.4

24^3"

0.2

C3
2

1 hr

0.9

24 hrs

P=0.86
B=48.3%
^6=978
d.t.=24-min

EH
CO

Q
>-H
W

KH
W

EH

0.7

1 hr

0.5
20

40

20

40

50

FORMULAR 2 CONTENT , %

FORMULAR 2 CONTENT , %

DSF / P84 / FOR.2

DSF / P84 / FOR.2

(26)

(28)

'

-77- -

F I G . B,-

(29-32)

FORMULAR 2

50/50(by wt) CETOS/ SGS

. FORMULAR 3

50/50(by wt)' CETOS/ pfa

FORMULAR 7

100 % (by wt) CETOS

DSF / P84 / FOR,2

DSF / P84 / FOR.2

oj

P = 0.6
B = '40 %
d.t.=2-J min
f =790

I 0.7
2

EC
EH

0.5

/
48 h r s / /
/ /

P 0.4

24 h r s

H
03
EH
CO
Q
J
'W
M
>H

0.1

3 l +

0.1
40

50

P84 CONTENT , %
(31)

oj
E

oj
E

-ffir.

(29)

0.5

0.3

.30

FORMULAR 2 CONTENT ,

EH
O

"to"

20

P = 0.7
FOR.2 Content
= 40 %

P=0.63
48 h r ^
FOR.2 Content
- 20%
24 hrs
d . t . = 2-Jrain
.^=772

Z22 1 hour
mr 24 hours
48 hours

P =! 0.44
B = 48.3 %
Hardener Content
71
=

EH
CO

0.3

1 hr

w
xo.1
50

FOR.2 FOR.3 FOR.7

P84 CONTENT , %

TYPE OF HARDENER

30

40

DSF / P84 / FOR. 2

(30)

DSF / P84 /HARDENER

(32)

C0

F I G . B, (33-36)

D S F

DSF / P84 /FORMULAR 2

F 0 R M U L A R

FORMING PRESSURE=
A) 0.9
B) 0.8

x 950

0.5

O 0.7
D) 0.6

c
Co
O
3

850

750

PQ

B
OO
CO
M

20

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.1

40

30

P84 CONTENT , %

FORMING PRESSURE , N/mm

(35)

(33)

1 HOUR

AGE

d.t.=24- min

24 mm
\

1.0

48 hr

B = 48.3 %
0.5

40 %

CO
CO

CO

to

EH

0.3

50

20 %

CO

0.8

hrs.

CO

BINDER CONTENT

0.6

h3
rH 0.1

A) 48.3 %
B) 48.3 #
0.4

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

FORMING PRESSURE , N/mm

FORMING PRESSURE , N/mm

DSF / P84 / FORMULAR 2

DSF / P84 / FORMULAR 2

(34)

(36)

-79-

F I G . B,

(37-40)

DSF / P84 / SECAR

DSF / P84 / FORMULAE 2

4000r

p
BULK DENSITY = 7^0
3000]

d.t.= 2-j min

CURED IN

i.o

/
/

110C
20007
Q
<

o.6

OVEN AT

AGE 1 day

1000.
99
0.2

w = 0%

/
0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.1

DEFLECTION , mm

FORMING* PRESSURE , N/mm .

(37)

(39)

CM

c
o
rl

DSF/P84=0.92
P =0.23
-fa =735
B = 52%
SECAR/P84=0.61

C
Q
S1.4
M
ft
E
O

I
I
O

x2400
CO
CO

EH

<

EH
CO

| .6

M
CO
CO

a
co 0.2

*4$Compressi on
] 'g^Coppressjon

On"

5
o

10

20

30

MOISTURE CONTENT , %

AGE = 1 day

'

CURED IN OVEN
AT 110*C

1600
E = 39.3 N/mm'
800

o
o
50
STRAIN , x 10-3
DSF /P84 / SECAR
10 . 3b.

DSF / P84 / SECAR

(38)

(40)

j
!
70

-80-

F I G . B,

(41-44)

DSF / P84 / SECAR

DSF / L96 / CETOS

AGE 1 day
1400

700

CURED I N
AIR
1000

500

11.43 %
600

300

100

200
1.1

1.3

DEFLECTION

1.5

1.7

mm

DEFLECTION
43

(41)

CM

CM

I
O

'o 700

AGE 1 day

loo

mm

CURED IN AIR

CURED IN MOULD
CO
CO

CO
CO

500

EH
00

"200
o

E = 15.5 N/imm

s
o
M

300

CO
CO

CO

a
a.
s
o
a

^100

s
o
o
r

100'
10

10
STRAIN , x 10"

STRAIN , x 10"

DSF / P84 / SECAR

DSF / L96 / CETOS

(42)

(44)

F I G . B,

(45-48)

,.
.
DSF / L96 /CETOS

DSF / L96 / CETOS

OJ

500
700

400
CO
CO

E = 43.75 N/miH

500

CURED IN AIR
300

CO

GRADIENT
10 x 10

200

300
CO
CO

g 100
1

20

ROTATION

30

40

x 10

radians

10

20

STRAIN

x 10

30

(47)

45)

0.8

1400
0.6

1 HOUR
1000
CO

U 0.4
05

600

CO

0.2
200
20

DEFLECTION

ram
DSF / L96 / CETOS

(46)

60

100

TEMPERATURE
DSF / LQ6 / CETOS

(48)

-82-

F I G . B,

(49 - 52)

DSF / K95 / ESTER

DSF / KQS / ESTER

50%/5O>/ DIA/EGDA

ESTER

5C$/5C$ DIA/EGDA

ESTER
400

AGE = 48 h r s .
CO
CO

300

EH
CO

600

a 200
GRADIENT

co 400
CO

12 x 10

3"
( 100

OS

E = 18.76
o 200

10

20

ROTATION

x10

30

10

radians

20

30

STRAIN ,x 10
51

49

1400T
1500
1000

R 1000
600
500
200
I

1
DEFLECTION

DEFLECTION

mm
DSF / K95 / ESTER

(5Q

mm
DSF / K95 / ESTER

52)

-83-

F i g . B,

DSF / K95 / ESTER

(53-56)

DSF / K 95 / ESTER

oj

ESTER'= 50%/50% DIA/EGDA

5O#/50# DIA/EGDA

X
CO
CO

ESTER

HOLLOW SPECIMEN

600

to
600
CO
CO

CO

400

400

CO
CO

CO

E = 17.8
200

CM
2

10

20

STRAIN

200

N/mm

20

30

STRAIN

x 10

40

30

x 10

55

53)

1400+

1400

1000t

1000

600

600

200

200

1
DEFLECTION
DEFLECTION
mm
DSF / K / ESTER
9 5

(54)

D S F

/ 95 / ESTER

(56)

mm

-84-

F I G . B,

(57 - 60)

DSF / P84 / CO.

DSF / K95 / ESTER

E
E

DSF VERMICULITE +1200

ESTER = 5<y/o/5CP/o DIA/EGDA

o
E

CO
CO

600

X
EH
CO

23.3 N/ram

A =

37.5

B = . 35.4
37.8

Other
Conditions
See F i g .
below

400

II
CO
CO

co =
2

w 200 i

A) 2 rain
B) 4 min
C) 1 min

CM
S

o
o

& 100
10

20

30

STRAIN , x 10-3

10

14

-3

STRAIN , x 10

(59)

(57)

c
o

co =

1000

800

to
to 0.7
<D
U

2 min
B)4 min
|C)1 min

3 DAYS
P=0.36
B=48.2#
d.t.=2-J min
flow rate=10 l i t / imtn
gassing P=20 p s i
f =740

PH
E

O
o

^ 0.5
EH

<
X
EH
C3
S

600 f
<

Other conditions
see-, f i g u r e r i g h t

400 +

0.3

EH

ALL CURED
I N AIR

CO

0.1

1 HOUR

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

DEFLECTION , mm

GASS-TIME , MINUTE(S)

DSF / P84 / C0

DSF / P84 / C0_

(58)

(60)

-85-

F I G . B,

700

(61-64)

DSF / C112 / CO.

DSF / P84 / For.2

DSF VERMICULITE +1200

DSF VERMICULITE +1200

AGE= 3 days
P = 0.46
B = 48.2 % DSF/C112=1.07

AGE= 1 hr
P = 0.86
1000
A -

oj

C0 =. 4 min
2

500

0.6 1
',-B=48.j
DSF/P84
w

=
1.07^
EH
CO 0.4 1

___^-t

CO
CO

300

C0 = 2 rain
2

B= 35$
DSF/P84= 2

100

= 1 rain

W
M
>H

1.0

1.4

1.8

2.2

Deflection

20

40

0.28

0.48 0.8 FOR.2/P84

RATIO

(61)

60 FOR.2 i n gm

(63)

C0 =4 min
2

P=0.46
B=48.2#
d.t s2-Jmin
DSF/C112=1.07
-f&=730
AGE =3days
0

48 hrs

1.3 L
CO

CO

^24 hrs

I . I

EH

CO

I
min

M
>H

0.9
/

20

12

STRAIN , x 10"

0.28

P = 0.86
B = 48.3 %
f&= 1000
DSF/P84= 1.07

40

60 FOR.2 i n gm

0.48

0.71

DSF /C112 /CO.

DSF / P84 /FOR. 2

(62)

(64)

F0R.2/P84
RATIO

-86-

FIB. B,

(65-68)

DSF / P84 / FOR. 2

DSF / P84 /FOR. 2

DSF VERMIGULITE +1200

DSF VERMICULITE +1200

rvj
E

33.3 %

A) B= k&.3
B) B= 40.0 %
c)B= 53,3

0.4

mm
CO
CO

w 0.38

Q
W

30
0.50
830
0.60

50
0.70
850
0.81

70
0.90
1000
0.83

0.2

FOR.2 i n gm.
FORMING PRESSURE
BULK DENSITY
FOR.2/P84 RATIO
(by w t . )

Age = 1 hr.

0.4

0.6

0.8

FORMING PRESSURE , N/mm

(67)

(65)

Cured i n mould

1300

AGE = 2k hrs

yf

W200
E3
&

co 1.0
AGE = 5 DAYS

S'

100

GRADIENT=
7.02x icr

P=0.72

30

40

50

P84 CONTENT , %
DSF / P84 / FOR.2

(66)

10

20

30

,
ROTATION x10- 3"^(RADIANS)
DSF / P84 / SECAR
(68)

-87-

FIG.

B,

(69-70)

DSF+1200/P84

C u r e d 6 d a y s a t 110C

1.8

P=0.57

1.7

m
m
u

1.6

CO
H
<D
H

1.5

20

30

^0 .

B i n d e r Content,B %
(69)

B %

*0

//

30

20

10

20
30
50
Hardener/P8^=0.2
Uardener/P8 t=0.4
* Hardener/PSW).?

M o i s t u r e Content,w %
DSF+1200/p8VFormular 2

(70)

-88-

F I G . B,

(71)

DSF+1200/K95

B = 33%
100
I
*

i
60

>

I
20

70

i
110

Mass o f m a t e r i a l s
c o m p a c t i o n , gm

prior

(71)

Using modified

aggregate impact t e s t e r .

-89-

F I G . B,

(72)

DSF+1200 / P84

Age i n Days
2
3
5

7,

11 1H

1.3

1.1

0.5

0.3
0.2
0.1
Jii

Age a t Test,

i i 11

10

HOURS

20

30

1i

^0

60

i . . . . . . i

100

( l o g scale)

DSF+1200/P84

A) DSF/P84 = S7%/3%
P m 0.45

(NO HARDENER), Cured i n A i r .

Bulk Density = 722

B) DSF/P84 = 67%/33%

(NO HARDENER), Cured a t HOC f o r 6 days.

P = 0.50 Bulk Density = 7 3 0

F I G . B,

(73)

.FORMULAR 2 = (50/50 CETOS/SGS) = Powder Hardener

1a)DSF/P84=67^/33^, (50/50 CETOS/SGS)/P84=0.3, P=0.67,f =790, cured i n A i r .
&

1b)Same mix a s 1a but cured a t 110C f o r 1 hour ( i n i t i a l curing method)

2a)DSF/P84=60?oAO%, .(50/50 CET0S/SGS)/P84=0.4, P=0.73, *f^=8^+6, cured i n A i r .
o

2b)Same mix a s 2a but f i r s t cured a t 110C f o r 1 hour then A i r cured.

DSF+1200 / P84 / FORMULAR 2
1

2
3 n Days
5 7
Age
i

14

2.0

1.5

2 1.0

0.28

u.

Age a t T e s t ,

10
HOURS

20

30

60

100

(log scale)

3a)DSF/P84=51.7^/48.3$,_ (50/50 CETOS/SGS)/P84=0.28, p=0.76, fi=944, cured i n A i r .

o

3b)Same mix a s 3a but cured a t 110C f o r 1 hour then followed A i r cured.

4a)DSF/P84=51.7$/48.3%, FORMULAR 2^84=0.48, P=0.95, "4=1000, cured i n A i r .
4b)Same mix a s 4a but cured a t 110C f o r 1 hour then followed A i r cured.
5a)DSF/P84=51.7^/48.3%, FORMULAR 2^P84=0.71, P=6.42,-f&=740 , cured i n A i r .
5b)Same mix a s 5a but cured a t 110C f o r 1 hour then followed A i r cured.
THIS BLEND WAS SELECTED FOR STUDYING THE TERNARY COMPOSITE.
(73)

-91-

F I G . B, (74)

SUMMARY

DSF-VERMICULITE +1200 / SODIUM SILICATE / HARDENER

BINARY COMPOSITE

CURED.1 hr.
a t 110C
<Sy"=0.68, P=0.4, -/=?40
Q

+ 50/50 DIA/EGDA

6^=0.9^+, P=0.5, -$=786

ESTER / K95 = 0.1

AGE= 2 DAYS.

CURED 1 h r .
a t 110C . , s _ _ _
1 hr<5y=0.39
o

->

+ CETOS '

^=0.77
24hr(jy=0.8l

P=0.84, -^=1000

CETOS / L96 = 0.8

CURED 6 DAYS
a t 110C

*6 DAYS<=1.7, P=0.5,-fs=730 .

+ NO HARDENER

CUREDll?
AIR

to

.f* ' P = - ^ , ^ 7 1 1
19

6daysff^=0.59, P=0.55,$=7^0
14 daysC^O.63, P^.^5, ^=716

ALL BY WEIGHT RATIO

A l s o DSF/C112/C0 ->B 62
2

DSF/P84/C0

s e e B58, B59, B60

DSF/P84/ F o r 2, B27 and B64 onwards

DSF/P84/SECAR, B40
(74)

-9-2-

F I G . B, (75)

DSF+1200/P8VLEIGHT0N BAZZARD / ( 5 0 / 5 0 CETOS/SGS)

TERNARY COMPOSITE

X P =

1.9

0.45

CO
CO
W

EH

CO

1.5

P=0^7 . y

H3
W
M

1.1

ALL AGE = 3 WEEKS

P=0.15
0.4

0.8

* 13% SAND
*

3356 SAND

28% SAND
51% SAND

1.0

DSF/P84(BY WEIGHT)

(75)

-93-

F I G . C,

+1200

(1-4)

+ 1 2 0

S h e l l EP Beads/C112/C0 +Air
2

S h e 1 1

EP

*Beads/Special Blend

S h e l l Expanded Polystyrene Bead;

0.20

CM

Air=5 min

to
to

CO

0.15

DIA

k parts

Air=6 min
0.1

Special Blend
E
1 part
= 55
5 parts

partsU

Air=12 min

0.15

0.20

0.10

age = k h r s .
No. of blows
Gel Time
22 idns.

<o
(0

* B=22 %, C0-=* min

0.05

CO

0.05

T3

B=3k %, C0_=1 min. + A i r

20

10

66

30

165

132

99

Amount of special blend, gm

Age a t t e s t , minutes

(1)

0.15

0.7

CO

B = J>k %
1 min.+
CO
Air
M-0 mins
age

0.10
0)

to

3 0.6
age = Hdays
No. of blows= 7
S 0.5

11
Compressed A i r Gass-Time,
n U

+1200

6 S

99
.
+1200

165

132

Amount of Special Blend, gm

Shell EF Beads/Special Blend

S h e l l EP Beads/C112/C0.+Air
(2)

(4)

o
U

Q
W

\
-p

rH

O
r-

05

o
w
a
a,

.
CO II

CD <U
M -P -P

-p

<

a
<

3
C

pq

I A O H
CM

PQ

CM

ri

EH
O
PO OH
CO

CO

- o
CO CO

O Q
H
PO

TJ

<x> o

a
w

CO

CM

w s
O M oo

HH

O 0 5 \ O
0 , CM O

CM
+

O O v- r 2 O O
+

S T -

<

.8

co
II
P
o 2
rH O
hi CM

II EH

M.
1-1

cu

CD CO
U

-p

w
s;

o
rA

II 05 r<-\
H II
[0 < -P

in

II

CO

CO

^
tA EH

O U

<u

II - P

O
I
ON :

<n

IN O

..>>
cti

II '

II

cu
-p

M
<

rfi

-H

pq

a
H
05

-P

E-t

<

<

FIG

J3

4->
H

3
O

* PC
J - 2 rCM H CO

EH O
O
5

OH
S

CM O
< - CM
r- rO O
+

s
o o

CM

CO
PH

II

ii a

W 05

w
2

II

< s m

05

On PH

^ 3

(M

^
CM

(A

II

II

II

II

pq

CM

PQ

PQ..

PQ

CM

CM

II

to

pq
H

a)

1T\

VO

CD
CO

co

N\
CQ
Cfl It
bO -P

II

11

II
3)

rn ft- , \0

v9

!4T

CQ
CO
CD

ft

II l-J
10

05
CM

II

h ft

CK

F I G . C, ( 6 - 9 )

SHELL EXPANDED POLYSTYRENE BEADS

+2400 microns

SHELL EXPANDED POLYSTYRENE BEADS

+1200 microns

180
10 gm

dry mass

140

AGE= 24 hrs
Cured i n mould

<=140
9 100
100
^60

55

CO

E = 5.4 N/mm
&='260 kg/M

to

60
65-75

a. 20

PQ

20

0.8

0.4

10

FORMING-- PRESSURE , N/mm

STRAIN

20

30

x 10
(S)

s
e
AGE=- 24 hrs
Cured i n mould

AGE= 24 hrs Cured i n moul

300

150

200

100

GRADIENT=

1 0 . 6 1 X 10'

o
EH

100

DEFLECTION , mm
SHELL +2400 EPS/P84/SECAR+LIME
(7)

50

10
ROTATION

30

20

, x 10^3
'' radians
-

SHELL +2400 EPS/P84/SECAR+LIME;

(9)

-96-

F I G . C,

(10-13)

to
a>
+>
s
c

SHELL EXPANDED POLYSTYRENE

+2400 BEADS

SHELL EXPANDED POLYSTYRENE(EPS)

+2400 BEADS

rl

-P

dry mass= 15 gm
d.t.
= 30 mins.

48

Recovery = AO %

50 3
S 32
Q

11C16

micror
non
0.5
FORMING PRESSURE

0.4

0.8

1.2

FORMING PRESSURE , N/mm'

(10)

d.t.=8 t o 30
minutes

8
2

(12)

20

140

mass= 10 gra

3
3

40

A) P=0.88

p
6o

B) P=0.70

O P=0.60

CO

100
EH
IH
CO

55

\ \ \ \ A

c3

D) P=0.50

80
H

100

\r

JO

V \
\

10
DRY

v
i \

20
MASS

F) P=0.30

\
\

\ E) P=0.4o

\ \ \ B

60

C3

75
-4760 microns

20

VJ

30

, gm

SHELL EPS BEADS ( DRY )

0.2

0.6

1.0

FORMING PRESSURE , N/W

SHELL EPS BEADS ( DRY )

(. FOR ANY EPS BEADS )

(11)

1.4

(13)

95

-97-

F I G . D,

(1-4)

PERLITE / C112

PERLITE / C112 / NO HARDENER

FINE TO +850

FINE TO +850

I 300

^700

GRADIENT=6.06x10
200

to

2600

B = 52 %

100

m500
i

'

1.5

10

20

305

ROTATION ,x10" (RADIANS)

. FORMING. PRESSURE , N/ram'

(3)
(1)

O
X
E
E

AGE= 12 h r s .

io.6 4

70

60

CO
CO

B= 52%

550.^ f

= 700

05

ho

EH
CO
S.
O

A =
E

B =

1.88
1.08

8 20
w

05
OH

.0

AIR CURED
jffc-HOT CURED-BAKED FOR 1 h r .
AT 110 C
C0

20

30

'to

-3
STRAIN , x10"

GASS-TIME , MINUTE(S)

PERLITE / C112 / . C 0

FINE TO +850
(2)

PERLITE / C112 / NO HARDENER

FINE TO +850 ,
(4)

-98-

F I G . D, ( 5 - 8 )

PERLITE/C112/C0

FINE TO +850

..

AIR DRIED
C0_=2 mins

220

oj

/ gSTER

.50%

AGE= 12 h r s .

B=50%

EH

>0 180

o40%
PS

3140

CO

8
PS

E = 9.84 N/mrd

W30%

CO

100
40

ASHLAND 3300
^ASHLAND 3400
MOISTURE CONTENT, %

30

25

20

.STRAIN. 10

(7)

(5)

EH
Z

g60
w

W
EH

?0#

EH

40

PS

3S0#
u
M
M

PS

20

CO

10%
MOISTURE .CONTENT, %
10

MOTSTTTPH!

,P84^ECAR
^84/C0
*P84/ESTER
P84/F0R.2
P84/ESTER
C112/C0
AP84/NO HARDENER
+

f- B

P84 /+ HARDENER

(6)

33 %

= 40 %
= 48.3 %

P84 / FORMULAE? 2

(8)

-99-

FIG.

D,

(9-12)

P e r l i te+2400/P84/C0.
P e r l i t e ( F i n e t o +850)/P84/CO.
=90 sec.

d.t.
P=1.5

x:
-p

d.t.=1 rain.
P =0.45
B =30%
agg/P84 =1
gassing pressure=20 D S l
f l o w rate=20 l i t / m i n
-?*=340

hO

S -

agg/P84=0.92

B=52%

e
> 0.3

-p
co
CD

8 0.1
3

av. f

710

12 hrs>
s

0.3

S
* 1 nr.
J3
+->

0.2

bO

G
0)

-p

to
TS

Carbon Dioxide Gass-Time,

0.1

H
<D

Minutes

Carbon Dioxide Gass-Time,

Minutes
(9)

(11)

CM

a
0.3
-p

P=0.5

0.2

Ej
0)

JT

-P
CO

B = 50 %
P = 0.19
co = 4 min.
A i r = 5 min.
agg/P84 = 1
d.t. = 1 min.
2

0.1
ra
to

T3
<D

X-
. P=1.5

Gass-Time=4 mi

0)

u
p

320

340 360

Bulk Density, kg/M^

Perlite+1200/P84/C0

(10)

= 50%

CO
03
OS

300

=1

agg/P84

CO

p=0.2

0 - +850

+1200

+2400

P a r t i c l e Size, x10~\m
Perlite/P84/CO^

(12)

PART

II

100-

o3

C
0

SH -H

CN

CN

cd cn
CD M
CD A
0
6 co -P

CN

LD

oo cn

in
m

ro co

in

cn

rH

in

in

^H CM

cn

rl
O

CD

ft 0
cn - H

CO

CM
CO

m cn
0 CD

CO

aft
o
u

P
co M
> i CD
rH T )
cd C

0
O

r-

CN

CD

co

co
CN

00
CO

Lf)

co

CM

CM

o
o

CM

>H
CD

\ T3
cn c

CO

in

cn

rl

>

00

CM

cd

-P -H
co
CJ

in

CN

cn

Cn -.H
^ r T

II

+J
CO

co

rH
cd
P
cd

CD
CO'
CM

O
l>

rd +J <P

CN

co u H
5 J nm
0

CM

PH

rd

CD
P
cd

00

o
o

CO

CO

in

in

-H

o
o

en

~
O

CN

O EC

O
cn

in

in

CM

CN

*-H "

CO

CO

O
co

ip. O
O

CO

cn

Lf)

+J

CD

in

\ o

05
CO

<

rl

H in

tn in
0 \
P o
CD in
cj

m
co

oo

oo

id

CD

o o

w in

CO

EH
H

cn

m
cn

< o

in
Q

CO
CD
H

6
CO

EH

MH
O

CD
MH +J
O
rd
O

CD -H
ft rH

CO

00

CM

04

o
o

o.

CN
r*

rH

EH* CO

CO

EH
CO

H
EH

CD
MH +J
0 cd

Cn

CD

CD
CD U

&

>i C"
EH fd

ft

ft cn

CN

cd
S
CO

CD
6
rl

TJ
CD

cn -H
cn u
id

id

cn >

oo
W

03

r)

cn

CN *P H

r-l

EH

S ^ ,

CD
+J
rl
CN rH

fa
CO

CD

CD

cn
CD a
A cd
rH

SH
CD

&
ft u
rH CD
rH 4->
rd cd

CO CD
CQ

o
o
<tf

ft

CN

O -P
. O -H

CM rH
rH
+

O
rl

fa ft
CO

CD

>

*H

+ o
rl

-s
fa

JH
CO CD

>

-a
CD CD
T3 -P
C -H
rd rH

ft M
X CD

W PH

<
EH

-101-

-r-

01

CO

o
\o

r~

*<

CO
CO

.p

U
4=

01

O
X

0
CN

CO

CO

in

Q
O
W

o
r~

ft.
D

o
o
m

in

<N

-t-

en

10 ra
Vj u

4J

'

en
u
X

CO
* u
in A

CN

CN

us

r4 T
CN

-H
CN

+-

Q.
W

*p
10 m

O
in
CTl

fa
03

o
lO

CN

0-

in
u
ID s.
in

O
tH

01
u

* .

CM CM

10 (0
u
u

T
CO CN

o
en
m

CM
CO

-*-

10
01

o #

o
o
o

CO

03

CO

oa

dP
. <N

<<

10
u
s.

m
10

CN

I1

III
U
s.

f T
CN

CN

CO

CN

CN
<

0)

CN

T
CD

in
M

(13 CU
10 Bi

0)

18 U

o
ID

.c

CN

CN

n
o

*
1"

8
in

c CN
<*

*
CO
ai

in
M
s.

III
u

CN

CO

in

cH

r-

9
iri

CO

n
a,

o
in
o

0<

O
O

o
o

in
r> #
in

o
v-H

CO
-1

O -

* in
u
i n J3

(M

CN

O
I

>T
CN

01

CO

CO

3*

u
w
03

o
CN

o
in

CO

-#

<*>

*
m* TP
CN
'

*
o
<s

(0

*-i

0
4J
CM
in
in

(N

o
-H
x
CO

CO
CN

CO
0.

11)

ft

H
0

HI
CU
r-1
.H
id

o
01

o
p-

&
.

CN

in
d
o in

IN

* ,. +-CN
CO
in
rn
u

r-l

in

CP

01
0)
CI
1-1
0.

>i
4J
M
in

Di

.. c
c O
en 0)
3
c 4J
<D 0
0]
g o
H 01
01
JJ 01
>

c
Cl
a

CP
C
H
fH
.H

III

CO

3
in
in

HI oi
3
a a.

10
01 - ~
OICN

Cu S

s \
o z
u

<

vj

H -H

'O 13 TJ

0
U

3 n

CN

.c

sir

x
in
in
CO

T
CN

O
*-t

01 01 01

VI H '

. .
(N
CN

a
a

6
S

2
'

>

o
3

r
S

4J dP
0!

B
1
z

0
S

(0

>
<

3 3 3
U U O

> a

C
01
*J
C
0

< u

-102-

(C)

Comparison of G

and G
T

t
G

Av.G

V s
G

2
(N/mm )

2
(N/mm )

Wallpaper/P84/For.2

0.547

0.4215

0.48

1.30

DSF/P84/SECAR

1.420

1.29

1.36

1.10

Wallpaper/P84/For.2

2.420

2.72

2.57

0.89

+2400 S h e l l Ep.Beads
/P84/(SECAR/LIME)

2.143

1.825

1.98

1.17

DSF/L96/CETOS

2.020

3.23

2.63

0.63

DSF/K95/DIA*/EGDA

2.424

2.7

2.56

0.89

DSF/K95/DIA*/EGDA

3.64

3.64

Ex. P e r l i t e / C l l 2

1.224

1.12

(N/mm )

1
1

1.17

1.10

Table 8.3

*DIA/EGDA

50% by weight o f DIACETIN and 50% by weight

of E t h y l e n e g l y c o l D i a c e t i n .

-103-

(D)

F a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g the r e s u l t s f o r G

and G
T

A good s t a r t i n g p o i n t to check the accuracy of G and G i s to use

T
s
the e x p r e s s i o n Poisson's R a t i o ,

where

E - 2 G
"TG

v ^ 0.5.
There was strong i n d i c a t i o n t h a t the accuracy of G^ and G^ was

dependent on the c u r i n g and loading methods.

seen i n the 6th row of Table 8.2.

The G

I n d i c a t i o n s of t h i s may

be

value here i n d i c a t e s t h a t v would

C

exceed 0.5,

so t h a t the r e s u l t s , i n g e n e r a l , are i n question.

By experience, one would guess t h a t expanded polystyrene s i l i c a t e

composite has a lower shear modulus than expanded p e r l i t e composite.
t h i s was not so i n our f i n d i n g .

However,

I t was b e l i e v e d t h a t the bonding between the

s u r f a c e of the mould and the specimen was damaged or weakened due to shrinkage
during the c u r i n g p r o c e s s of one hour i n an oven a t 110C

(see a l s o Table 8.4 ) .

The t e s t i n g programmes were not o r i g i n a l l y intended to have c l o s e

p a r a l l e l examination on two composite systems a t i d e n t i c a l geometry or the same
chemical and s i l i c a t e composition.
the r i s e i n c u r i n g temperature

For t h i s reason, we have no data on

a f f e c t s the accuracy of G

and G
T

how

with a
S

standard c u r i n g method, under a c o n t r o l l e d environment, e.g. c u r i e d i n mould

under g e n e r a l atmospheric c o n d i t i o n .
However, a simple t e s t was d e v i s e d to a i d understanding of the s h r i n k age behaviour of s i l i c a t e g e l or matrix under c e r t a i n c o n t r o l l e d environment.
The amount of s i l i c a t e and hardener was according to Table 6.1

After
o

thorough mixing, the sample was p l a c e d i n a f a n - c i r c u l a t e d oven a t 100 C

and observed f r e q u e n t l y during a p e r i o d of 24 hours.
of the f i n d i n g s .
i . e . P84,

L96,

Table 8.4

showed some

Only the types of s i l i c a t e s mentioned e a r l i e r were chosen,

K95 and C112.

C112 was the s l o w e s t .

P84 was the r e a d i e s t to loose i t s water while

-104-

j
j

T y p e

o f

m i x

A m o u n t
b y

u s e d

w e i g h t

(gm)

1 3 8 / 2 8

P 8 4 / F O R . 2

G e n e r a l

c o m m e n t s

S l o w

s h r i n k a g e

b u t

a f t e r

p r o g r e s s i v e

a t u r e

g r a d u a l l y

a s

s e t t i n g
t e m p e r -

i n c r e a s e d

t o

9 8 / 6 0

P 8 4 / S E C A R

1 0 0

P 8 4

( S E C A R

L I M E )

C .

f r o m '

1 0 5 / 6 0

2 4

C r a c k s

t o p

t o

h r s . ,

K 9 5 y ^ D I A .

B G D A )

1 4 0 / 1 1 2

V e r y

1 4 0 / 1 4

F a s t e r

3 1 5

+ 2

C 0

a t

m i n u t e s

2 0

p s i

2 4

h r s .

N o

s i g n

b u t

t o p

o f

a n d

s u r f a c e

c o n c a v e

a n d

l i t / m i n .

t e r n

s h o w e d

w a s

s u r f a c e

a f t e r

t e x t u r e

a f t e r

c o m p l e t e

D e e p

8 . 4

w i t h

a b o v e

C r u m b l e

p r e s s u r e

T a b l e

t o

s h r i n k a g e

g a s s i n g

1 0

a f t e r

L I M E

s i m i l a r

c h a n g e s .

C 1 1 2 / C 0

b o t t o m

e s p e c i a l l y

P 8 4 / S E C A R

L 9 6 / C E T O S

p r o p a g a t e d

2 4

s e t t i n g

h a r d e n e d

p a t -

h r s .

-105-

From Table

i t i s evident t h a t the amount of shrinkage i n the

environment o f increase i n temperature depended on the type of s i l i c a t e and

hardener chosen.
Other evidence suggested t h a t the value of shear modulus was due t o
the d w e l l i n g time (d.t.) t h a t a specimen was confined under a prescribed
pressure.

For example, Table 8.2 showed f o r the Wallpaper/p84/For.2 system,

a t column 1 and 3, t h a t the two G^ values were very g r e a t l y d i f f e r e n t ,

probably due t o the d i f f e r e n c e i n d . t . used, where d . t . = 90 seconds,
G = 0.48 N/mm
c

and d . t . = 1800 seconds,

G = 2.57 N/mm
c

, which

consistutes a d i f f e r e n c e of 435%.

(E)

Factors a f f e c t i n g the s t r e n g t h and s t i f f n e s s

I n general, higher s i l i c a t e c o n t r i b u t e d t o b e t t e r s t i f f n e s s and

more hardener i n d i c a t e d considerable increase i n strength, (e.g. Fig. D2).

For example, F i g . B ( l ) showed t h a t f o r the same binder content a t 48.3%
the higher compressive s t r e n g t h was noted f o r Hardener/Binder r a t i o a t 0.83
then 0.28

and a t B = 33.3%, when Hardener/Binder r a t i o equalled 0.00

(no

hardener), the s t r e n g t h recorded was the lowest.

Fib. B(14) showed t h a t as the binder content increased, there was

an

improvement i n Young's Modulus.

8.5

Concluding Remarks
The f i r s t p a r t of t h i s study has been seeking an understanding o f the

a f f i n i t y o f d i f f e r e n t aggregates t o P.84, L96, K95 and C112 grades s i l i c a t e ,

notably DSF/silicate systems, where many d i f f e r e n t types o f hardener have
been t r i e d i n improving the strength of f i n a l products.
systems i n v e s t i g a t e d , the DSF/P84 system was found t o be

Among the many

the most s a t i s f a c t o r y .

This was due t o the combination of l i g h t n e s s , dryness, regular shapes, high

thermal i n s u l a t i o n q u a l i t y and good f i r e r a t i n g , and not l e a s t , also the
ease w i t h which i t could be i n compacted and i t s e x c e l l e n t w o r k a b i l i t y when

-106-

mixing w i t h s i l i c a t e .

This contrasts w i t h mixes using sawdust, where the

presence of other organic materials and i m p u r i t i e s were found e v i d e n t l y

a f f e c t i n g the strength o f the f i n a l product.
The

48).

(Ref.

f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g strength were i n v e s t i g a t e d and t h e i r e f f e c t s

c l a s s i f i e d f o r the named system.

The r e s u l t s have been presented i n

g r a p h i c a l form.
The

second p a r t o f the study has been devoted t o the v e r i f i c a t i o n

of the proposed techniques i n f i n d i n g the shear modulus of a composite.

Six composite systems were f i n a l l y chosen and r e s u l t s o f t e s t s on these
m a t e r i a l s were tabulated and summarized i n Tables 8.1,
The

8.2

8.3.

and

f i n d i n g s of these two p a r t s o f the study have been as f a r as

possible i n f o u r groups o f graphic p r e s e n t a t i o n , namely, Fig.A ( f o r Wallpaper/silicate) ,

silicate)

Fig.B ( f o r D S F / s i l i c a t e ) ,

Fig.C ( f o r s h e l l beads/

and Fig. D ( f o r P e r l i t e / s i l i c a t e ) .

There i s evidence t h a t the strength o f a s i l i c a t e composite sample

i n the form of 50 mm x 100

mm c y l i n d e r , was l a r g e l y dependent on the

following factors:
(1)

Type o f hardener and s i l i c a t e , e.g.

(2)

Forming pressure, e.g. Fig.B.65, B.34,

(3)

Amount o f hardener (or Hardener/silicate r a t i o ) , e.g. Fig.B.65, B . l .

(4)

Method o f c u r i n g , i . e . temperature and d w e l l i n g time, e.g.

B.48,

(5)

B.40,

B.42,

B.72,

B.73

evidence t h a t increases

B.14,

B.35,

and Fig. B.59

B.36

plus B.62

and Fig.A.5, A.14.

Fig.B.72,

and Fig. A.14., A.7, A.6.

Bulk density of f i n a l product, e.g.

F i n a l l y , from F i g . B.13,

Fig. B.32

B.15

Fig.B.65, and A.14.

and B.69,

there was

i n binder content were'accompanied by

also i n the s t i f f n e s s of the specimen.

strong
increases

-107-

CHAPTER 9

CONCLUSION

The s u i t a b i l i t y o f four types o f s o f t granular materials f o r bonding

and s t a b i l i z a t i o n by soluable sodium s i l i c a t e s i s believed t o be a f f e c t e d
p r i m a r i l y by the temperature o f the mixture and the applied moulding pressure.
The moisture content and the p a r t i c u l a r type o f s i l i c a t e binder w i l l also
have an i n f l u e n c e .
The experiments

and t e s t s t h a t have been performed were designed t o

show t h a t nature o f these r e l a t i o n s h i p s so as t o give guidance when such

m a t e r i a l s are being developed f o r possible uses i n s t r u c t u r a l components.
The experiments were very much s i m p l i f i e d since no attempt was made t o
provide an e x t e r n a l heat source, nor was any attempt made t o provide hot
gassing

o f the sample.

However, r e l a t i o h s i p s have been found between the

s t r e n g t h , forming pressure and the binder content.

The m a t e r i a l s t o be bonded were o f t e n porous and had the capacity t o
absorb large amounts o f l i q u i d ;

and f o r t h i s reason a large q u a n t i t y o f

sodium s i l i c a t e binder was o f t e n required.

The d i f f i c u l t y i n o b t a i n i n g

adequate dehydration l e d only t o a slowly improving strength o f the sample.

The v i r g i n f i b r e s i n Paper Pulp were found t o have a r e l a t i v e l y high
moisture content and they could be s t a b l y compacted a t an elevated temp e r a t u r e w i t h o u t the need f o r any binder.
a t room temperature.
compaction

The optimal

However, t h i s was not possible

moisture content t o f a c i l i t a t e stable

a t high temperature can be determined experimentally, but t h i s

was not performed since t h i s p r o j e c t was concerned only w i t h cold processes.

However, a t a considerably high binder content, the use o f

elevated temperature treatments are, probably, not appropriate since sodium

s i l i c a t e d i f f e r s a l o t from water.
an elevated temperature.

I n p r a c t i s e , i t s v i s c o s i t y reduces a t

This can lead t o inhomogeneity o f the sample

-108-

because the sodium s i l i c a t e w i l l p r e f e r e n t i a l l y c o l l e c t a t the bottom o f

the sample.

This i s an undesirable e f f e c t and provides d i f f i c u l t i e s f o r

experimental study o f the warm/hot process.

Sodium s i l i c a t e i s being used as a inorganic binder i n the foundry
industry.

This has been reviewed i n Chapter

2 . Very l i t t l e work has

been attempted p r e v i o u s l y t o combine sodium s i l i c a t e w i t h types o f aggregates

such as paper pulp and v e r m i c u l i t e .

I n composite c o n s t r u c t i o n , the f i r s t

step u s u a l l y considered i s t o e s t a b l i s h p r e d i c t a b l e strength - time

relationship.

Sodium s i l i c a t e i s capable o f s e t t i n g w i t h i n seconds w i t h

the a d d i t i o n o f other agents as already reviewed.

This undoubtedly,

upgrades t h e s i l i c a t e from merely a glue t o a very u s e f u l 'rapid hardening

cement.'

A product such as t h a t obtained by mixing sodium s i l i c a t e

anhydrous and o r d i n a r y P o r t l a n d cement i s already recognised t o provide

b e t t e r s t r e n g t h and water-tightness than other ordinary concrete.
I n t h i s work i t has been shown t h a t there are n o t less than seven
agents, apart from ordinary Portland cement, which are seen t o improve the
q u a l i t y o f the s i l i c a t e - s t a b i l i z e d products. (See Fig.B.32 and B.74).
Provided the c o r r e c t method o f compaction i s chosen, together w i t h a
basic understanding o f the p h y s i c a l nature o f the aggregate,

(such as

softness, f o r example), many m a t e r i a l s can r e a l i s t i c a l l y be s t a b i l i z e d by

'sodium s i l i c a t e cement' a t a very much lower cost than would be i n the
case o f using cement alone.
DSF-Vermiculite, f o r example, i n t h i s study has proved very s u i t a b l e
t o mix w i t h sodium s i l i c a t e i n the presence o f other agents.
Also, i t has been shown t h a t Paper pulp provides some p r a c t i c a l
d i f f i c u l t i e s because o f i t s high moisture content as supplied from the
p u l p e r , b u t t h a t these may be overcome t o produce a u s e f u l r e s u l t .

Another

t y p i c a l case where u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n has been obtained has been the ident i f i c a t i o n o f two m a t e r i a l s which are t o t a l l y incompatible.
expanded polystyrene beads and sodium s i l i c a t e systems.

These are

This i s mainly

-109-

due t o the problem o f o b t a i n i n g s u i t a b l e mechanical i n t e r l o c k i n g among

aggregates because o f t h e i r high r e s i l i e n c e and because the p a r t i c l e s are
spherical.

F i n a l l y , expanded p e r l i t e , which resembles sand i n i t s chemical

content . o f s i l i c o n , i s a p o s s i b l e m a t e r i a l f o r adopting the CC^-gassing

technique t o o b t a i n h i g h - s t r e n g t h m a t e r i a l s .

A more s u i t a b l e method of

compaction would be a v i b r a t i n g type r a t h e r than the s t a t i c compaction used

i n these experiments.

The disadvantage o f the CO^-silicate process i s i t s

gradual loss i n strength as the gassed-product absorbs moisture slowly from

the

atmosphere, although a l a y e r o f p r o p r i e t o r y sealent can be used t o

achieve water resistance.

I n general, sodium s i l i c a t e has not been success-

f u l l y used i n conditions o f outdoor exposure because o f i t s s e n s i t i v i t y t o

water and moist a i r .

I t i s d i f f i c u l t , t h e r e f o r e , t o draw any sensible com-

parison o f i t s d u r a b i l i t y alone w i t h other s t a b i l i z e r s such as p l a s t e r and

cement.
The two t e s t s , t o r s i o n and a x i a l shear, a t t a i n an assessment o f each
others r e l i a b i l i t y when used i n conjunction.

This provides a d d i t i o n a l

i n s i g h t i n t o the s u i t a b i l i t y of compacting s o f t materials t o a required

strength.
I t i s suggested t h a t f u r t h e r work be conducted i n the f o l l o w i n g areas:
(1)

A shear vane c e n t r a l piece could replace the c i r c u l a r rod c u r r e n t l y

used i n t h i s work.

A piece o f apparatus s i m i l a r t o a Laboratory

shear vane t e s t e r used t o o b t a i n the shear strength o f cohesive

s o i l would be recommended.
(2)

The shear modulus obtained from the t e s t described here should be

more thoroughly v e r i f i e d by other methods.
Besides the many shortcomings found i n using water-soluble

silicate

alone, there are many encouraging aspects when sodium s i l i c a t e i s mixed

w i t h agents l i k e Portland cement and high alumina cement t o provide potent i a l l y new s t a b i l i z e r s f o r very wide c i v i l engineering a p p l i c a t i o n s .

APPENDIX

PHOTOGRAPHS

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APPENDIX I I
TEST

MODIFIED

APPARATUS

AGGREGATE

22

IMPACT TEST

APPARATUS

STRIKER

ROD

/
V

V
TRIGGER
770

mm

GUIDE

RING

. SOLID / HOLLOW RAMMER

( TOTAL MASS

i n c l u d i n g rammer ,

= k.3 kg )

STEEL / PERSPEX

1
BASE

PLATE

MOULD

EXTENTABLE

STEEL

5H-

MOULD

+ BASE

mm

70

10

mm

100

57.5

mm

mm

7-7
2 0 mm

VA
30

mm

mm

19.5 ram DIAMETER f o r

LOCATING THE CENTRE S T E E L
"""""VENTS

( 1 mm diameter )

3DC
C0

76

mm

/ AIR

INLET

ROD

DETAILS OF THE MODIFIED AGGREGATE IMPACT TEST

APPARATUS

MASS OF RAMMER (STEEL)

H 2 5 g ( SOLID )

DIAMETER OF RAMMER

48

HEIGHT OF DROP OF RAMMER

ADJUSTABLE FROM 50 mm to 580 mm

INNER DIAMETER OF MOULD

56 mm (STEEL) , 5 0 mm (PERSPEX )

INTERNAL HEIGHT OF MOULD

130 mm / 1 0 0 mm

mm

WALL THICKNESS OF MOULD

TOTAL MASS OF COMPACTION
APPARATUS ( MODIFIED)

2.375 mm ( STEEL ) , 3.15 mm ( PERSPEX )

^5.8 kg

MASS OF HOLLOW RAMMER(STEEL)

1531 gm

INNER DIAMETER

19.25 mm

OUTER DIAMETER

5 0 . 8 5 mm

WALL THICKNESS OF RAMMER

15.8

mm

HEIGHT OF HOLLOW RAMMER

109

mm

DERIVATION

For r i g i d rod ;

STRESS

end load ; SHEAR

2irr L
v

rL r
N

STRAIN

2 If r L

VIRTUE WORK

= 1

(re

civ

l/G

N/ (2 7fGL)

N /(2 T|" r L )

dr

(dr/r)

N> ln(R /R.)

o 1

2 I f LG

CenVe S+ecl Rod

(ii)

R i g i d tod - TORQUE

T=(2Tj"rLC)*
7" = T/(2 I f r
T B

= 1/G *

- L)
2

= T/

T /(4T[ r
fRo
(2TTL G ) J
dr/r

L ).(2ir r

S T/

(2lfL G ) * ( - j r * (R )

L W

T
L G
\

i'(Rj))

(iii)

As p r e v i o u s l y d e r i v e d
For T o r s i o n T e s t :
R

2
2
- R
o
1

(1)

8
R

/(.TfLG

&

For Shear

R.

Test:

In (

/
(2)

2 I f LG

To f i n d T,

assume

200 GN/m

steel

78 GN/m

G
steel

0.291

Vsteel
from

G O ,

where L

= 50 mm

165.74 mm

T(6.41)

&

32

.o

(258.55 x i o ) *
3

(N - mm)

From general dimensions of moulds and s t e e l bar, where

R

= 53.93 mm

R. = 19.05 mm
l
L

( R

= Length of specimen compacted

o "
R

R.

2.4117 x 1 0 " .

mm"

(a)

1.04

(b)

(iv)

S u b s t i t u t i n g ( a ) , (b) i n t o (1) and ( 2 ) , hence

Gradient of T vs H
5210.58 *

curve

(4)

0.1655 * N

(5)

L * A

where

i s ' the max. shear f o r c e measured from Proving

Ring

i s the length of compacted specimen, u s u a l l y 95mm

i s the d e f l e c t i o n measured when sample under compression

load, using second d i a l gauge attached to the loading p l a t e .

C a l i b r a t i o n of Torque/Twist meter

= 2 0 0 GN/m

steel

G . .
steel

= 7 8 GN/m

V steel

T_
Js

when

0.291

= Gs8
Ls

L s = 50 mm, 8 c

Js =

o T = (258.55xlO )-0

T (6.41)
32

(N - mm)

Dimension of mould and s t e e l bar f o r s h e a r / t o r s i o n specimen

R
o
R.
1

53.93 mm

19.05 mm
Length of t e s t specimen

R
R

2
o
o

- R.

2 2
R.

2.4117 x 10

/ R \
o

= 1.04

C r o s s - s e c t i o n a l areas of mould
2" Perspex mould

2026.83 mm

2284.3 mm

2
S t e e l mould

-3

mm

-2

APPENDIX I V

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
Vacu-Blast-Beads

(S.G.S.)

Soda - lime g l a s s type

Combined s i l i c a ,

S i 0

72.8%

CaO

8.5%

MgO

3.4%

Na 0
2

12.5%

K 0

1.0%

A 1

23

Fe 0
2

Source:

R e f . 93

'1.7%
0.16%

BS.

4*o we j*> i loo 1^

(00 f

L.

.L-

l B >

* \s ,n

1 . .1

4* u 4tt
1

._L.

34

>o

of 11 w fc m. i*. t& s i

1.

1 1 1

& r
1

/
IS*
n>
* to

J
1

/
/
10<

2wo $<tco

ANALYSIS 1

O.o
I*
l
I?

*tt>
too
loo
2(0

(00

15.0

lo.n

k.o

2.5
1.0

90
loo

IOO.O

<D.5

2..5

^-j-'T,' 4 J " M o H i i B M t t n to M 4 34 ?o
U It ifc l. iv tt> 9 ^
A.S.T.m. fa m VM*> loo 1^0 i%c ue leo to fe> ( e f t C 4 P X l e v l ' t
'
I
I
I,
1 i l l
. 1 1 1 . 1
1 1
.
.
.
7i f I
t
,J

4 jf

10<
9

i
do

l \
$0 6 c1 ?fo<joic0

4c

480

iM

f M X9C

r
AAKrt
14

IS

CJuiMLtLAlive

ICO
%tl>
A *

( A *

S I

n
too
i*>
2.00

u z

l.o

rt.o

OA

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PerUV*.

t dried)

i.

i
r

i s i ^ M f e n/M ^ 515
* t n - n f n
snST
1_

* w > i m i H i t t i v w n u s i 4< H %a %g ^ j . t IU. i t to % y

.ST.P1. to 5i{ ^
lootI

l o e

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I | l i i i i. I .1

lw)

to ^
I

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1

i f 3o >S 't *
1

I i ik-U^

l o tS % *

'

'

4
&

* *i '

Curve

ANALYSIS

CUMULATIVE

o.o
o.o
x o

1*
IS

I 60.0
loo. O
qa.o

Curve 1 o.o
0 . 5
4 . 5

Curve

Ceo
i.s2to
loo
loo

90
*V

LeigWk/v

100.0

1.5
2o.o
12.0

izo
<o.n

o.<5
0 . 5

) . 5

2_- &iul<lv\_<3

REFERENCES

L ! M ! N G

HLh

RE-FPE i\ C S i 1 , U

!0:'i?::i

.i

SEP ^ i s ,

I'Wti

AUTHOR'INDEX

(
.10
J 1
lc
i J

FUG.

R E r-1 s;

C . SETAE

f<FF<53)

^4

2 )

DAGCN

J'I

15
15
] /
It!
19

1)
ALLEN

3)
OCIPA

REF ( 3 4 )

4)
EE'I 1CSS

FEE (6 )

24
c^

CHANCELLOR

it)

fc.J.

r.

REF(54)

REF(7)

REF(45)

<
cc
c >

6)
CLEf

7!
COLLINS

D. L .

R E F (4 )

8)
CRAIG

R.F,

REFU5)

9)
ELL ICTT

C.J.

REF (75 )

?v
J

= 2

3J

4i
42
= J
44
45
<iu
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