Concept and principle of child development

Concept

Changes occur during human development. Child development relates to the

biological and psychological changes that occur in human beings between
conception and the end of adolescence. It was divided into two aspects which are
growth and development. The growth is the change in size and maturity (Woolfolk
and Margeretts, 2007). In the other word, it means quantitative changes or physical
growth. For example, height and weight. It can be measured and observed
physically. The changes include an increase in size, height, body parts and the
nerves in the brain. Growth consists of cognitive and physical aspects. It is
influenced by genetic and hereditary, parents health and the childs environment. In
the other hand, development means the changes in the biological pattern, the
cognitive and social emotion of an individual from birth to the end of life (Santrock,
2008). It is qualitative changes or an increase in the complexity of function and skill
progression. It cannot be measured but can be experienced. The term development
is a way to understand the child's status and to rationalize practice. Developmental
change may occur as a result of genetically-controlled processes known as
maturation. It is also a result of environmental factors and learning. It means that the
ability to learn from the environment by adapting to the surroundings. These
developmental changes may be influenced by genetic factors and events during
prenatal life. The idea of development is used to give order and meaning to changes
over time in children's physical, cognitive, psychosocial, and moral development. So,
it is important to understand the social, cognitive, emotional, and educational
development of children because it is considered vital to society.

Principle

Development is orderly. It occurs in a relatively orderly sequence, with later

abilities, skills, and knowledge building on those already acquired. Children usually
have to learn one skill or develop in one area before they can learn another skill. For
example, children crawl before they walk, they eat soft foods before solid foods, they
babble before them form words. Development also starts from something concrete to
abstract. Two years children will be able to say and understand many words with the
help of others. This is an example of how cognitive and language developments
occur from simple tasks to more complex tasks. Likewise, physical skills develop
from general to specic movements. For example, think about the way an infant
waves its arms and legs. These movements are random. In several months, the
infant will likely be able to grab a block with his or her whole hand. Then, the same
infant will grip a block with the thumb and forenger. These growths involve the
bigger muscles first before the fine muscles.
Besides, development occurs in stages. Children seem to go through stages
of development where many changes will occur followed by a period of little
noticeable changes before the next level of development occurs. It is a continuous
process. During the process, a child will improve his or her existing skills. Children
are active learners. It depends on direct physical and social experience because it
transmitted knowledge to construct their own understandings of the world around
them. The growth and development also occurs at different rates. The growth and
development of a child is different from the other children. Children show different
modes of knowing, learning and different ways of representing what they know.
Next, development depends on the outcome of interaction between maturity
and learning. It refers to the sequence of biological changes in children. These
orderly changes give children new skills and abilities. Most of the maturation
depends on changes in the brain and the nervous system. These changes help
children to enhance their thinking abilities and motor skills. A rich learning
environment helps children develop to their potential. Maturity derives with the
existing potential of an individual and it is influenced by genetic. Unlike maturity,
learning is the outcome of practices, imitation or identification that needs effort. The

process of learning helps the children to develop their potential. Development and
learning are influenced by multiple social and cultural contexts. It based on the
interaction of biological maturation and the environment, which includes both the
physical and the social worlds that children live in. Moreover, development
progresses when children have opportunities to practice newly acquired skills
especially when they experience a challenge.

Factors influencing childs cognitive development

There are many factors influencing childs cognitive development. Changes in

cognitive skills are influenced by the childs experiences and through social
interaction with family, friends, teachers and others.
The first factor is maturation or biological in origin. It controls the development
of the human being. According to Piagets system, maturation does not actually
determine development but simply makes certain kinds of learning possible. So,
physical maturation allows a child to learn to control tongue, lip, mouth movements
that able them to learn to speak. But, without the right experiences, physical
maturation would not result in a child who speaks. Next is about assimilation and
accommodation. Assimilation involves a minor change in the childs cognitive system
because previous learning and behaviours are being used and practiced. It adjusted
the existing scheme to fit a new experience. Unlike assimilation, accommodation
involves changes in the mental system because previous learning and behaviours
are being modified. New information is used to establish a scheme. In Piagets
terms, there are schemata involved. The idea of a scheme as an organised
collection of thoughts or ideas related with a particular topic or experience. It is a
useful device for thinking about on children gather information about specific aspects
of their experience. Assimilation and accommodation are the processes that make
adaption possible throughout life. These are not separate and independent
processes because all accommodation requires assimilation.
The next factor is equilibration. Equilibration is the process of seeking to
restore the balance between what is familiar and known (Siegler, 1998). It is a
tendency to maintain a balance between assimilation and accommodation. It is the
way children respond to conflicts based on what they already know and what they
experience in daily life. According to Piaget, it is the most important influence driving
cognitive development.

The other factor is social interaction or environment that refers to all external
experiences. Through active interaction with the real world, the children develop
important concepts about objects and their properties. Children elaborate their ideas
about things, others and about self when they start to interact with other people.
According to Piagets perspective, children actively exploring their world and learning
by experimenting through physical and mental activity. Social interaction is very
important because children are interacting with their peers who have had similar
experiences. It will stimulate cognitive development.

Cognitive development of a child

Piagets theory of cognitive development shows a very different prospect. It is

based on letting children to build up their own ideas rather than offering those ideas
through direct teaching. One of the functions of mind is to classify information into
schemata. This is an active process by which the young child continually finds
relationships among objects (Goldhaber, 2000). The child actually builds up his or
her own knowledge about the object and the relationships that exist within them
when the child controls and modifies the object physically. Thus, Piaget explained
that knowledge should be obtained by gaining experience and indulging into
activities rather than obtaining it from other people. Children have to play their own
roles to construct their own knowledge. That clarifies why Piagets theory is also
called constructivist theory.
Piaget proposed four stages of cognitive development, namely the
sensorimotor period (birth-2years old), preoperational period (2-7 years old),
concrete operation period (7-12 years old) and formal operation period (12adulthood). During the sensorimotor period, babies manage sensory experiences
with physical actions. To conduct activities like moving, touching and reaching, they
use their sensory organs like eyes, ears, tongue, nose and skin. Their systems are
based on their behaviours during the early stage. Towards the end of the stage,
babies tend to characterise things via non verbal communication like symbols and
signals. Then, they observe others and tend to imitate them.
During the preoperational period, the child uses words to correspond to the
world. They have an enhanced level of vocabulary which enables them to think
about people, objects, feelings, animals, plants and many more. They tend to believe
their eyes; they tend to understand what they see. Children at this period presume
that other people are capable of understanding their ideas as they believe that other
peoples ideas are similar to their ideas. They believe that there is no other point of
view than theirs. During the late stage, children will realize about the difference
between what they observe and the reality.

During the concrete operation period, the children will be able to think and
give logic reasons for issues. Furthermore, they will start to realize about the various
properties of objects rather than focussing on the obvious ones. The egocentricity of
early childhood becomes replaced by an increasing ability to see things from the
other perspectives (Goldhaber, 2000). According to Golhaber, children will be
capable of accepting other peoples views and ideas. During the formal operation
period, children become more matured. They tend to think differently from others.

Discussion
1.0 Piagets Conservation Task was carried out to children aged between 2- 12 years
old. The task was based on length, height, number and mass.
1.1 Length

BEFORE

AFTER

Two straws which were identical in length were placed on a table. A child who
was 5 years old was asked to identify the length of the straws. He mentioned that
both straws were similar in length. When the position of one of the straw was
changed; one of the straws was moved forward, he mentioned that the straw at the
top was longer. When he was asked for an explanation, he said that it seems longer
to him. Piaget said that during preoperational period, children tend to believe their
eyes and they understand what they see. The boy was not able to give a reasonable
explanation for his statement because they have a limited view of reality. When the
similar experiment was carried out to a girl aged 11 years old, she mentioned that
the length of both the straws were the same although the position of the straw was
changed. She explained that changing the location of the objects does not change
the length of objects. Here, Piaget mentioned that during concrete operation period,
children will be able to rely on concrete presence of objects rather than believing
what they see. They will also be able to give reasonable and logic explanations.

1.2 Height

BEFORE

AFTER

Two containers of the same size and height were filled with water and were
placed on a table. A 4 year old child was asked to identify the height of the water in
each container. She mentioned that both containers contain same amount of water.
When the water in one of the containers was poured to another container which was
bigger and greater in height, she mentioned that the bigger container has a greater
amount of water compared to the other container. When she was asked for an
explanation, she said that the container was taller than the other container. Hence,
she said that taller container always has a greater amount of water. Piaget
mentioned that children during preoperational period always believe what they see.
He said that they tend to make general conclusions like taller containers having
greater amount of water. When the same experiment was carried out on a 10 year
old child, he mentioned that both containers have the same amount of water
although the other container was taller. He explained that liquid follows the shape of
the container, but the amount of water does not change. Piaget said that during the
concrete operation period, children will be capable of think differently and give logic
answers due to the knowledge and experience that they have already gone through.

1.3 Number

BEFORE

AFTER

10 coins (10 cent coins) were arranged on a table. 5 of them were placed on
top whereas another 5 were placed at the bottom. The distance among the coins
was similar; equidistant from each other. A 4 year old child was asked to identify the
numbers of coins in each row. She mentioned that both rows have the same number
of coins. When the distance between the coins at the bottom row was increased, the
child mentioned that the number of coins at the bottom row was more compared to
the one at the top. When she was asked for an explanation, she said that the bottom
row was longer; hence it has more number of coins. Piaget said that children during
the preoperational period believe what they see rather than the real issue. Due to
that, the child thinks that longer row has greater number of coins. When the same
experiment was carried out on a 10 year old child, she mentioned that both rows
contain the same number of coins although the bottom row of coins was longer. She
explained that increasing the distance between the coins does not change the
number of coins in the row. Piaget mentioned that children during concrete operation
period tend to believe the real world rather than what they see. Therefore, she was
able to explain logically that distance does not affect the number of things.

1.4 Mass

BEFORE

AFTER

Two pieces of clay which was similar in size were placed on a table. Both
clays were transformed into round shape. A 4 year old child was asked to place both
the clays in her hands. She weighed them and she declared that both were of the
same mass. When one of the clays was mashed, she mentioned that the mashed
clay was lighter. She explained that she feels as if the mashed clay was lighter in her
hands. Piaget here mentioned that children during the preoperational period are
vulnerable to situations among them and they cant make logic hypothesis. So, the
child said that she feels that the mashed one was lighter. When the same experiment
was carried out on an 11 year old child, she mentioned that both the clays; the round
and the mashed clay possess similar mass. She explained that only the shape
changed and not the amount of clay. Piaget said that children during the concrete
operational period can make reasonable hypothesis due to the experience that they
face in their lives. Therefore, the child was able to think logically and give reasonable
answers for it.

Implication of childs cognitive development to the teaching and learning

process

One important implication of Piaget's theory is adaptation of instruction to the

learner's developmental level. The points and content of instruction need to be
consistent with the developmental level of the learner in order to get better
understanding.
Piaget adopted active discovery learning environments. Intelligence grows
according to the processes of assimilation and accommodation. So, experiences
should be planned to allow opportunities for these two processes. Children need to
explore, manipulate, experiment, question, and search out answers for themselves.
But, this does not mean that children should be allowed to do whatever they want.
They must be under control. Teachers should play the main role to evaluate the
child's present cognitive level and their strengths or weaknesses. Instruction should
be personalized and clear so that children would get opportunities to communicate
with one another, to argue and debate issues. Teachers act as facilitators to guide,
encourage and motivate the students because they tend to do mistakes in the
process of learning. Learning is more meaningful if the child is allowed to experiment
on his or her own rather than listening to the teacher lecture. The teacher should
provide and prepare students with materials, situations and events that allow them to
discover new things. They will learn and experience something new. In active
learning, the teacher must trust and have confidence in the child's ability to learn on
his own.

Teachers as the role model play important role to facilitate learning and
educate them by providing a variety of experiences. Through discovery learning,
learners get the opportunities to explore and experiment, thus encouraging new
understandings. Opportunities that allow students of differing cognitive levels to work
together often encourage less mature students to advance to a more mature
understanding. One further implication for instruction is the use of concrete "hands
on" experiences through practical to help children learn.

In a classroom environment, there are many factors that influence and

contribute to learning.

Before planning and applying a learning environment,

teachers need to take time to understand each child because children have different
ability, skills and behaviours. Students learn differently and are at various
developmental levels. Classrooms are widely diverse and complex. Teachers should
properly manage their classrooms to establish expectations and create an excellent
learning environment for each student. It is very important that teachers plan and
create a learning environment that encourages students to do their best and makes
learning more interesting. This will help to motivate all the students in the classroom.
There are two important aspects that are critical to inspire and motivate students
which are value and effort. Students must understand that the work they are
presenting is valuable and being appreciated. Value measures the importance of a
student's work to him or herself and others. Effort is the amount of time, money and
energy students put in order to complete and finish their work. Understanding the
value of academic tasks and the effort needed to complete all the tasks can
encourage and motivate students to perform better in the classroom environment.

Conclusion or suggestions in teaching and learning process

There are many suggestions in teaching and learning process. These are the
strategies for classroom application. First is focus attention by using cueing signal
like Are you listening carefully? By using this signal, students will be more
concentrate and pay attention towards the learning process. Besides, we as the
teacher should emphasise important information and teach how to identify important
ideas so that students will not wasting their time finding irrelevant information or
ideas during learning process.
Second is use prior learning and background knowledge. Teachers should
review previous lessons and brainstorm ideas to generate memory and focus
thinking. This will help students to get better understanding about certain topic.
Teachers also can invite students to talk about their experiences to make new
information meaningful. The next strategy is present information in an organized
manner by showing a logical sequence to ideas to help students gain information in
an organised way. It means that move from simple to complex when presenting new
material. Teachers can guide students by directing them to familiar material that
gives them a framework about a new knowledge. It will help students to adapt the
knowledge they already have and combine it with new information to be processed.
For example, teachers can use concept and mind maps, structured overviews and
outlines.
The other strategies are teach cognitive and memory strategies before review
and practise it. Teachers should repeat important topics and review previous

lessons. This will provide opportunities and chances for students to practice. The last
suggestion is monitor student progress but before that, teachers must be aware of
students level of understanding. There are many types of student with different skills
and abilities. So, as a teacher, we should consider and ready for differences between
students in their learning preferences.

References
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Brandi. (2011). Cognitivism. Retrieved February 2011, from
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Ginn, W. Y. (n.d.). JEAN PIAGET - INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT. Retrieved
February 2012, from http://www.sk.com.br/sk-piage.html
Kay C. Wood, H. S. (2001). Piaget's Stages. Retrieved february 2012, from
http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Piaget's_Stages
Pak, S. (2002). 6 Powerful Factors That Influence a Childs Intellectual Development.
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