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Gregory J. Hancock
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Article
GJ Hancock
Abstract
This article reviews research on cold-formed steel structures published in 2013 and 2014 in three leading journals: the Journal of
Structural Engineering, ASCE, Thin-Walled Structures and the Journal of Constructional Steel Research. It also reviews papers published in the
three main conferences in the area over the same period. These are Eurosteel 2014 (Naples, Italy), the 7th International Conference
on Thin-Walled Structures (Busan, Korea) and the 22nd International Specialty Conference on Cold-Formed Steel Structures (St
Louis, MO, USA). Three research areas which have recently been incorporated in the North American Specification NAS S100:2012
or are being incorporated in the Australian/New Zealand Standard AS/NZS 4600 have been highlighted. These are the works on the
semi-analytical finite strip method for sections in shear by the author and his colleagues at the University of Sydney, net section rupture by Associate Professor Lip Teh at the University of Wollongong and fire design by Professor Mahendran at Queensland
University of Technology.
Keywords
cold-formed connections, cold-formed steel, cold-formed structures, research review
Introduction
Cold-formed steel (CFS) structures are structures composed of structural sections formed by folding at ambient temperature without any heat treatment. They are
normally thin-walled but sections up to 25-mm thick
are now being cold-formed from plate and strip. The
usual manufacturing process is by roll forming where
coil steel passes through a series of rollers which progressively form the desired shape. Traditionally, simple
channels (Cs), zeds (Zs), hat sections and decking have
been used mainly in roof and wall systems, steel storage racks, steel-framed houses (residential) and many
other similar secondary applications. However, the
sections are now being used more commonly in primary structures such as portal frames and floor systems. Furthermore, as the sections become thinner in
higher strength steel, more complex shapes are being
created with the inclusion of more complex stiffeners
both in the flat elements and at the section lips.
Research into CFS structures has increased considerably in recent years. In 2003, the author of this article published a similar review in the Journal of
Constructional Steel Research (Hancock, 2003) which
contained 60 publications. This review cites over 200
papers over a similar 2-year period 20132014 indicating a more than threefold increase in research in the
area. Since the publication of the 2003 paper, there
2
considerably. On the other hand, areas such as corrugated and curved panels, torsion and distortion
(excluding distortional buckling) and enhanced
mechanical properties have seen a reduction in
research. A review of cold-formed stainless steel has
not been included in this review.
Figure 1. Lipped channel section in shear: (a) shear flow distribution and (b) shear buckling curves (Hancock and Pham, 2013).
Hancock
Figure 2. Lipped channel buckling modes in pure shear (200 mm) (Hancock and Pham, 2013): (a) unrestrained buckling mode
(SAFSM) and (b) restrained buckling mode (reSAFSM).
4
members, wall stud member with sheathing attached
and eccentric loading (beamcolumns). The references
are for angles (Shifferaw and Schafer, 2014; Silvestre
et al., 2013), members with dimples and other indentations, perforations and holes (Ekmekyapar et al., 2014;
Kubde and Sangle, 2014; Kulatunga et al., 2014;
Kulatunga and Macdonald, 2013, 2014; Macdonald
and Kulatunga, 2014; Nguyen et al., 2014; Xu et al.,
2014), Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic (CFRP)
strengthening (Kalavagunta et al., 2013), for members
built-up from channel sections (Crisan et al., 2014a;
Dabaon et al., 2014; Fratamico and Schafer, 2014; Li
et al., 2014b; Piyawat et al., 2013; Selvaraj and
Madhavan, 2014; Ting and Lau, 2014a, 2014b), for
fixed-ended columns (Dinis et al., 2014c; Gunalan and
Mahendran, 2013b), for sheathed members (Peterman
and Schafer, 2014) and for members in combined
bending and compression (Li et al., 2014a; Torabian
et al., 2014). Clearly, the most recent research is
directed away from unperforated and single members
to more complex arrangements including perforated
members.
Hancock
Wf
(mm)
t
(mm)
x
(mm)
L
(mm)
1 0.36 x=L
(NAS S100:2012)
50
50
75
75
75
75
125
125
20
30
25
25
40
40
40
50
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.9
2.4
2.4
4.34
8.15
4.90
4.90
10.3
10.3
7.64
11.0
36
36
36
48
48
60
60
60
0.96
0.92
0.95
0.96
0.92
0.95
0.95
0.93
2:39t
+ 0:308 xL
Ww + x
(CCFSS)
0.69
0.63
0.70
0.71
0.64
0.65
0.70
0.66
0.74
0.60
0.66
0.73
0.57
0.61
0.65
0.58
1
W
0:301
Shear walls
There has been a significant increase in research into
steel-framed clad walls, both in shear and compression. Investigations of both seismic and dynamic behaviour have become prominent. The references are for
clad shear walls in compression (Vieira and Schafer,
2013), blast load (Bondok et al., 2013), static shear
(Baldassino et al., 2014; Hernandez-Castillo et al.,
2014; Shakibanasab et al., 2014; Tian et al., 2013;
Yanagi and Yu, 2014) and seismic/dynamic shear
(Baldassino et al., 2014; Balh et al., 2014; Bian et al.,
2014; Buonopane et al., 2014; Iuorio et al., 2014a,
2014b; Javaheri-Tafti et al., 2014; Lin et al., 2014;
Macillo et al., 2014; Shahi et al., 2014; Shamim and
Rogers, 2013; Shimizu et al., 2013; Vigh et al., 2013;
Yu et al., 2014). It is clear that clad and braced shear
walls are useful for resisting seismic shear loads on
CFS frames.
Storage racks
The vast majority of storage racks are constructed
from CFS so that much of the research in the area of
the stability of steel framing is covered by storage
racks. The references are for rack uprights including
buckling (Bernuzzi and Maxenti, 2014; Casafont et al.,
2014; Crisan et al., 2014b; Dinis et al., 2014b; Nedelcu
et al., 2014; Ren and Zhao, 2014; Trouncer and
Rasmussen, 2014), analysis of frames (Gilbert et al.,
2014; Rasmussen and Gilbert, 2013) and connections
(Wang et al., 2014d; Zhao et al., 2014). Interaction
buckling in the uprights of storage rack frames is
clearly an active area of investigation.
Fire design
Fire design research has become more prominent in
recent years especially as more CFS is used in residential construction. Fire design rules in EC3 Part 1.2
(EN 1993-1-2, 2005) are considered to be applicable to
CFS members within the scope of EC3 Part 1.3 (EN
1993-1-3, 2006). However, they were specifically developed for hot-rolled steel structures, and despite some
special provisions given in Annex E of EC3 Part 1.2
for thin-walled sections, past studies have demonstrated the need for specific research on CFS members
exposed to fire conditions in order to develop suitable
fire design rules. CFS members are not always subjected to a uniform temperature exposure. For example, CFS wall and floor systems are often protected by
fire-resistant gypsum plasterboards (Figure 6), and
hence, their lipped channel members (studs and joists)
will be subjected to a non-uniform temperature distribution when exposed to fire on one side (Figure 7).
The simplified method in EC3 Part 1.2 (EN 1993-12, 2005) requires that the design action effects in a
design fire is less than or equal to the corresponding
design capacity of the steel members at any given time
during the design fire, that is, subject to a particular
non-uniform or uniform elevated temperature exposure. This design approach requires thermal performance evaluation of members to determine their
temperature at any given time during the design fire
(Figure 7), a good understanding of the behaviour and
reduced capacities of CFS steel members (columns and
beams) subject to various buckling modes such as
local, distortional and flexural and flexuraltorsional
at elevated temperatures (Figure 8) as well as the
reduced mechanical properties of CFSs at elevated
temperatures (Figure 9). Fire research on CFS members has been addressing the above issues so that
improved fire design rules can be developed. Most
research was aimed at using the ambient temperature
design rules with appropriately modified elevated temperature mechanical properties of CFSs.
During 20132014, Gunalan et al. (2013) and
Gunalan and Mahendran (2013a) extended the fire
research on CFS members at the Queensland
University of Technology to CFS wall systems using
both full-scale fire tests and finite element analyses to
predict their structural and thermal performances in
standard fire conditions and developed suitable fire
Hancock
7
used to calculate the capacity of wall studs subject to
local, distortional or global buckling effects, which
provide the required ultimate load of wall studs versus
time in such parametric fires.
Chen et al. (2013) and Chen and Ye (2014) conducted full-scale fire tests of CFS walls made of different configurations and confirmed Gunalan et al.s
(2013) findings that the use of external insulation
instead of cavity insulation improved the fire performance of walls. Chen et al. (2013) investigated the
effects of using different fire protection boards, based
on which suitable recommendations were made to
improve the fire performance.
Research on individual CFS columns and beams
was also continued during 20132014. Craveiro et al.
(2014) conducted fire tests of lipped channel and builtup channel columns with restrained thermal elongation
to investigate the effects of cross-section, end support
conditions, surrounding structure stiffness and applied
load level. Their results identified the critical parameters that reduced the critical temperature significantly. La m et al. (2014b) conducted a similar study
for CFS lipped channel and built-up channel beams to
investigate the effects of four different profiles, axial
restraint to thermal elongation and rotational stiffness
of beam supports on the failure modes, temperatures
and times. Their tests showed that any axial restraint
to thermal elongation was detrimental to fire performance while the use of closed built-up profiles
improved the fire performance. Cheng et al. (2014)
investigated the fire performance of CFS members
under axial and transverse loading while Gunalan
et al. (2014) investigated the flexuraltorsional buckling behaviour of CFS columns using uniform elevated
temperature tests and finite element analyses to
develop suitable fire design rules, which showed their
adequacy when appropriately reduced mechanical
properties were used.
Local buckling effects of CFS members at elevated
temperatures are currently accounted for using the
conventional EWM with elevated temperature yield
strength based on 0.2% proof strength. Couto et al.
(2014) used a numerical study to investigate the accuracy of this approach and proposed modified effective
width expressions for internal and outstand elements
of CFS profiles exposed to uniform elevated temperatures. Many research studies mentioned above used
nonlinear 3D finite element analyses to study the fire
performance of CFS members and to investigate the
accuracy of elevated temperature design rules.
Ellobody (2013) presents more details of this approach
and the main parameters to be considered for the heat
transfer and structural analyses of CFS columns in fire
conditions.
8
Limited work has been undertaken on CFS connections in fire. Yan and Young (2013) address this issue
through a detailed experimental study of double shear
bolted connections of thin steels exposed to uniform
elevated temperatures. They showed that the use of
ambient temperature design equations for connection
strengths provided conservative predictions when elevated temperature mechanical properties were used.
Assessing the residual strength of CFS structures
following a fire event is important and thus Gunalan
and Mahendran (2014a, 2014b) investigated the postfire mechanical properties of CFSs and proposed suitable predictive equations for this purpose.
Fire research on CFS members, connections and
structural systems is continuing, which will lead to
accurate design methods to predict their structural fire
performance for inclusion in future design standards.
Seismic design
As CFS structures are used in more active seismic
areas, there is an increasing need to carry out research
on cold-formed members and structural systems subject to cyclic loading. Shear walls under cyclic load are
already covered in section Shear walls. The references
are for moment frames (Bai and Lin, 2013; Li et al.,
2014d), strap-braced frames (Dao and Van de Lindt,
2013; Pali et al., 2014; Terracciano et al., 2014), midrise construction (Ozaki et al., 2013; Yuan and Xu,
2014) and framing members (Padilla-Llano et al.,
2014a, 2014b, 2014c). It is interesting to see increasing
research on mid-rise and moment-resisting frames.
Frames
Portal frames composed entirely of cold-formed members are being used frequently and so more research
on their structural behaviour is being undertaken. The
references are for residential and framed buildings (Li
et al., 2013, 2014c; Peterman et al., 2014), moment and
portal frames (Hanna, 2014; Zhang and Rasmussen,
2014) and stressed skin action (Phan et al., 2014a,
2014b; Wrzesien et al., 2014). A significant new area of
research is clad framed and residential buildings and
the effect of the cladding on the frame behaviour especially during seismic action.
Optimisation
Research into section shape optimisation has been carried out for a long time and continues as new algorithms are developed. The references are Ostwald and
Rodak (2013), Moharrami et al. (2014), Franco et al.
Conclusion
This article provides a bibliographical review of papers
published in the area of CFS structures in the Journal
of Structural Engineering, ASCE; Thin-Walled
Structures; Journal of Constructional Steel Research;
Eurosteel 2014 Conference, Naples; 7th International
Conference in Thin-Walled Structures, Busan, Korea,
2014; and the 22nd International Specialty Conference
on Cold-Formed Steel Design and Construction, St
Louis, MO, USA, 2014. The notable feature of this
article is the threefold increase in the number of papers
between a similar review in 2003 and this review from
60 to over 200. The highlight in the period has been
the inclusion of the DSM of design in the North
American Specification NAS:S100 and the Australian/
New Zealand Standard AS/NZS 4600. This has led to
a significant increase in stability research using the
GBT and the FSM including mode interaction. Two
other areas with a major increase in research are fire
design and shear walls particularly under seismic load.
There is an increased need to incorporate much of this
research into new design specifications and standards.
At the time of writing, new editions of NAS:S100 and
AS/NZS 4600 are under preparation using much of
this research.
The author has noted several areas that need further
research during this review. These are the inclusion of
localised loading/web crippling in the DSM of design
so that all modes of failure are covered, more studies
on structural systems and system effects including the
newly developing method of modular construction,
more research on the use of advanced analysis methods
for frames and further investigation of seismic design
of systems as opposed to simply shear walls.
Acknowledgements
The author is grateful for the material provided by
Professor Mahendran (QUT) and Associate Professor Lip
Teh (UOW).
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research,
authorship and/or publication of this article.
Hancock
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