IRISHRISHU

SKELETAL SYSTEM consists of dynamic, living tissues that are able

to grow, detect pain stimuli, adapt to stress and undergo repair after
injury
Skeleton derived fr. Gk, word meaning dried
Far from being dried and nonliving
Joint an articulation where two bones come together, many are
movable, some allow limited movement, others allow no apparent
movement. Structure of a given joint is directly correlated to its degree
of movement
MAJOR FUNCTIONS:
1. Support
2. Protection
3. Movement
4. Storage
5. Blood cell production
EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX
Bone, cartilage, tendons, ligaments are CONNECTIVE
TISSUES
Always contains collagen, ground substance and other
organic molecules, water, minerals
Types and quantities of substances differ in each type
of CT
1) COLLAGEN tough ropelike protein
2) PROTEOGLYCANS large molecules consisting of
polysaccharides attached to core proteins similar to the way
needles of a pine tree are attached to the trees branches
Form large aggregates, attract and retain large
amounts of water between their polysaccharide
3) TENDONS AND LIGAMENTS contains large amount of
protein fibers- making it tough like ropes and cables
4) CARTILAGE contains collagen (to make it tough) and
proteoglycans (to make it smooth and resilient) and thus
makes it rigid and springs back to original shape after being
bent or compressed
Shock absorber
5) BONE collagen (flexible strength) and minerals (phosphate
and calcium crystals - hydroxyapatite)
GENERAL FEATURES OF BONE
4 CATEGORIES: (based on shape)
1) Long bones longer than they are wide
Upper and lower limbs
2) Short bones as wide as they are long
Wrist and ankle
3) Flat bones thin, flattened
Certain skull bones, scapula, sternum
4) Irregular bones have shapes that do not fit readily to
the other 3 categories
Vertebrae and facial bones
STRUCTURE OF A LONG BONE
1) DIAPHYSIS central shaft
2) EPIPHYSIS each end
3) ARTICULAR CARTILAGE covers the ends of epiphyses
were the bone joins with other bones (thin layer)
4) EPIPHYSEAL PLATE where the bone grows in length,
composed of cartilage, between each diaphysis and
epiphysis, also called growth plate, only present in bones
that still grow
5) EPIPHYSEAL LINE when bone growth stops
Cartilage of each epiphyseal plate is replaced by bone
6) MEDULLARY CAVITY diaphysis; smaller cavities in the
epiphysis of long bones and in interior of other bones
7) MARROW located in the cavities, soft tissue
a) YELLOW MARROW adipose tissue
b) RED MARROW blood forming cells and is the ONLY
site of blood formation in adults
more in children
in adults, confined to the bones in the central axis of the
body and in most proximal epiphyses of the limbs
(as person ages, red is replaced by yellow)
8) PERIOSTEUM dense connective tissue that covers the
outer surface of bones
Consists of 2 layers, contains blood vessels and nerves

9)

ENDOSTEUM thinner connective tissue membrane that

lines the surface of the medullary cavity
HISTOLOGY OF BONE
1) OSTEOBLASTS contained inside the periosteum and
endosteum
Formation of bone, remodeling and repair
2) OSTEOCYTES when osteoblasts are covered with matrix
3) OSTEOCLASTS bone eating cells
Present and contribute to bone repair and remodeling
by removing existing bone
4) LAMELLAE thin sheets of extracellular matrix that form
bones
5) LACUNAE spaces located between lamellae, contains
osteocytes
6) CANALICULI tiny canals where cell processes extend
from the osteocytes across the matrix of the lamellae
2 MAJOR TYPES OF BONE TISSUE
1) COMPACT BONE solid matrix with cells
Forms most of the diaphysis of a long bone and thinner
surface of others
Predictable pattern of repeating units
a) OSTEONS haversian systems, pattern of units,
each consist of concentric rings of lamellae
surrounding a central canal/ haversian canal
b) CENTRAL CANALS where blood vessels
parallel to the long axis are located
2) SPONGY BONE cancellous bone, lacy network of bone
with many small, marrow filled spaces
Located in the epiphyses of long bones
Forms interior of all other bones
Consists of:
a) TRABECULAE delicate interconnecting dots or
plates of bone, resemble beams and scaffolding of
a bldg., add strength to the bone without added
weight. Spaces between these are filled with
marrow, this consists of several lamellae with
osteocytes between them, no blood vessels
penetrate this and has no central canals
BONE OSSIFICATION formation of bone by osteoblasts
In the fetus: 2 processes of bone development
1) INTRAMEMBRANOUS OSSIFICATION bone formation
that occurs within connective tissue membranes
Primarily in the bones of the skull
Begin in areas called ossification centers (2 or more
exist in flat skull bone, skull bones result from fusion of
these centers as they enlarge)
2) ENDOCHONDRAL OSSIFICATION bone formation that
occurs inside cartilage
Bones at the base of the skull, remaining skeletal
system
From cartilage models
Chondrocytes increase in number, enlarge, die,
cartilage matrix becomes calcified and die
PRIMARY OSSIFICATION CENTER center part of the diaphysis,
where bone first begins to appear
SECONDARY OSSIFICATION CENTER in the epiphysis

Both result in compact and spongy bone

BONE GROWTH
Occurs on the deposition of new bone lamellae onto
existing bone or other connective tissue
APPOSITIONAL GROWTH as osteoblasts deposit new
bone matrix on bone surfaces between periosteum and
existing bone matrix, bone increases in width/diameter
EPIPHYSEAL PLATE where bone elongation happens,
occurs through endochondral
ossification
BONE REMODELING
Involves the removal of existing bone by osteoclasts
and deposition of new bone by osteoblasts
In all bones
Responsible for changes in bone shape, adjustment of
bone to stress, bone repair, calcium ion regulation in
body fluids

Bone growth when newly formed spongy bone in the

epiphyseal plate forms compact bone
Important to maintain calcium levels within normal limits
Osteoporosis weakens bone and makes it susceptible
to fracture
BONE REPAIR
Broken bone means damaged bone blood vessels
2-3 days after injury blood vessels and cells form
surrounding tissues to invade the clot
Some of the cells produce fibrous network of
connective tissues between broken bones that hold the
fragment together and fills the gap
Other cells produce islets of cartilage in the fibrous
network two bone fragments called CALLUS
Osteoblasts enter callus = spongy bone
Spongy bone formation is usually complete 4-6 weeks
after injury
Immobilization = critical because movement can
refracture the delicate new matrix
Spongy bone is slowly remodeled to form compact and
spongy bone = complete remodeling
If bone heals properly, healed region can be even
stronger than the adjacent bone
BONE AND CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS
When osteoblast and osteoclast activity is balanced,
movement of calcium in and out of the bone are equal
Low blood calcium level = increased osteoclast activity
and vice versa
Maintained by 3 hormones:
PARATHYROID HORMONE (PTH) parathyroid gland
Secreted when blood calcium levels are too LOW,
increases calcium and maintain homeostatic levels
3 simultaneous mechanisms to increase blood
calcium levels:
1) Indirectly stimulates osteoclasts to break bone =
releases stored Ca into blood
2) Stimulates kidney to take up calcium from the
urine and return it to blood
3) Stimulates formation of active Vit. D that promotes
calcium absorption from the small intestine
VITAMIN D skin
Secreted when blood calcium levels are too LOW,
increases calcium and maintain homeostatic levels
CALCITONIN thyroid gland
Secreted when blood calcium levels are too HIGH
Inhibits osteoclast activity
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS OF BONE ANATOMY
206 bones in the average adult skeleton (actual number
varies from person to person, decreases with age as
some bones fuse)
FORAMEN hole in the bone, usually exists because this is
where a nerve/blood vessel passes through
CANAL / MEATUS elongated tunnel-like passage /
foramen
FOSSA depression in a bone
TUBERCLE / TUBEROSITY lump on a bone
PROCESS projection from a bone
CONDYLE smooth rounded end of a bone where it forms
a joint with other bones
AXIAL AND APPENDICULAR PORTIONS

AXIAL SKELETON
Skull, vertebral column, thoracic cage
SKULL - 22 bones
SUBDIVISIONS OF THE SKULL
a) BRAINCASE encloses the cranial cavity
Consists of 8 bones that surround and protect the brain
b) FACIAL BONES - 14 facial bones form the structure of
the face, 13 of these are solidly connected to form the
bulk of the face
The MANDIBLE forms a freely movable joint
3 auditory ossicles in each middle ear (total of 6)
LATERAL VIEW
1) PARIETAL & TEMPORAL BONES form the large portion
of the side of the head

These 2 join together on the side of the head at the

squamous suture
SUTURE joint uniting bones of the skull
PARIETAL BONE
Anteriorly: PARIETAL BONE -> FRONTAL BONE by
the coronal suture
Posteriorly: PARIETAL BONE -> OCCIPITAL BONE by
the lambdoid suture
TEMPORAL BONE
Prominent feature is a large opening = external auditory
canal
MASTOID PROCESS can be seen and felt as a
prominent lump just posterior to the ear, where
important neck muscles involved in rotation of the head
are attached
SPHENOID BONE anterior to the temporal bone,
single bone that extends completely across the skull
ZYGOMATIC BONE cheekbone, anterior to sphenoid
bone
ZYGOMATIC ARCH joined processes of the temporal
and zygomatic bones, form a bridge across the side of
the face, provides major attachment site for a muscle
moving the mandible
MAXILLA upper jaw, superior set of teeth
MANDIBLE lower jaw, interior set of teeth

FRONTAL VIEW
Frontal bone, zygomatic bones, maxillae, mandible
Teeth are very prominent in this view
ORBITS cone-shaped fossae, provides protection for
the eyes, attachment point for muscles that move the
eyes
SUPERIOR AND INFERIOR ORBITAL FISSURES
openings through which nerves and blood vessels
communicate with the orbit or pass to the face
OPTIC FORAMEN where the optic nerve passes
NASOLACRIMAL CANAL passes from the orbit to
the nasal cavity, contains a duct that carries tears from
the eyes to the nasal cavity
LACRIMAL BONE seen in the orbit just above the
opening of the nasolacrimal canal
NASAL SEPTUM divides the nasal cavity into left and
right parts, its bony part consist of the VOMER
(inferiorly) and by the PERPENDICULAR PLATE OF
THE ETHMOID (superiorly)
NASAL BONES bridge of the nose, external nose is
mostly formed of cartilage
NASAL CONCHAE bony shelves of each of the
lateral walls of the nasal cavity, increase the surface
area in the nasal cavity
INFERIOR NASAL CONCHA separate bone
MIDDLE AND SUPERIOR NASAL CONCHA
projections from the ethmoid bone
PARANASAL SINUSES decrease the weight of the
skull and act as a resonating chambers during voice
production frontal, maxillary, ethmoidal, sphenoidal
MASTOID AIR CELLS additional sinuses of the skull,
located in the mastoid processes of the temporal bone,
open into the middle ear instead of the nasal cavity
INTERIOR OF THE CRANIAL CAVITY
THREE CRANIAL FOSSAE (anterior, middle, posterior) formed as
the developing skull conforms to the shape of the brain
FORAMEN MAGNUM where the spinal cord joins the
brain, located in the
SELLA TURCICA contains the pituitary gland
SKULL VIEWED FROM BELOW
OCCIPITAL CONDYLES smooth points of articulation
between skull and vertebral column, beside the foramen
magnum
STYLOID PROCESSES pointed, project from the interior
surface of the temporal bone, where the hyoid bone, and the
pharynx originates
MANDIBULAR FOSSA where the mandible articulates
with the temporal bone, anterior to the mastoid process
HARD PALATE floor of the nasal cavity and the roof of the
mouth
MAXILLAE forms the anterior 2/3 of the hard palate
-

PALATINE BONES posterior 1/3 of the hard palate

SOFT PALATE connective tissues and muscles, extend
posteriorly from the hard palate
HARD AND SOFT PALATES separates the nasal cavity
and nasopharynx from the mouth
HYOID BONE
Unpaired, U-shaped bone, NOT part of the skull, has
NO direct bony attachment to the skull
Muscles and ligaments attach this to the skull
Provides an attachment for some tongue muscles,
attachment point for important neck muscles that
elevate the larynx during speech or swallowing

VERTEBRAL COLUMN backbone, central axis of the

skeleton, extends from the base of the skull to slightly past
the end of the pelvis
Adults: 26 individual bones, grouped into 5 regions, 7
cervical vertebrae, 12 thoracic vertebrae, 5 lumbar
vertebrae, 1 sacral bone, 1 coccyx bone
ADULT SACRAL AND COCCYX BONE fuse from 5
and 3-4 individual bones
C1-C7, T1-T12, L1-L5, S, CO
4 MAJOR CURVATURES (adults)
1) CERVICAL REGIONS curves anteriorly
2) THORACIC REGIONS curves posteriorly
3) LUMBAR REGIONS curves anteriorly
4) SACRAL AND COCCYGEAL REGIONS
curves posteriorly
KYPHOSIS abnormal posterior curvature of the
spine, mostly in upper thoracic region, hunchback
condition
LORDOSIS an abnormal anterior curvature of the
spine, mainly in lumbar region, swayback condition
SCOLIOSIS abnormal lateral curvature of the spine
5 MAJOR FUCTIONS OF THE VERTEBRAL
COLUMN
1) Supports weight of head and trunk
2) Protects the spinal cord
3) Allows spinal nerves to exit the spinal cord
4) Provides a site for muscle attachment
5) Permits movement of head and trunk

GENERAL PLAN OF THE VERTEBRAE

Each vertebra consists of a body, an arch, various
processes
BODY weight bearing portion of each vertebra
INTERVERTEBRAL DISKS separates vertebral bodies,
formed by fibrocartilage
VERTEBRAL ARCH surrounds a large opening called
vertebral foramen
Has 2 pedicles, 2 laminae
VERTEBRAL CANAL where the spinal cord is located,
protecting it from injury
TRANSVERSE AND SPINOUS PROCESSES provide
attachment sites for muscles that move the vertebral column
INTERVERTEBRAL FORAMINA where the spinal nerves
exit the spinal cord
ARTICULAR PROCESS where the vertebrae articulate
each other
Has an articular facet
REGIONAL DIFFERENCES IN VERTEBRAE
1) CERVICAL VERTEBRAE has very small bodies, EXCEPT
for the ATLAS which has no body.
relatively delicate and has small bodies = dislocations
and fractures are more common
ATLAS first cervical vertebra, holds up the head
Atlas and occipital lobe = motion of the head slight
tilting of head from side to side
AXIS second cervical vertebra
Considerable amount of ROTATIONS occur in this
vertebra
DENS process where rotation occurs
2) THORACIC VERTEBRAE long, thin, spinous processes
directed inferiorly
Has EXTRA ARTICULAR FACETS on their lateral
surfaces that articulate the RIBS

3)

LUMBAR VERTEBRAE large, thick bodies, heavy

rectangular transverse and spinous processes
Ruptured intervertebral disks are common here
Where the weight of the body is
Superior articular facets = medial
Inferior articular facets = lateral
^^ locks adjacent lumbar vertebrae together = strength
SACRUM where the five sacral vertebrae are fused into a single
bone
COCCYX tailbone, usually consists of 4 or more or less fused
vertebra
Easily broken down when a person falls by sitting down
hard on a solid surface or during childbirth
RIB CAGE protects the vital organs within the thorax and prevents
the collapse of the thorax during respiration
THORACIC VERTEBRAE, RIBS WITH ASSOCIATED
CARTILAGE, STERNUM
RIBS AND COSTAL CARTILAGES
12 pairs of ribs
a) TRUE RIBS ribs 1-7, attach DIRECTLY to the sternum by
means of COSTAL CARTILAGES
b) FALSE RIBS ribs 8-12, do not attach directly to the
sternum
o
8-10 attach to the sternum by a common
cartilage
o
11-12 do not attach at all to the sternum,
FLOATING RIBS
STERNUM breastbone, divided into 3 parts
o
MANUBRIUM
o
BODY
o
XYPHOID PROCESS CPR landmark
Resembles a sword
Superior end: depression called JUGULAR NOTCH
STERNAL ANGLE slight elevation, important
landmark because it identifies the location of the
SECOND RIB
APPENDICULAR SKELETON bones of the upper and lower limbs,
girdles which attach the limbs to the axial skeleton
PECTORAL GIRDLE shoulder girdle
4 BONES: 2 scapula, 2 clavicles which attach the
upper limb to the body
SCAPULA shoulder blade, flat, triangular bone with 3
large fossae where MUSCLES EXTENDING TO THE
ARM are attached
GLENOID CAVITY where the head of the humerus
connects to the scapula
SPINE ridge, runs across the posterior surface of the
scapula
ACROMION PROCESS projection, extends from the
scapular spine to form the point of e shoulder
CLAVICLE articulates with the scapula at the
acromion process, first bone to begin ossification in the
fetus, last to complete ossification
CORACOID PROCESS curve below the clavicle and
provides for the attachment site of arm and chest
muscles
UPPER LIMB bones of the arm, forearm, wrist, hand
ARM contains the humerus, region between the shoulder
and the elbow
o
EPICONDYLES attachment site for forearm
muscles
FOREARM
o
ULNA medial side
o
RADIUS lateral
o
TROCHLEAR NOTCH proximal end of the ulna,
forming most of the elbow joints
o
OLECRANON PROCESS extension of the ulna
o
CORONOID PROCESS
o
STYLOID PROCESS
WRIST relatively short region between the forearm and the
hand
8 carpal bones = scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, pisiform,
hamate, capitate, trapezoid, trapezium
2 rows with 4 bones each
HAND 5 metacarpal bones, form the bony framework of
the hand

Each finger: 3 small bones called PHALANGES

(proximal, middle, distal)
PELVIC GIRDLE place where lower limbs attach to the body
COXAL BONES hip bones, each is formed by 3 bones
fused together to form a single bone
o
ILIUM most superior
o
ISCHIUM inferior and posterior
o
PUBIS inferior and anterior
PELVIS includes the pelvic girdle and the coccyx
ILIAC CREST
PUBIC SYMPHYSIS - where coxal bones join each other
anteriorly
OBTURATOR FORAMEN large hole in each coxal bone
that is closed off by muscles and other structures
MALE PELVIS larger, more massive,
FEMALE PELVIS broader, inlet and outlet are larger than the male
pelvis, subpubic angle is greater in the female
PELVIC INLET sacral promontory, pelvic brim, pubic symphysis
PELVIC OUTLET ischial spine, coccyx, pubic symphysis
LOWER LIMB thigh, leg, ankle, foot
THIGH region between hip and knee, single bone called
FEMUR
o
BROKEN HIP break of the femoral neck
o
PATELLA kneecap, located within the major
tendon of the anterior thigh muscles and enables
tendon to bed over the knee
LEG region between knee and ankle
2 bones:
o
TIBIA major weight bearing bone of the leg
o
FIBULA does not articulate with the femur
ANKLE 7 tarsal bones talus, calcaneus, cuboid,
navicular, medial/intermediate/lateral cuneiforms
FOOT metatarsal bones and phalanges
3 primary arches
JOINTS articulation, place where 2 bones come together, considered
movable
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON MOTION
1) SYNARTHOSIS
2) AMPHIARTHROSIS
3) DIARTHROSIS
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON STRUCTURE
1) FIBROUS JOINTS little or no movement
o
SUTURES bones of the skull, (fontanels in
infants)
o
SYNDESMOSES distal parts of radius and ulna
o
GOMPHOSES pegs fitted into sockets and held
in place by ligaments (ex. Tooth and socket)
2) CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS unite 2 bones by means of
cartilage, only slight movements, ex. Cartilage in the
epiphyseal plate of growing long bones, cartilages between
ribs and sternum
o
FIBROCARTILAGE intervertebral disks
3) SYNOVIAL JOINTS freely movable joints that contain fluid
in a cavity surrounding ends of articulating bones
Most joints in the appendicular skeleton, reflects
greater mobility than axial skeleton
ARTICULAR CARTILAGE smooth surface where bones
meet (articular surfaces of bone with synovial joints are
covered by this)
JOINT CAVITY filled with fluid
JOINT CAPSULE encloses joint cavity, helps hold the
bones together and allows for movement, some parts may
be thickened to form ligaments, ligaments and tendons
outside the joint capsule contribute to the strength of the joint
SYNOVIAL MEMBRANE lines joint cavity everywhere
except over articular cartilage, produces synovial fluid
which is a complex mixtures of polysaccharides, proteins,
lipids, cells and forms a thin lubricating film covering the
surface of the joint
TYPES OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS
According to the shape of the adjointing articular
surfaces

PLANE JOINTS gliding joints, articular facets between the

vertebrae (intervertebral)
SADDLE JOINTS movement in these joints can occur in 2
planes, joint between metacarpal and carpal bone
(carpometacarpal)
HINGE JOINTS permit movement in one plane only,
consist of a convex cylinder of one bone applied to a
corresponding concavity of other bone, elbow and knee
joints (cubital)
PIVOT JOINTS restrict movement to rotation around a
single axis, each consist of a cylindrical bony process,
shaking the head no, articulation between the proximal
ends of the ulna and radius (proximal radioulnar)
BALL AND SOCKET JOINTS wide range of movements
in almost any direction, shoulder and hip joints
(glenohumeral)
ELLIPSOID JOINTS condyloid joints, elongated ball and
socket joints, joint between
the occipital condyles of the skull and the atlas of the
vertebral column and the joints between the metacarpal
bones and phalanges (atlantooccipital)

TYPES OF MOVEMENT are related to the structure of that joint

FLEXION and EXTENSION common opposing

movements, to bend and to straighten
o
FLEXION bones of a particular joint are moved
closer together
o
EXTENSION bones of a particular joint are
moved farther apart
o
PLANTARFLEXION foot toward plantar surface
when standing on the toes
o
DORSIFLEXION foot toward shin, walking on
the heels
ABDUCTION movement away from the median or
midsagittal plane
ADDUCTION movement toward the median plane
PRONATION and SUPINATION best demonstrated with
the elbow flexed at a 90 degree angle
PRONATION elbow is flexed, rotation of the forearm
palmdown
SUPINATION palm faces up
EVERSION plantar surface faces laterally
INVERSION plantar surface faces medially
ROTATION turning of a structure around its long axis
CIRCUMDUCTION freely movable joints such as the
shoulder
PROTRACTION structure such as the mandible glides
anteriorly
RETRACTION structure glides posteriorly
ELEVATION movement of a structure in a superior
direction (closing mouth, elevates mandible)
DEPRESSION movement of a structure in an inferior
direction (opening mouth, depresses mandible)
EXCURSION movement of structure in one side, moving
mandible from side to side
OPPOSITION movement unique to the thumb and middle
finger, when tips of the thumb and little finger are brought
toward each other across the palm of the hand
REPOSITION returns digit to anatomical position
SPRAIN when bones of a joint are forcefully
pulled apart and ligaments around it are torn or
pulled
o
SEPARATION bones remain apart after injury to
a joint
o
DISLOCATION when end of the one bone is
pulled out of the socket in a ball and socket,
ellipsoid, pivot joint
HYPEREXTENSION an abnormal, forced extension of a
joint beyond its normal range of motion
- Defined by health professionals as the normal
movement of a structure into the space posterior to the
anatomical position
o