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Radiofrequencyidentification
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Radiofrequencyidentification(RFID)useselectromagneticfieldstoautomaticallyidentifyandtracktags
attachedtoobjects.Thetagscontainelectronicallystoredinformation.Passivetagscollectenergyfromanearby
RFIDreader'sinterrogatingradiowaves.Activetagshavealocalpowersourcesuchasabatteryandmayoperate
athundredsofmetersfromtheRFIDreader.Unlikeabarcode,thetagneednotbewithinthelineofsightofthe
reader,soitmaybeembeddedinthetrackedobject.RFIDisonemethodforAutomaticIdentificationandData
Capture(AIDC).[1]
RFIDtagsareusedinmanyindustries,forexample,anRFIDtagattachedtoanautomobileduringproductioncan
beusedtotrackitsprogressthroughtheassemblylineRFIDtaggedpharmaceuticalscanbetrackedthrough
warehousesandimplantingRFIDmicrochipsinlivestockandpetsallowspositiveidentificationofanimals.
SinceRFIDtagscanbeattachedtocash,clothing,andpossessions,orimplantedinanimalsandpeople,the
possibilityofreadingpersonallylinkedinformationwithoutconsenthasraisedseriousprivacyconcerns.[2]These
concernsresultedinstandardspecificationsdevelopmentaddressingprivacyandsecurityissues.ISO/IEC18000
andISO/IEC29167useonchipcryptographymethodsforuntraceability,tagandreaderauthentication,andover
theairprivacy.ISO/IEC20248specifiesadigitalsignaturedatastructureforRFIDandbarcodesprovidingdata,
sourceandreadmethodauthenticity.ThisworkisdonewithinISO/IECJTC1/SC31Automaticidentificationand
datacapturetechniques.

SmallRFIDchips,herecomparedto
agrainofrice,areincorporatedin
consumerproducts,andimplantedin
pets,foridentificationpurposes

In2014,theworldRFIDmarketisworthUS$8.89billion,upfromUS$7.77billionin2013andUS$6.96billionin2012.Thisincludestags,readers,and
software/servicesforRFIDcards,labels,fobs,andallotherformfactors.ThemarketvalueisexpectedtorisetoUS$18.68billionby2026.[3]

Contents
1 History
2 Design
2.1 Tags
2.2 Readers
2.3 Frequencies
2.4 Signaling
2.5 Miniaturization
3 Uses
3.1 Commerce
3.1.1 Accesscontrol
3.1.2 Advertising
3.1.3 Promotiontracking
3.2 Transportationandlogistics
3.2.1 Intelligenttransportationsystems
3.2.2 Hosestationsandconveyanceoffluids
3.3 Publictransport
3.4 Infrastructuremanagementandprotection
3.5 Passports
3.6 Transportationpayments
3.7 Animalidentification
3.8 Humanidentification
3.9 Institutions
3.9.1 Hospitalsandhealthcare
3.9.2 Libraries
3.9.3 Museums
3.9.4 Schoolsanduniversities
3.10 Sports
3.11 Complementtobarcode
3.12 Telemetry
4 Regulationandstandardization
4.1 EPCGen2
5 Problemsandconcerns
5.1 Dataflooding
5.2 Globalstandardization
5.3 Securityconcerns
5.4 Exploitation
5.5 Passports
5.6 Shielding
6 Controversies
6.1 Privacy
6.2 Governmentcontrol
6.3 Deliberatedestructioninclothingandotheritems
7 Seealso
8 References
9 Externallinks

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History
In1945,LonTheremininventedanespionagetoolfortheSovietUnionwhichretransmittedincidentradio
waveswithaudioinformation.Soundwavesvibratedadiaphragmwhichslightlyalteredtheshapeofthe
resonator,whichmodulatedthereflectedradiofrequency.Eventhoughthisdevicewasacovertlistening
device,notanidentificationtag,itisconsideredtobeapredecessorofRFID,becauseitwaslikewisepassive,
beingenergizedandactivatedbywavesfromanoutsidesource.[4]
Similartechnology,suchastheIFFtransponder,wasroutinelyusedbythealliesandGermanyinWorldWar
IItoidentifyaircraftasfriendorfoe.Transpondersarestillusedbymostpoweredaircrafttothisday.
AnotherearlyworkexploringRFIDisthelandmark1948paperbyHarryStockman.[5]Stockmanpredicted
that"...considerableresearchanddevelopmentworkhastobedonebeforetheremainingbasicproblemsin
reflectedpowercommunicationaresolved,andbeforethefieldofusefulapplicationsisexplored."

FasTrak,anRFIDtagusedforelectronic
tollcollectioninCalifornia

MarioCardullo'sdevice,patentedonJanuary23,1973,wasthefirsttrueancestor[6]ofmodernRFID,asit
wasapassiveradiotransponderwithmemory.[7]Theinitialdevicewaspassive,poweredbytheinterrogatingsignal,andwasdemonstratedin1971tothe
NewYorkPortAuthorityandotherpotentialusersandconsistedofatransponderwith16bitmemoryforuseasatolldevice.ThebasicCardullopatent
coverstheuseofRF,soundandlightastransmissionmedia.Theoriginalbusinessplanpresentedtoinvestorsin1969showedusesintransportation
(automotivevehicleidentification,automatictollsystem,electroniclicenseplate,electronicmanifest,vehiclerouting,vehicleperformancemonitoring),
banking(electroniccheckbook,electroniccreditcard),security(personnelidentification,automaticgates,surveillance)andmedical(identification,
patienthistory).[6]
Anearlydemonstrationofreflectedpower(modulatedbackscatter)RFIDtags,bothpassiveandsemipassive,wasperformedbyStevenDepp,Alfred
Koelle,andRobertFraymanattheLosAlamosNationalLaboratoryin1973.[8]Theportablesystemoperatedat915MHzandused12bittags.This
techniqueisusedbythemajorityoftoday'sUHFIDandmicrowaveRFIDtags.[9]
ThefirstpatenttobeassociatedwiththeabbreviationRFIDwasgrantedtoCharlesWaltonin1983.[10]

Design
Tags
Aradiofrequencyidentificationsystemusestags,orlabelsattachedtotheobjectstobeidentified.Twowayradiotransmitterreceiverscalled
interrogatorsorreaderssendasignaltothetagandreaditsresponse.
RFIDtagscanbeeitherpassive,activeorbatteryassistedpassive.AnactivetaghasanonboardbatteryandperiodicallytransmitsitsIDsignal.A
batteryassistedpassive(BAP)hasasmallbatteryonboardandisactivatedwheninthepresenceofanRFIDreader.Apassivetagischeaperandsmaller
becauseithasnobatteryinstead,thetagusestheradioenergytransmittedbythereader.However,tooperateapassivetag,itmustbeilluminatedwitha
powerlevelroughlyathousandtimesstrongerthanforsignaltransmission.Thatmakesadifferenceininterferenceandinexposuretoradiation.
Tagsmayeitherbereadonly,havingafactoryassignedserialnumberthatisusedasakeyintoadatabase,ormayberead/write,whereobjectspecific
datacanbewrittenintothetagbythesystemuser.Fieldprogrammabletagsmaybewriteonce,readmultiple"blank"tagsmaybewrittenwithan
electronicproductcodebytheuser.
RFIDtagscontainatleasttwoparts:anintegratedcircuitforstoringandprocessinginformation,modulatinganddemodulatingaradiofrequency(RF)
signal,collectingDCpowerfromtheincidentreadersignal,andotherspecializedfunctionsandanantennaforreceivingandtransmittingthesignal.The
taginformationisstoredinanonvolatilememory.TheRFIDtagincludeseitherfixedorprogrammablelogicforprocessingthetransmissionandsensor
data,respectively.
AnRFIDreadertransmitsanencodedradiosignaltointerrogatethetag.TheRFIDtagreceivesthemessageandthenrespondswithitsidentificationand
otherinformation.Thismaybeonlyauniquetagserialnumber,ormaybeproductrelatedinformationsuchasastocknumber,lotorbatchnumber,
productiondate,orotherspecificinformation.Sincetagshaveindividualserialnumbers,theRFIDsystemdesigncandiscriminateamongseveraltags
thatmightbewithintherangeoftheRFIDreaderandreadthemsimultaneously.

Readers
RFIDsystemscanbeclassifiedbythetypeoftagandreader.APassiveReaderActiveTag(PRAT)systemhasapassivereaderwhichonlyreceives
radiosignalsfromactivetags(batteryoperated,transmitonly).ThereceptionrangeofaPRATsystemreadercanbeadjustedfrom12,000feet(0
600m),allowingflexibilityinapplicationssuchasassetprotectionandsupervision.
AnActiveReaderPassiveTag(ARPT)systemhasanactivereader,whichtransmitsinterrogatorsignalsandalsoreceivesauthenticationrepliesfrom
passivetags.
AnActiveReaderActiveTag(ARAT)systemusesactivetagsawokenwithaninterrogatorsignalfromtheactivereader.Avariationofthissystem
couldalsouseaBatteryAssistedPassive(BAP)tagwhichactslikeapassivetagbuthasasmallbatterytopowerthetag'sreturnreportingsignal.
Fixedreadersaresetuptocreateaspecificinterrogationzonewhichcanbetightlycontrolled.Thisallowsahighlydefinedreadingareaforwhentagsgo
inandoutoftheinterrogationzone.Mobilereadersmaybehandheldormountedoncartsorvehicles.

Frequencies

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RFIDfrequencybands[11][12]
Band

120
150kHz
(LF)

Regulations Range

Data
speed

Unregulated 10cm Low

ISO/IEC18000Section

Remarks

Approximate
tagcost
involume
(2006)US$

Animal
Part2
identification,
(http://www.iso.org/iso/home/store/catalogue_ics/catalogue_detail_ics.htm?
$1
factorydata
csnumber=46146)
collection

10cm Lowto
Part3
1m moderate

Smartcards
(ISO/IEC
15693,
ISO/IEC
14443A,B).
Nonfully
ISO
compatible
memory
cards(Mifare
$0.50to$5
Classic,
iCLASS,
Legic,Felica
...).Micro
processor
ISO
compatible
cards
(DesfireEV1,
Seos)

13.56MHz
(HF)

ISMband
worldwide

433MHz
(UHF)

Defense
Part7
ShortRange 1100
applications,
Moderate (http://www.iso.org/iso/home/store/catalogue_ics/catalogue_detail_ics.htm?
$5
Devices
m
withactive
csnumber=50368)
tags

865
868MHz
(Europe)
902
928MHz
(North
America)
UHF

ISMband

112
m

Moderate
Part6(http://www.iso.org/iso/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=46149)
tohigh

EAN,various $0.15
standards
(passivetags)

2450
5800MHz ISMband
(microwave)

12m High

802.11
Part4
WLAN,
(http://www.iso.org/iso/home/store/catalogue_ics/catalogue_detail_ics.htm?
Bluetooth
csnumber=62539)
standards

3.110GHz Ultrawide
(microwave) band

to200
High
m

NotDefined

$25(active
tags)

requires
semiactive $5projected
oractivetags

Signaling
Signalingbetweenthereaderandthetagisdoneinseveraldifferentincompatibleways,dependingonthefrequencybandusedbythetag.Tagsoperating
onLFandHFbandsare,intermsofradiowavelength,veryclosetothereaderantennabecausetheyareonlyasmallpercentageofawavelengthaway.
Inthisnearfieldregion,thetagiscloselycoupledelectricallywiththetransmitterinthereader.Thetagcanmodulatethefieldproducedbythereaderby
changingtheelectricalloadingthetagrepresents.Byswitchingbetweenlowerandhigherrelativeloads,thetagproducesachangethatthereadercan
detect.AtUHFandhigherfrequencies,thetagismorethanoneradiowavelengthawayfromthereader,requiringadifferentapproach.Thetagcan
backscatterasignal.Activetagsmaycontainfunctionallyseparatedtransmittersandreceivers,andthetagneednotrespondonafrequencyrelatedtothe
reader'sinterrogationsignal.[13]
AnElectronicProductCode(EPC)isonecommontypeofdatastoredinatag.WhenwrittenintothetagbyanRFIDprinter,thetagcontainsa96bit
stringofdata.Thefirsteightbitsareaheaderwhichidentifiestheversionoftheprotocol.Thenext28bitsidentifytheorganizationthatmanagesthedata
forthistagtheorganizationnumberisassignedbytheEPCGlobalconsortium.Thenext24bitsareanobjectclass,identifyingthekindofproductthe
last36bitsareauniqueserialnumberforaparticulartag.Theselasttwofieldsaresetbytheorganizationthatissuedthetag.RatherlikeaURL,thetotal
electronicproductcodenumbercanbeusedasakeyintoaglobaldatabasetouniquelyidentifyaparticularproduct.[14]
Oftenmorethanonetagwillrespondtoatagreader,forexample,manyindividualproductswithtagsmaybeshippedinacommonboxoronacommon
pallet.Collisiondetectionisimportanttoallowreadingofdata.Twodifferenttypesofprotocolsareusedto"singulate"aparticulartag,allowingitsdata
tobereadinthemidstofmanysimilartags.InaslottedAlohasystem,thereaderbroadcastsaninitializationcommandandaparameterthatthetags
individuallyusetopseudorandomlydelaytheirresponses.Whenusingan"adaptivebinarytree"protocol,thereadersendsaninitializationsymboland
thentransmitsonebitofIDdataatatimeonlytagswithmatchingbitsrespond,andeventuallyonlyonetagmatchesthecompleteIDstring.[15]
Bothmethodshavedrawbackswhenusedwithmanytagsorwithmultipleoverlappingreaders.Bulkreadingisastrategyforinterrogatingmultipletags
atthesametime,butlackssufficientprecisionforinventorycontrol.

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Miniaturization
RFIDsareeasytoconcealorincorporateinotheritems.Forexample,in2009researchersatBristolUniversity
successfullygluedRFIDmicrotransponderstoliveantsinordertostudytheirbehavior.[16]Thistrendtowards
increasinglyminiaturizedRFIDsislikelytocontinueastechnologyadvances.
HitachiholdstherecordforthesmallestRFIDchip,at0.05mm0.05mm.Thisis1/64ththesizeoftheprevious
recordholder,themuchip.[17]Manufactureisenabledbyusingthesilicononinsulator(SOI)process.Thesedust
sizedchipscanstore38digitnumbersusing128bitReadOnlyMemory(ROM).[18]Amajorchallengeisthe
attachmentofantennas,thuslimitingreadrangetoonlymillimeters.

Anexampleofabinarytreemethod
ofidentifyinganRFIDtag

Uses
TheRFIDtagcanbeaffixedtoanobjectandusedtotrackandmanageinventory,assets,people,etc.Forexample,itcanbeaffixedtocars,computer
equipment,books,mobilephones,etc.
RFIDoffersadvantagesovermanualsystemsoruseofbarcodes.Thetagcanbereadifpassednearareader,evenifitiscoveredbytheobjectornot
visible.Thetagcanbereadinsideacase,carton,boxorothercontainer,andunlikebarcodes,RFIDtagscanbereadhundredsatatime.Barcodescan
onlybereadoneatatimeusingcurrentdevices.
In2011,thecostofpassivetagsstartedatUS$0.09eachspecialtags,meanttobemountedonmetalorwithstandgammasterilization,cangoupto
US$5.Activetagsfortrackingcontainers,medicalassets,ormonitoringenvironmentalconditionsindatacentersstartatUS$50andcangoupover
US$100each.BatteryAssistedPassive(BAP)tagsareintheUS$310rangeandalsohavesensorcapabilityliketemperatureandhumidity.
RFIDcanbeusedinavarietyofapplications,[19][20]suchas:
Accessmanagement
Trackingofgoods
Trackingofpersonsandanimals
Tollcollectionandcontactlesspayment
Machinereadabletraveldocuments
Smartdust(formassivelydistributedsensornetworks)
Trackingsportsmemorabiliatoverifyauthenticity
Airportbaggagetrackinglogistics[21]
Timingsportingevents
In2010threefactorsdroveasignificantincreaseinRFIDusage:decreasedcostofequipmentandtags,increased
performancetoareliabilityof99.9%andastableinternationalstandardaroundUHFpassiveRFID.Theadoption
ofthesestandardsweredrivenbyEPCglobal,ajointventurebetweenGS1andGS1US,whichwereresponsible
fordrivingglobaladoptionofthebarcodeinthe1970sand1980s.TheEPCglobalNetworkwasdevelopedbythe
AutoIDCenter.[22]

Commerce
RFIDprovidesawayfororganizationstoidentifyandmanagetoolsandequipment(assettracking),without
manualdataentry.RFIDisbeingadoptedforitemleveltagginginretailstores.Thisprovideselectronicarticle
surveillance(EAS),andaselfcheckoutprocessforconsumers.AutomaticidentificationwithRFIDcanbeused
forinventorysystems.Manufacturedproductssuchasautomobilesorgarmentscanbetrackedthroughthefactory
andthroughshippingtothecustomer.

ElectronicLockwithRFIDCard
System,ANSI

CasinoscanuseRFIDtoauthenticatepokerchips,andcanselectively
invalidateanychipsknowntobestolen.[23]
WalMartandtheUnitedStatesDepartmentofDefensehavepublished
requirementsthattheirvendorsplaceRFIDtagsonallshipmentsto
improvesupplychainmanagement.
Accesscontrol
RFIDtagsarewidelyusedinidentificationbadges,replacingearlier
magneticstripecards.Thesebadgesneedonlybeheldwithinacertain
distanceofthereadertoauthenticatetheholder.Tagscanalsobeplaced
onvehicles,whichcanbereadatadistance,toallowentrancetocontrolledareaswithouthavingtostopthe
vehicleandpresentacardorenteranaccesscode.
AnEPCRFIDtagusedbyWalMart.

Advertising
ElectronickeyforRFIDbasedlock
In2010VailResortsbeganusingUHFPassiveRFIDtagsinskipasses.FacebookisusingRFIDcardsatmostof
system
theirliveeventstoallowgueststoautomaticallycaptureandpostphotos.Theautomotivebrandshaveadopted
RFIDforsocialmediaproductplacementmorequicklythanotherindustries.Mercedeswasanearlyadopterin
2011atthePGAGolfChampionships,[24]andbythe2013GenevaMotorShowmanyofthelargerbrandswereusingRFIDforsocialmedia
marketing.[25]

Promotiontracking
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Topreventretailersdivertingproducts,manufacturersareexploringtheuseofRFIDtagsonpromoted
merchandisesothattheycantrackexactlywhichproducthassoldthroughthesupplychainatfullydiscounted
prices.[26]

Transportationandlogistics
Yardmanagement,shippingandfreightanddistributioncentersuseRFIDtracking.Intherailroadindustry,RFID
tagsmountedonlocomotivesandrollingstockidentifytheowner,identificationnumberandtypeofequipment
anditscharacteristics.Thiscanbeusedwithadatabasetoidentifythelading,origin,destination,etc.ofthe
commoditiesbeingcarried.[27]
Incommercialaviation,RFIDisusedtosupportmaintenanceoncommercialaircraft.RFIDtagsareusedto
identifybaggageandcargoatseveralairportsandairlines.[28][29]
SomecountriesareusingRFIDforvehicleregistrationandenforcement.[30]RFIDcanhelpdetectandretrieve
stolencars.[31][32]
Intelligenttransportationsystems
RFIDisusedinintelligenttransportationsystems.InNewYorkCity,RFIDreadersaredeployedatintersections
totrackEZPasstagsasameansformonitoringthetrafficflow.Thedataisfedthroughthebroadbandwireless
infrastructuretothetrafficmanagementcentertobeusedinadaptivetrafficcontrolofthetrafficlights.[33]

RFIDantennaforvehicularaccess
control

Hosestationsandconveyanceoffluids
TheRFIDantennainapermanentlyinstalledcouplinghalf(fixedpart)unmistakablyidentifiestheRFID
transponderplacedintheothercouplinghalf(freepart)aftercompletedcoupling.Whenconnectedthe
transponderofthefreeparttransmitsallimportantinformationcontactlesstothefixedpart.Thecouplings
locationcanbeclearlyidentifiedbytheRFIDtranspondercoding.Thecontrolisenabledtoautomaticallystart
subsequentprocesssteps.

Publictransport

RFIDEZPassreaderattachedtothe
poleandantenna(right)usedin
trafficmonitoringinNewYorkCity

RFIDcardsareusedforaccesscontroltopublictransport.
InLondontravellersuseOysterCardsonthetube,busesandferries.Itidentifiesthetravellerateachturnstileandsothesystemcancalculatethefare.
IntheChicagoarea,ridersusetheopenstandardVentracardtoboardCTAbusesandtrains,alongwithPACEbuses.
InOntario,Canada,ridersintheGTAandOttawaAreausethePrestocardtoboardtrains,busesandstreetcarsacrossmultipledifferenttransit
companies.

Infrastructuremanagementandprotection
AtleastonecompanyhasintroducedRFIDtoidentifyandlocateundergroundinfrastructureassetssuchasgaspipelines,sewerlines,electricalcables,
communicationcables,etc.[34]

Passports
ThefirstRFIDpassports("Epassport")wereissuedbyMalaysiain1998.Inadditiontoinformationalsocontainedonthevisualdatapageofthe
passport,Malaysianepassportsrecordthetravelhistory(time,date,andplace)ofentriesandexitsfromthecountry.
OthercountriesthatinsertRFIDinpassportsincludeNorway(2005),[35]Japan(March1,2006),mostEUcountries(around2006),Australia,Hong
Kong,theUnitedStates(2007),India(June2008),Serbia(July2008),RepublicofKorea(August2008),Taiwan(December2008),Albania(January
2009),ThePhilippines(August2009),RepublicofMacedonia(2010),andCanada(2013).
StandardsforRFIDpassportsaredeterminedbytheInternationalCivilAviationOrganization(ICAO),andarecontainedinICAODocument9303,Part
1,Volumes1and2(6thedition,2006).ICAOreferstotheISO/IEC14443RFIDchipsinepassportsas"contactlessintegratedcircuits".ICAOstandards
provideforepassportstobeidentifiablebyastandardepassportlogoonthefrontcover.
Since2006,RFIDtagsincludedinnewUnitedStatespassportswillstorethesameinformationthatisprintedwithinthepassport,andincludeadigital
pictureoftheowner.[36]TheUnitedStatesDepartmentofStateinitiallystatedthechipscouldonlybereadfromadistanceof10centimetres(3.9in),but
afterwidespreadcriticismandacleardemonstrationthatspecialequipmentcanreadthetestpassportsfrom10metres(33ft)away,[37]thepassportswere
designedtoincorporateathinmetalliningtomakeitmoredifficultforunauthorizedreadersto"skim"informationwhenthepassportisclosed.The
departmentwillalsoimplementBasicAccessControl(BAC),whichfunctionsasaPersonalIdentificationNumber(PIN)intheformofcharacters
printedonthepassportdatapage.Beforeapassport'stagcanberead,thisPINmustbeenteredintoanRFIDreader.TheBACalsoenablestheencryption
ofanycommunicationbetweenthechipandinterrogator.[38]

Transportationpayments
Inmanycountries,RFIDtagscanbeusedtopayformasstransitfaresonbus,trains,orsubways,ortocollecttollsonhighways.

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SomebikelockersareoperatedwithRFIDcardsassignedtoindividualusers.Aprepaidcardisrequiredtoopenorenterafacilityorlockerandisusedto
trackandchargebasedonhowlongthebikeisparked.
TheZipcarcarsharingserviceusesRFIDcardsforlockingandunlockingcarsandformemberidentification.[39]
InSingapore,RFIDreplacespaperSeasonParkingTicket(SPT).[40]

Animalidentification
RFIDtagsforanimalsrepresentoneoftheoldestusesofRFID.Originallymeantforlargeranchesandroughterrain,sincetheoutbreakofmadcow
disease,RFIDhasbecomecrucialinanimalidentificationmanagement.AnimplantableRFIDtagortranspondercanalsobeusedforanimal
identification.ThetranspondersaremorewellknownaspassiveRFID,or"chips"onanimals.[41]TheCanadianCattleIdentificationAgency
(http://www.canadaid.com/)beganusingRFIDtagsasareplacementforbarcodetags.CurrentlyCCIAtagsareusedinWisconsinandbyUnitedStates
farmersonavoluntarybasis.TheUSDAiscurrentlydevelopingitsownprogram.
RFIDtagsarerequiredforallcattle,sheepandgoatssoldinAustralia.[42]

Humanidentification
ImplantableRFIDchipsdesignedforanimaltaggingarenowbeingusedinhumans.Anearlyexperimentwith
RFIDimplantswasconductedbyBritishprofessorofcyberneticsKevinWarwick,whoimplantedachipinhis
armin1998.In2004ConradChaseofferedimplantedchipsinhisnightclubsinBarcelona[43]andRotterdamto
identifytheirVIPcustomers,whointurnuseittopayfordrinks.

AnRFIDmicrochipimplant

TheFoodandDrugAdministrationintheUnitedStateshasapprovedtheuseofRFIDchipsinhumans.[44]Some
businessestablishmentsgivecustomerstheoptionofusinganRFIDbasedtabtopayforservice,suchastheBaja
BeachnightclubinBarcelona.[45]Thishasprovokedconcernsintoprivacyofindividualsastheycanpotentially
betrackedwherevertheygobyanidentifieruniquetothem.Someareconcernedthiscouldleadtoabusebyan
authoritariangovernment,toremovaloffreedoms,[46]andtotheemergenceofan"ultimatepanopticon",asociety
whereallcitizensbehaveinasociallyacceptedmannerbecauseothersmightbewatching.[47]

OnJuly22,2006,Reutersreportedthattwohackers,NewitzandWesthues,ataconferenceinNewYorkCityshowedthattheycouldclonetheRFID
signalfromahumanimplantedRFIDchip,showingthatthechipisnothackproofaswaspreviouslyclaimed.[48]Privacyadvocateshaveprotested
againstimplantableRFIDchips,warningofpotentialabuse.Thereismuchcontroversyregardinghumanapplicationsofthistechnology,andmany
conspiracytheoriesaboundinrelationtohumanapplications,especiallyoneofwhichisreferredtoas"TheMarkoftheBeast"insomereligious
circles.[49]

Institutions
Hospitalsandhealthcare
InHealthcare,thereisaneedforincreasedvisibility,efficiency,andgatheringofdataaroundrelevantinteractions.RFIDtrackingsolutionsareableto
helphealthcarefacilitiesmanagemobilemedicalequipment,improvepatientworkflow,monitorenvironmentalconditions,andprotectpatients,staffand
visitorsfrominfectionorotherhazards.
AdoptionofRFIDinthemedicalindustryhasbeenwidespreadandveryeffective.Hospitalsareamongthefirstuserstocombinebothactiveandpassive
RFID.Manysuccessfuldeploymentsinthehealthcareindustryhavebeencitedwhereactivetechnologytrackshighvalue,orfrequentlymoveditems,
wherepassivetechnologytrackssmaller,lowercostitemsthatonlyneedroomlevelidentification.[50]Forexample,medicalfacilityroomscancollect
datafromtransmissionsofRFIDbadgeswornbypatientsandemployees,aswellasfromtagsassignedtofacilityassets,suchasmobilemedical
devices.[51]TheU.S.DepartmentofVeteransAffairs(VA)recentlyannouncedplanstodeployRFIDinhospitalsacrossAmericatoimprovecareand
reducecosts.[52]
AphysicalRFIDtagmaybeincorporatedwithbrowserbasedsoftwaretoincreaseitsefficacy.Thissoftwareallowsfordifferentgroupsorspecific
hospitalstaff,nurses,andpatientstoseerealtimedatarelevanttoeachpieceoftrackedequipmentorpersonnel.Realtimedataisstoredandarchivedto
makeuseofhistoricalreportingfunctionalityandtoprovecompliancewithvariousindustryregulations.ThiscombinationofRFIDrealtimelocating
systemhardwareandsoftwareprovidesapowerfuldatacollectiontoolforfacilitiesseekingtoimproveoperationalefficiencyandreducecosts.
ThetrendistowardusingISO180006casthetagofchoiceandcombininganactivetaggingsystemthatreliesonexisting802.11Xwireless
infrastructureforactivetags.
Since2004anumberofU.S.hospitalshavebegunimplantingpatientswithRFIDtagsandusingRFIDsystems,usuallyforworkflowandinventory
management.[53][54][55]TheuseofRFIDtopreventmixupsbetweenspermandovainIVFclinicsisalsobeingconsidered.[56]
InOctober2004,theFDAapprovedUSA'sfirstRFIDchipsthatcanbeimplantedinhumans.The134kHzRFIDchips,fromVeriChipCorp.can
incorporatepersonalmedicalinformationandcouldsavelivesandlimitinjuriesfromerrorsinmedicaltreatments,accordingtothecompany.AntiRFID
activistsKatherineAlbrechtandLizMcIntyrediscoveredanFDAWarningLetterthatspelledouthealthrisks.[57]AccordingtotheFDA,theseinclude
"adversetissuereaction","migrationoftheimplantedtransponder","failureofimplantedtransponder","electricalhazards"and"magneticresonance
imaging[MRI]incompatibility."
Libraries

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LibrarieshaveusedRFIDtoreplacethebarcodesonlibraryitems.Thetagcancontainidentifyinginformationor
mayjustbeakeyintoadatabase.AnRFIDsystemmayreplaceorsupplementbarcodesandmayofferanother
methodofinventorymanagementandselfservicecheckoutbypatrons.Itcanalsoactasasecuritydevice,taking
theplaceofthemoretraditionalelectromagneticsecuritystrip.[58]
Itisestimatedthatover30millionlibraryitemsworldwidenowcontainRFIDtags,includingsomeintheVatican
LibraryinRome.[59]
SinceRFIDtagscanbereadthroughanitem,thereisnoneedtoopenabookcoverorDVDcasetoscananitem,
andastackofbookscanbereadsimultaneously.Booktagscanbereadwhilebooksareinmotiononaconveyor
belt,whichreducesstafftime.Thiscanallbedonebytheborrowersthemselves,reducingtheneedforlibrary
staffassistance.Withportablereaders,inventoriescouldbedoneonawholeshelfofmaterialswithinseconds.[60]
However,asof2008thistechnologyremainstoocostlyformanysmallerlibraries,andtheconversionperiodhas
beenestimatedat11monthsforanaveragesizelibrary.A2004Dutchestimatewasthatalibrarywhichlends
RFIDtagsusedinlibraries:square
100,000booksperyearshouldplanonacostof50,000(borrowandreturnstations:12,500each,detection
booktag,roundCD/DVDtagand
porches10,000eachtags0.36each).RFIDtakingalargeburdenoffstaffcouldalsomeanthatfewerstaffwillbe
rectangularVHStag
[59]
needed,resultinginsomeofthemgettinglaidoff, butthathassofarnothappenedinNorthAmericawhere
recentsurveyshavenotreturnedasinglelibrarythatcutstaffbecauseofaddingRFID.Infact,librarybudgetsare
beingreducedforpersonnelandincreasedforinfrastructure,makingitnecessaryforlibrariestoaddautomationtocompensateforthereducedstaffsize.
Also,thetasksthatRFIDtakesoverarelargelynottheprimarytasksoflibrarians.AfindingintheNetherlandsisthatborrowersarepleasedwiththefact
thatstaffarenowmoreavailableforansweringquestions.
PrivacyconcernshavebeenraisedsurroundinglibraryuseofRFID.BecausesomeRFIDtagscanbereadfromupto100metres(330ft),thereissome
concernoverwhethersensitiveinformationcouldbecollectedfromanunwillingsource.However,libraryRFIDtagsdonotcontainanypatron
information,[61]andthetagsusedinthemajorityoflibrariesuseafrequencyonlyreadablefromapproximately10feet(3.0m).[58]Further,anothernon
libraryagencycouldpotentiallyrecordtheRFIDtagsofeverypersonleavingthelibrarywithoutthelibraryadministrator'sknowledgeorconsent.One
simpleoptionistoletthebooktransmitacodethathasmeaningonlyinconjunctionwiththelibrary'sdatabase.Anotherpossibleenhancementwouldbe
togiveeachbookanewcodeeverytimeitisreturned.Infuture,shouldreadersbecomeubiquitous(andpossiblynetworked),thenstolenbookscouldbe
tracedevenoutsidethelibrary.Tagremovalcouldbemadedifficultifthetagsaresosmallthattheyfitinvisiblyinsidea(random)page,possiblyput
therebythepublisher.
Museums
RFIDtechnologiesarenowalsoimplementedinenduserapplicationsinmuseums.Anexamplewasthecustomdesignedtemporaryresearch
application,"eXspot,"attheExploratorium,asciencemuseuminSanFrancisco,California.AvisitorenteringthemuseumreceivedanRFTagthatcould
becarriedasacard.TheeXspotsystemenabledthevisitortoreceiveinformationaboutspecificexhibits.Asidefromtheexhibitinformation,thevisitor
couldtakephotographsofthemselvesattheexhibit.Itwasalsointendedtoallowthevisitortotakedataforlateranalysis.Thecollectedinformation
couldberetrievedathomefroma"personalized"websitekeyedtotheRFIDtag.[62]
Schoolsanduniversities
SchoolauthoritiesintheJapanesecityofOsakaarenowchippingchildren'sclothing,backpacks,andstudentIDsinaprimaryschool.[63]Aschoolin
Doncaster,Englandispilotingamonitoringsystemdesignedtokeeptabsonpupilsbytrackingradiochipsintheiruniforms.[64]StCharlesSixthForm
CollegeinwestLondon,England,startedSeptember,2008,isusinganRFIDcardsystemtocheckinandoutofthemaingate,tobothtrackattendance
andpreventunauthorizedentrance.Similarly,WhitcliffeMountSchoolinCleckheaton,EnglandusesRFIDtotrackpupilsandstaffinandoutofthe
buildingviaaspeciallydesignedcard.InthePhilippines,someschoolsalreadyuseRFIDinIDsforborrowingbooksandalsogatesinthoseparticular
schoolshaveRFIDIDscannersforbuyingitemsataschoolshopandcanteen,libraryandalsotosigninandsignoutforstudentandteacher's
attendance.

Sports
RFIDfortimingracesbeganintheearly1990swithpigeonracing,introducedbythecompanyDeister
ElectronicsinGermany.RFIDcanprovideracestartandendtimingsforindividualsinlargeraceswhereitis
impossibletogetaccuratestopwatchreadingsforeveryentrant.
Intherace,theracersweartagsthatarereadbyantennasplacedalongsidethetrackoronmatsacrossthetrack.
UHFtagsprovideaccuratereadingswithspeciallydesignedantennas.Rusherror,lapcounterrorsandaccidentsat
starttimeareavoidedsinceanyonecanstartandfinishanytimewithoutbeinginabatchmode.
Thedesignofchip+antennacontrolstherangefromwhichitcanberead.Shortrangecompactchipsaretwisttied
totheshoeorvelcrostrappedtheankle.Theseneedtobeabout400mmfromthematandsogiveverygood
temporalresolution.Alternativelyachipplusaverylarge(a125mmsquare)antennacanbeincorporatedintothe
bibnumberwornontheathlete'schestatabout1.25mheight.

ChampionChip

PassiveandactiveRFIDsystemsareusedinoffroadeventssuchasOrienteering,EnduroandHareandHoundsracing.Ridershaveatransponderon
theirperson,normallyontheirarm.Whentheycompletealaptheyswipeortouchthereceiverwhichisconnectedtoacomputerandlogtheirlaptime.
RFIDisbeingadaptedbymanyrecruitmentagencieswhichhaveaPET(PhysicalEnduranceTest)astheirqualifyingprocedureespeciallyincaseswhere
thecandidatevolumesmayrunintomillions(IndianRailwayRecruitmentCells,PoliceandPowersector).
AnumberofskiresortshaveadoptedRFIDtagstoprovideskiershandsfreeaccesstoskilifts.Skiersdonothavetotaketheirpassesoutoftheir
pockets.Skijacketshavealeftpocketintowhichthechip+cardfits.Thisnearlycontactsthesensorunitontheleftoftheturnstileastheskierpushes
throughtothelift.Thesesystemswerebasedonhighfrequency(HF)at13.56megahertz.ThebulkofskiareasinEurope,fromVerbiertoChamonixuse
thesesystems.[65][66][67]
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TheNFLintheUnitedStatesequipsplayerswithRFIDchipsthatmeasuresspeed,distanceanddirectiontraveled
byeachplayerinrealtime.Currentlycamerasstayfocusedonthequarterback,however,numerousplaysare
happeningsimultaneouslyonthefield.TheRFIDchipwillprovidenewinsightintothesesimultaneousplays.[68]
Thechiptriangulatestheplayer'spositionwithinsixinchesandwillbeusedtodigitallybroadcastreplays.The
RFIDchipwillmakeindividualplayerinformationaccessibletothepublic.Thedatawillbeavailableviathe
NFL2015app.[69]TheRFIDchipsaremanufacturedbyZebraTechnologies.ZebraTechnologiestestedtheRFID
chipin18stadiumslastyeartotrackvectordata.[70]
JChip8channelreceivernextto
timingmat.Theathletewearsachip
onastraparoundhisankle.Ironman
Germany(http://www.ironman.de)
2007inFrankfurt.

Complementtobarcode
RFIDtagsareoftenacomplement,butnotasubstitute,forUPCorEANbarcodes.Theymaynevercompletely
replacebarcodes,dueinparttotheirhighercostandtheadvantageofmultipledatasourcesonthesameobject.
Also,unlikeRFIDlabels,barcodescanbegeneratedanddistributedelectronically,e.g.viaemailormobile
phone,forprintingordisplaybytherecipient.Anexampleisairlineboardingpasses.ThenewEPC,alongwith
severalotherschemes,iswidelyavailableatreasonablecost.

Thestorageofdataassociatedwithtrackingitemswillrequiremanyterabytes.FilteringandcategorizingRFIDdataisneededtocreateuseful
information.ItislikelythatgoodswillbetrackedbythepalletusingRFIDtags,andatpackagelevelwithUniversalProductCode(UPC)orEANfrom
uniquebarcodes.
TheuniqueidentityisamandatoryrequirementforRFIDtags,despitespecialchoiceofthenumberingscheme.RFIDtagdatacapacityislargeenough
thateachindividualtagwillhaveauniquecode,whilecurrentbarcodesarelimitedtoasingletypecodeforaparticularproduct.Theuniquenessof
RFIDtagsmeansthataproductmaybetrackedasitmovesfromlocationtolocation,finallyendingupintheconsumer'shands.Thismayhelptocombat
theftandotherformsofproductloss.ThetracingofproductsisanimportantfeaturethatgetswellsupportedwithRFIDtagscontainingauniqueidentity
ofthetagandalsotheserialnumberoftheobject.Thismayhelpcompaniescopewithqualitydeficienciesandresultingrecallcampaigns,butalso
contributestoconcernabouttrackingandprofilingofconsumersafterthesale.

Telemetry
ActiveRFIDtagsalsohavethepotentialtofunctionaslowcostremotesensorsthatbroadcasttelemetrybacktoabasestation.Applicationsoftagometry
datacouldincludesensingofroadconditionsbyimplantedbeacons,weatherreports,andnoiselevelmonitoring.[71]
PassiveRFIDtagscanalsoreportsensordata.Forexample,theWirelessIdentificationandSensingPlatformisapassivetagthatreportstemperature,
accelerationandcapacitancetocommercialGen2RFIDreaders.
Itispossiblethatactiveorbatteryassistedpassive(BAP)RFIDtags,couldbroadcastasignaltoaninstorereceivertodeterminewhethertheRFIDtag
(product)isinthestore.

Regulationandstandardization
AnumberoforganizationshavesetstandardsforRFID,includingtheInternationalOrganizationforStandardization(ISO),theInternational
ElectrotechnicalCommission(IEC),ASTMInternational,theDASH7AllianceandEPCglobal.
Therearealsoseveralspecificindustriesthathavesetguidelines.TheseindustriesincludetheFinancialServicesTechnologyConsortium(FSTC)which
hassetastandardfortrackingITAssetswithRFID,theComputerTechnologyIndustryAssociationCompTIAwhichhassetastandardforcertifying
RFIDengineers,andtheInternationalAirlinesTransportAssociationIATAwhichhassettaggingguidelinesforluggageinairports.
Inprinciple,everycountrycansetitsownrulesforfrequencyallocationforRFIDtags,andnotallradiobandsareavailableinallcountries.These
frequenciesareknownastheISMbands(IndustrialScientificandMedicalbands).Thereturnsignalofthetagmaystillcauseinterferenceforotherradio
users.
Lowfrequency(LF:125134.2kHzand140148.5kHz)(LowFID)tagsandhighfrequency(HF:13.56MHz)(HighFID)tagscanbeused
globallywithoutalicense.
Ultrahighfrequency(UHF:865928MHz)(UltraHighFIDorUHFID)tagscannotbeusedgloballyasthereisnosingleglobalstandardand
regulationsdifferfromcountrytocountry.
InNorthAmerica,UHFcanbeusedunlicensedfor902928MHz(13MHzfromthe915MHzcenterfrequency),butrestrictionsexistfortransmission
power.InEurope,RFIDandotherlowpowerradioapplicationsareregulatedbyETSIrecommendationsEN300220andEN302208,andERO
recommendation7003,allowingRFIDoperationwithsomewhatcomplexbandrestrictionsfrom865868MHz.Readersarerequiredtomonitora
channelbeforetransmitting("ListenBeforeTalk")thisrequirementhasledtosomerestrictionsonperformance,theresolutionofwhichisasubjectof
currentresearch.TheNorthAmericanUHFstandardisnotacceptedinFranceasitinterfereswithitsmilitarybands.OnJuly25,2012,Japanchangedits
UHFbandto920MHz,morecloselymatchingtheUnitedStates915MHzband.
Insomecountries,asitelicenseisneeded,whichneedstobeappliedforatthelocalauthorities,andcanberevoked.
AccordingtoanoverviewassembledbyGS1,asof31October2014,regulationsareinplacein78countriesrepresentingca.96.5%oftheworld'sGDP,
andworkonregulationsisinprogressin3countriesrepresentingcirca1%oftheworldsGDP.[72]
StandardsthathavebeenmaderegardingRFIDinclude:
ISO14223Radiofrequency[sic]identificationofanimalsAdvancedtransponders
ISO/IEC14443:ThisstandardisapopularHF(13.56MHz)standardforHighFIDswhichisbeingusedasthebasisofRFIDenabledpassports
underICAO9303.TheNearFieldCommunicationstandardthatletsmobiledevicesactasRFIDreaders/transpondersisalsobasedonISO/IEC
14443.
ISO/IEC15693:ThisisalsoapopularHF(13.56MHz)standardforHighFIDswidelyusedfornoncontactsmartpaymentandcreditcards.
ISO/IEC18000:InformationtechnologyRadiofrequencyidentificationforitemmanagement:
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Part1:Referencearchitectureanddefinitionofparameterstobestandardized
Part2:Parametersforairinterfacecommunicationsbelow135kHz
Part3:Parametersforairinterfacecommunicationsat13.56MHz
Part4:Parametersforairinterfacecommunicationsat2.45GHz
Part6:Parametersforairinterfacecommunicationsat860960MHz
Part7:Parametersforactiveairinterfacecommunicationsat433MHz
ISO/IEC18092InformationtechnologyTelecommunicationsandinformationexchangebetweensystemsNearFieldCommunication
InterfaceandProtocol(NFCIP1)
ISO18185:Thisistheindustrystandardforelectronicsealsor"eseals"fortrackingcargocontainersusingthe433MHzand2.4GHzfrequencies.
ISO/IEC21481InformationtechnologyTelecommunicationsandinformationexchangebetweensystemsNearFieldCommunicationInterface
andProtocol2(NFCIP2)
ASTMD7434,StandardTestMethodforDeterminingthePerformanceofPassiveRadioFrequencyIdentification(RFID)Transponderson
PalletizedorUnitizedLoads
ASTMD7435,StandardTestMethodforDeterminingthePerformanceofPassiveRadioFrequencyIdentification(RFID)TranspondersonLoaded
Containers
ASTMD7580,StandardTestMethodforRotaryStretchWrapperMethodforDeterminingtheReadabilityofPassiveRFIDTransponderson
HomogenousPalletizedorUnitizedLoads
ISO285602:specifiesencodingstandardsanddatamodeltobeusedwithinlibraries.[73]
Inordertoensureglobalinteroperabilityofproducts,severalorganizationshavesetupadditionalstandardsforRFIDtesting.Thesestandardsinclude
conformance,performanceandinteroperabilitytests.
Groupsconcernedwithstandardizationare:
DASH7Allianceaninternationalindustrygroupformedin2009topromotestandardsandinteroperabilityamongextensionstoISO/IEC180007
technologies[74]
EPCglobalthisisthestandardizationframeworkthatismostlikelytoundergointernationalstandardisationaccordingtoISOrulesaswithall
soundstandardsintheworld,unlessresidingwithlimitedscope,ascustomsregulations,airtrafficregulationsandothers.Currentlythebig
distributorsandgovernmentalcustomersarepushingEPCheavilyasastandardwellacceptedintheircommunity,butnotyetregardedasfor
salvationtotherestoftheworld.

EPCGen2
EPCGen2isshortforEPCglobalUHFClass1Generation2.
EPCglobal,ajointventurebetweenGS1andGS1US,isworkingoninternationalstandardsfortheuseofmostlypassiveRFIDandtheElectronic
ProductCode(EPC)intheidentificationofmanyitemsinthesupplychainforcompaniesworldwide.
OneofthemissionsofEPCglobalwastosimplifytheBabelofprotocolsprevalentintheRFIDworldinthe1990s.Twotagairinterfaces(theprotocol
forexchanginginformationbetweenatagandareader)weredefined(butnotratified)byEPCglobalpriorto2003.Theseprotocols,commonlyknownas
Class0andClass1,sawsignificantcommercialimplementationin20022005.
In2004,theHardwareActionGroupcreatedanewprotocol,theClass1Generation2interface,whichaddressedanumberofproblemsthathadbeen
experiencedwithClass0andClass1tags.TheEPCGen2standardwasapprovedinDecember2004.ThiswasapprovedafteracontentionfromIntermec
thatthestandardmayinfringeanumberoftheirRFIDrelatedpatents.Itwasdecidedthatthestandarditselfdoesnotinfringetheirpatents,makingthe
standardroyaltyfree.[75]TheEPCGen2standardwasadoptedwithminormodificationsasISO180006Cin2006.[76]
In2007,thelowestcostofGen2EPCinlaywasofferedbythenowdefunctcompanySmartCode,atapriceof$0.05apieceinvolumesof100millionor
more.[77]Nevertheless,furtherconversion(includingadditionallabelstockorencapsulationprocessing/insertionandfreightcoststoagivenfacilityor
DC)andoftheinlaysintousableRFIDlabelsandthedesignofcurrentGen2protocolstandardwillincreasethetotalendcost,especiallywiththeadded
securityfeatureextensionsforRFIDSupplyChainitemleveltagging.

Problemsandconcerns
Dataflooding
Noteverysuccessfulreadingofatag(anobservation)isusefulforbusinesspurposes.Alargeamountofdatamaybegeneratedthatisnotusefulfor
managinginventoryorotherapplications.Forexample,acustomermovingaproductfromoneshelftoanother,orapalletloadofarticlesthatpasses
severalreaderswhilebeingmovedinawarehouse,areeventsthatdonotproducedatathatismeaningfultoaninventorycontrolsystem.[78]
Eventfilteringisrequiredtoreducethisdatainflowtoameaningfuldepictionofmovinggoodspassingathreshold.Variousconceptshavebeen
designed,mainlyofferedasmiddlewareperformingthefilteringfromnoisyandredundantrawdatatosignificantprocesseddata.

Globalstandardization
ThefrequenciesusedforUHFRFIDintheUSAarecurrentlyincompatiblewiththoseofEuropeorJapan.Furthermore,noemergingstandardhasyet
becomeasuniversalasthebarcode.[79]Toaddressinternationaltradeconcerns,itisnecessarytouseatagthatisoperationalwithinalloftheinternational
frequencydomains.

Securityconcerns
RetailerssuchasWalmart,whichalreadyheavilyuseRFIDforinventorypurposes,alsouseRFIDasanantiemployeetheftandantishoplifting
technology.IfaproductwithanactiveRFIDtagpassestheexitscannersataWalmartoutlet,notonlydoesitsetoffanalarm,butitalsotellssecurity
personnelexactlywhatproducttolookforintheshopper'scart.[80]

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AprimaryRFIDsecurityconcernistheillicittrackingofRFIDtags.Tags,whichareworldreadable,posearisktobothpersonallocationprivacyand
corporate/militarysecurity.SuchconcernshavebeenraisedwithrespecttotheUnitedStatesDepartmentofDefense'srecentadoptionofRFIDtagsfor
supplychainmanagement.[81]Moregenerally,privacyorganizationshaveexpressedconcernsinthecontextofongoingeffortstoembedelectronic
productcode(EPC)RFIDtagsinconsumerproducts.ThisismostlyasresultofthefactthatRFIDtagscanberead,andlegitimatetransactionswith
readerscanbeeavesdropped,fromnontrivialdistances.RFIDusedinaccesscontrol,paymentandeID(epassport)systemsoperateatashorterrange
thanEPCRFIDsystemsbutarealsovulnerabletoskimmingandeavesdropping,albeitatshorterdistance.[82]
Asecondmethodofpreventionisbyusingcryptography.Rollingcodesandchallengeresponseauthentication(CRA)arecommonlyusedtofoil
monitorrepetitionofthemessagesbetweenthetagandreaderasanymessagesthathavebeenrecordedwouldprovetobeunsuccessfulonrepeat
transmission.Rollingcodesrelyuponthetag'sidbeingchangedaftereachinterrogation,whileCRAusessoftwaretoaskforacryptographicallycoded
responsefromthetag.TheprotocolsusedduringCRAcanbesymmetric,ormayusepublickeycryptography.[83]
SecurityconcernsexistinregardtoprivacyovertheunauthorizedreadingofRFIDtags.UnauthorizedreaderscanpotentiallyuseRFIDinformationto
identifyortrackpackages,consumers,carriers,orthecontentsofapackage.[83]Severalprototypesystemsarebeingdevelopedtocombatunauthorized
reading,includingRFIDsignalinterruption,[84]aswellasthepossibilityoflegislation,and700scientificpapershavebeenpublishedonthismattersince
2002.[85]TherearealsoconcernsthatthedatabasestructureofObjectNamingServicesmaybesusceptibletoinfiltration,similartodenialofservice
attacks,aftertheEPCglobalNetworkONSrootserverswereshowntobevulnerable.[86]

Exploitation
ArsTechnicareportedinMarch2006anRFIDbufferoverflowbugthatcouldinfectairportterminalRFIDdatabasesforbaggage,andalsopassport
databasestoobtainconfidentialinformationonthepassportholder.[87]

Passports
Inanefforttomakepassportsmoresecure,severalcountrieshaveimplementedRFIDinpassports.[88]However,theencryptiononUKchipswasbroken
inunder48hours.[89]Sincethatincident,furthereffortshaveallowedresearcherstoclonepassportdatawhilethepassportisbeingmailedtoitsowner.
Whereacriminalusedtoneedtosecretlyopenandthenresealtheenvelope,nowitcanbedonewithoutdetection,addingsomedegreeofinsecurityto
thepassportsystem.[90]

Shielding
InanefforttopreventthepassiveskimmingofRFIDenabledcardsorpassports,theU.S.GeneralServicesAdministration(GSA)issuedasetoftest
proceduresforevaluatingelectromagneticallyopaquesleeves.[91]ForshieldingproductstobeincompliancewithFIPS201guidelines,theymustmeetor
exceedthispublishedstandard.ShieldingproductscurrentlyevaluatedasFIPS201compliantarelistedonthewebsiteoftheU.S.CIOsFIPS201
EvaluationProgram.[92]TheUnitedStatesgovernmentrequiresthatwhennewIDcardsareissued,theymustbedeliveredwithanapprovedshielding
sleeveorholder.[93]
TherearecontradictingopinionsastowhetheraluminumcanpreventreadingofRFIDchips.Somepeopleclaimthataluminumshielding,essentially
creatingaFaradaycage,doeswork.[94]OthersclaimthatsimplywrappinganRFIDcardinaluminumfoilonlymakestransmissionmoredifficultandis
notcompletelyeffectiveatpreventingit.[95]
Shieldingeffectivenessdependsonthefrequencybeingused.LowfrequencyLowFIDtags,likethoseusedinimplantabledevicesforhumansandpets,
arerelativelyresistanttoshieldingthoughthickmetalfoilwillpreventmostreads.HighfrequencyHighFIDtags(13.56MHzsmartcardsandaccess
badges)aresensitivetoshieldingandaredifficulttoreadwhenwithinafewcentimetresofametalsurface.UHFUltraHighFIDtags(palletsand
cartons)aredifficulttoreadwhenplacedwithinafewmillimetresofametalsurface,althoughtheirreadrangeisactuallyincreasedwhentheyarespaced
24cmfromametalsurfaceduetopositivereinforcementofthereflectedwaveandtheincidentwaveatthetag.

Controversies
Privacy
TheuseofRFIDhasengenderedconsiderablecontroversyandevenproductboycottsbyconsumerprivacy
advocates.ConsumerprivacyexpertsKatherineAlbrechtandLizMcIntyrearetwoprominentcriticsofthe
"spychip"technology.ThetwomainprivacyconcernsregardingRFIDare:
SincetheownerofanitemwillnotnecessarilybeawareofthepresenceofanRFIDtagandthetagcanbe
readatadistancewithouttheknowledgeoftheindividual,itbecomespossibletogathersensitivedata
aboutanindividualwithoutconsent.
Ifataggeditemispaidforbycreditcardorinconjunctionwithuseofaloyaltycard,thenitwouldbe
possibletoindirectlydeducetheidentityofthepurchaserbyreadingthegloballyuniqueIDofthatitem
(containedintheRFIDtag).Thisisonlytrueifthepersondoingthewatchingalsohadaccesstotheloyalty
carddataandthecreditcarddata,andthepersonwiththeequipmentknowswhereyouaregoingtobe.
MostconcernsrevolvearoundthefactthatRFIDtagsaffixedtoproductsremainfunctionalevenafterthe
productshavebeenpurchasedandtakenhomeandthuscanbeusedforsurveillanceandotherpurposesunrelated
totheirsupplychaininventoryfunctions.[96]

LogooftheantiRFIDcampaignby
Germanprivacygroupdigitalcourage
(formerlyFoeBuD).

TheRFIDNetworkarguedthatthesefearsareunfoundedinthefirstepisodeoftheirsyndicatedcableTVseriesbylettingRFengineersdemonstratehow
RFIDworks.TheyprovidedimagesofRFengineersdrivinganRFIDenabledvanaroundabuildingandtryingtotakeaninventoryofitemsinside.They
discussedsatellitetrackingofapassiveRFIDtag,whichissurprisingsincethemaximumrangeisunder200m.
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TheconcernsraisedbytheabovemaybeaddressedinpartbyuseoftheClippedTag.TheClippedTagisanRFIDtagdesignedtoincreaseconsumer
privacy.TheClippedTaghasbeensuggestedbyIBMresearchersPaulMoskowitzandGuenterKarjoth.Afterthepointofsale,aconsumermaytearoffa
portionofthetag.Thisallowsthetransformationofalongrangetagintoaproximitytagthatstillmayberead,butonlyatshortrangelessthanafew
inchesorcentimeters.Themodificationofthetagmaybeconfirmedvisually.Thetagmaystillbeusedlaterforreturns,recalls,orrecycling.
However,readrangeisbothafunctionofthereaderandthetagitself.Improvementsintechnologymayincreasereadrangesfortags.Tagsmayberead
atlongerrangesthantheyaredesignedforbyincreasingreaderpower.Thelimitonreaddistancethenbecomesthesignaltonoiseratioofthesignal
reflectedfromthetagbacktothereader.ResearchersattwosecurityconferenceshavedemonstratedthatpassiveUltraHighFIDtagsnormallyreadat
rangesofupto30feet,canbereadatrangesof50to69feetusingsuitableequipment.[97][98]
InJanuary2004privacyadvocatesfromCASPIANandtheGermanprivacygroupFoeBuDwereinvitedtotheMETROFutureStoreinGermany,where
anRFIDpilotprojectwasimplemented.ItwasuncoveredbyaccidentthatMETRO"Payback"customerloyaltycardscontainedRFIDtagswith
customerIDs,afactthatwasdisclosedneithertocustomersreceivingthecards,nortothisgroupofprivacyadvocates.Thishappeneddespiteassurances
byMETROthatnocustomeridentificationdatawastrackedandallRFIDusagewasclearlydisclosed.[99]
DuringtheUNWorldSummitontheInformationSociety(WSIS)betweenthe16thto18November2005,founderofthefreesoftwaremovement,
RichardStallman,protestedtheuseofRFIDsecuritycardsbycoveringhiscardwithaluminumfoil.[100]
In20042005theFederalTradeCommissionStaffconductedaworkshopandreviewofRFIDprivacyconcernsandissuedareportrecommendingbest
practices.[101]
RFIDwasoneofthemaintopicsof2006ChaosCommunicationCongress(organizedbytheChaosComputerClubinBerlin)andtriggeredabigpress
debate.Topicsincluded:electronicpassports,MifarecryptographyandtheticketsfortheFIFAWorldCup2006.Talksshowedhowthefirstrealworld
massapplicationofRFIDatthe2006FIFASoccerWorldCupworked.Groupmonochromstagedaspecial'HackRFID'song.[102]

Governmentcontrol
SomeindividualshavegrowntofearthelossofrightsduetoRFIDhumanimplantation.
Byearly2007,ChrisPagetofSanFrancisco,California,showedthatRFIDinformationcanbepulledfromindividualsbyusingonly$250worthof
equipment.Thissupportstheclaimthatwiththeinformationcaptured,itwouldberelativelysimpletomakecounterfeitpassports.[103]
AccordingtoZDNet,criticsbelievethatRFIDwillleadtotrackingindividuals'everymovementandwillbeaninvasionofprivacy.[104]Inthebook
SpyChips:HowMajorCorporationsandGovernmentPlantoTrackYourEveryMovebyKatherineAlbrechtandLizMcIntyre,oneisencouragedto
"imagineaworldofnoprivacy.Whereyoureverypurchaseismonitoredandrecordedinadatabaseandyoureverybelongingisnumbered.Where
someonemanystatesawayorperhapsinanothercountryhasarecordofeverythingyouhaveeverbought.What'smore,theycanbetrackedand
monitoredremotely".[105]

Deliberatedestructioninclothingandotheritems
AccordingtoanRSAlaboratoriesFAQ,RFIDtagscanbedestroyedbyastandardmicrowaveoven[106]howeversometypesofRFIDtags,particularly
thoseconstructedtoradiateusinglargemetallicantennas(inparticularRFtagsandEPCtags),maycatchfireifsubjectedtothisprocessfortoolong(as
wouldanymetalliciteminsideamicrowaveoven).ThissimplemethodcannotsafelybeusedtodeactivateRFIDfeaturesinelectronicdevices,orthose
implantedinlivingtissue,becauseoftheriskofdamagetothe"host".Howeverthetimerequiredisextremelyshort(asecondortwoofradiation)and
themethodworksinmanyothernonelectronicandinanimateitems,longbeforeheatorfirebecomeofconcern.
SomeRFIDtagsimplementa"killcommand"mechanismforpermanentlyandirreversiblydisablingthem.Thismechanismcanbeappliedifthechip
itselfistrustedorthemechanismisknownbythepersonthatwantsto"kill"thetag.
UHFRFIDtagsthatcomplywiththeEPC2Gen2Class1standardusuallysupportthismechanism,whileprotectingthechipfrombeingkilledwitha
password.[107]Guessingorcrackingthisneeded32bitpasswordforkillingatagwouldnotbedifficultforadeterminedattacker.[108]

Seealso
AS5678
Balise
Binbug
ChiplessRFID
InternetofThings
Masssurveillance
NearFieldCommunication
OpticalRFID
Privacybydesign
Proximitycard
Resonantinductivecoupling
RFIDonmetal
RSAblockertag
Smartlabel
Speedpass
TecTile
Trackingsystem
RFIDinschools

References
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1.AutomaticIdentificationandDataCollection(AIDC)
(http://www.mhi.org/fundamentals/automaticidentification)
2.Angell,I.,Kietzmann,J.(2006)."RFIDandtheendofcash?"(PDF).
CommunicationsoftheACM49(12):9096.doi:10.1145/1183236.1183237.
Retrieved9November2013.
3."RFIDForecasts,PlayersandOpportunitiesin20142024".IDTechEx.
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Externallinks
UHFregulationsoverviewbyGS1(http://www.gs1.org/docs/epc/UHF_Regulations.pdf)
WikimediaCommonshas
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HowRFIDWorks(http://www.howstuffworks.com/rfid.htm)atHowStuffWorks
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RFID(https://www.dmoz.org/Society/Issues/Science_and_Technology/RFID/)atDMOZ
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