Material

E A S E
22A MPTIAC

Richard Lane
and
Benjamin Craig
AMPTIAC Technical Staff, Rome, NY

MATERIALS THAT SENSE AND RESPOND:

AN INTRODUCTION TO SMART MATERIALS

Sensors and actuators have become an increasingly important technology as more systems become automated, requiring less human input or operation.
This MaterialEASE characterizes the leading sensor and actuator materials currently in use along with some new materials under research. For more
information on this exciting topic, consider purchasing the more complete AMPTIAC Report: Materials for Sensors and Actuators.

INTRODUCTION environment producing some form of response. For instance, in 1824,

Each of us reacts to the world around and within us by sensing and
actuating. When our hand is in contact with a hot object, we sense the heat,
our brain sends a command, and our arm muscles actuate our hand away
from the object. Similarly, because of internal sensing, we will tend to favor
the burned hand until it has healed. As technology progresses, it becomes
reasonable to ask, “Can we design analogous mechanisms that can intel-
ligently interact with their environment, and structures that assess their
own health?” Such smart structures could have a tremendous impact in
advancing many fields including medicine, microelectronics, and robotics,
among others.
Often, simple devices made from a single sensing or actuating material
are used in certain applications. However, systems that involve both sensing
and actuating materials can be used to build more sophisticated applica-
tions. Such systems are referred to as smart structures, which incorporate
sensors and actuators with processing/control units connecting them. To get
an idea of how smart structures can be implemented, it is necessary to
understand the fundamental components of these structures: sensor and
actuator materials.
For centuries, materials have been known to react to the surrounding
Rochelle salt was discovered to become electrically polarized by the applica-
tion of heat. That was the first discovery of the effect known as pyroelectric-
ity. Since that time, numerous additional materials have been discovered
having the inherent capability to convert one form of energy into another.
Sensors are materials that respond to a physical stimulus, such as a change
in temperature, pressure, or illumination, and transmit a resulting signal
for monitoring or operating a control. Actuators are materials that respond
to a stimulus in the form of a mechanical property change such as a dimen-
sional or a viscosity change. Table 1 lists the sensor/actuator material
classes that will be discussed in this MaterialEASE along with their
associated energy stimulus and response forms.
SMART MATERIAL TYPES
Pyroelectrics
Pyroelectrics, as previously mentioned, are materials that become electri-
cally polarized upon an applied temperature change. Materials used as
pyroelectrics include barium strontium titanate (Ba1-xSrxTiO3), lead
zirconate titanate (PbZr1-x TixO3), barium strontium niobate
(Ba1-xSrxNb2O6), triglycine sulfates (TGS), lithium tantalate (LiTaO3),

Table 1. Sensor and Actuator Material Classes.

Material Class Stimulus Response
Pyroelectrics Temperature Change Electric Polarization
Piezoelectrics Mechanical Strain Electric Polarization
Sensors

Electrostrictors Mechanical Strain Electric Polarization

Magnetostrictors Mechanical Strain Change in Magnetic Field
Electroactive Polymers Mechanical Strain Electric Polarization
Electroluminescent Materials Electric Field Light Emission
Photoluminescent Materials Incident Light Light Emission
Electrochromic Materials Electric Field Color Change

Piezoelectrics Electric Current Mechanical Strain

Electrostrictors Electric Current Mechanical Strain
Actuators

Magnetostrictors Magnetic/Electric Field Mechanical Strain

Shape Memory Alloys Temperature Change Mechanical Strain
Electroactive Polymers Electric Field/pH change Mechanical Strain
Electrorheological Fluids Electric Field Viscosity Change
Magnetorheological Fluids Magnetic Field Viscosity Change

The AMPTIAC Quarterly, Volume 7, Number 2 9

 Material
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and polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF). Ceramics are widely used due to
their lower cost including availability and ease of processing, and good
stability. Their weakness comes from their inherent brittleness.
Polymers, PVDF and its copolymer with trifluoroethylene (PVDF-
TrFE), provide a non-brittle alternative but do not obtain the level of
performance of ceramics.
Pyroelectrics are widely used for infrared detection in surveillance
and targeting applications. A pyroelectric infrared detector generally
employs a thin film of pyroelectric material oriented with the elec-
E
electrics include: adaptive optics, hydrophones and sonobuoys, fuse
devices, depth sounders, thickness gauging, flaw detection, level indi-
cators, alarm systems, strain gauges, airplane beacon locators, fetal
heart detectors, and tire pressure indicators among many others.
Lead
Oxygen

troded surfaces normal to its polarization direction. When infrared Titanium or Zirconium
radiation is absorbed by the detector, the temperature of the pyroelec-
tric material rises. This change in temperature alters the material’s
polarization causing a change in surface charges across the material
Force
which produces an electrical signal via the electrodes. The resulting
signal is proportional to the incoming radiation.

Piezoelectrics
Force
Piezoelectrics are materials that exhibit an electrical polarization with
an applied mechanical stress (direct effect), or a dimensional change
with an applied electric field (converse effect). They are used for both
sensing and actuating devices. Lead zirconate titanate (PbZr1-xTixO3)
is the premier piezoelectric material as it may be doped to produce an
n-type or p-type material with a range of dielectric constants to meet
the requirements of numerous applications. Other piezoelectric mate-
rials that may be used are barium titanate (BaTiO3), lead titanate
(PbTiO3), lead metaniobate (PbNb2O6), and PVDF. Polymers are gen-
erally favored for sensing applications while ceramics are favored for
actuating. Figure 1 depicts the piezoelectric effect observed in lead zir-
conate titanate upon the application of compressive forces relative to
the crystal structure.
Piezoelectrics is a mature technology with numerous applications
throughout the military and commercial sectors. Devices using piezo-
Force
Force
Polarization Down
Polarization Up
Figure 1. The Piezoelectric Effect
Electrostrictors
Electrostrictors, like piezoelectrics, exhibit a dimensional change upon
an applied electric field or an electric polarization upon an applied
mechanical stress. Electrostrictors however, exhibit a non-linear
response as opposed to the linear response of piezoelectrics. The advan-
tages of electrostrictive materials over piezoelectrics are that they have
almost no hysteresis, a quick response time, and higher displacements
with good reproducibility. These properties are desired for microposi-

MACROSCOPIC MAGNETOSTRICTION MECHANISM

Magnetic materials have internal areas
called domains, within which all magnetic
dipoles are oriented in the same direction. No External Magnetic Field

Domains with different orientations are sep-

arated by domain walls or boundaries. With Apply External Magnetic Field
the application of an external magnetic field,
the boundaries move and domains rotate
and align themselves in the same direction,
ultimately causing a slight length/shape Arrows indicate magnetic dipole
External Magnetic Field Direction
in each domain
change in the bulk material. The magne-
tostriction effect is illustrated in the figure.

10 The AMPTIAC Quarterly, Volume 7, Number 2

 A D VA N C E D M AT E R I A L S AND PROCESSES TECHNOLOGY
A MPTIAC

tioner and adaptive optic actuation applications. A disadvantage of available SMAs

electrostrictors is their higher cost compared with piezoelectrics. Ceramic
materials that are used in electrostrictive devices are in a class called “relax-
or ferroelectrics.” The term “relaxor” refers to the significant decrease in
dielectric constant with increasing frequency. Lead magnesium niobate –
lead titanate (0.9PbMg1/3Nb2/3O3 – 0.1PbTiO3) is the most popular elec-
trostrictive material. Research on polymeric electrostrictors has taken place,
but none have been developed thus far for practical use.
Magnetostrictors
Magnetostrictive materials (used in actuators) exhibit a change in shape
(strain or elongation) when an external magnetic field is applied. The
reverse effect is called piezomagnetism (used in sensors), where a magnet-
ic field is produced/altered upon application of a mechanical strain.
Although usually minimal, ferromagnetic materials (e.g. Fe, Ni, Co,
etc.) exhibit magnetostriction to some extent. Ferromagnetic elements,
such as cobalt, are often alloyed with iron. Rare earth elements have exhib-
ited significantly higher magnetostriction but only at temperatures lower
than room temperature. Other common magnetostrictive materials include
nickel-based alloys and particulate composites containing magnetostrictive
particles. Magnetostrictive sensors and actuators are used for transducers,
transformers, MEMS, vibration and noise control, linear motors, adaptive
optics, ultrasonics, speakers, drills, pumps, and position and mechanical
torque sensors.
Terfenol-D is used almost exclusively as the choice material for magne-
tostrictive applications because of its exceptional magnetostrictive proper-
ties. Terfenol is an intermetallic compound, TbFe2 (TER – Terbium; FE –
Iron; NOL – Naval Ordnance Laboratory, now the Naval Surface Warfare
Center), and D denotes the presence of the rare earth metal dysprosium.
Shape memory alloys (SMAs) are actuators that, upon proper thermal and
mechanical treatment, have the ability to remember up to two shapes which
they had previously occupied. When subjected to a mechanical load below
a certain temperature, these special materials can be plastically deformed
beyond their elastic limit, but then are capable of regaining their original
shape if they are then heated above a certain temperature.
Nickel-titanium is the most common SMA and has some of the best
shape memory properties, but has relatively low transformation tempera-
tures. Although they cannot match the outstanding shape memory capabil-
ities of Ni-Ti alloys, copper-based alloys are a less expensive alternative. The
most common ternary Cu-based systems are Cu-Zn-Al and Cu-Al-Ni which
can generally achieve a shape memory strain of 4 to 5% (compared to about
8% for Ni-Ti) and have a broader range of transformation temperatures.[1]
Other alloys, such as iron-based alloys (e.g. Fe-Mn, Fe-Mn-Si, Fe-Pt, Fe-Ni,
Fe-Ni-Co and Fe-Pd), exhibit shape memory but are not capable of regain-
ing their shape to the same extent as nickel-titanium and copper-based
alloys. Other forms of SMAs include composites and ferromagnetic alloys.
Some of the current SMA applications include use in spacecraft, aircraft,
automobiles, electronics, medicine, process systems, robotics, and domestic
appliances.
Wet EAPs
Wet electroactive polymers (EAPs) (also known as ionic EAPs) are poly-
mers immersed in an electrolytic fluid that upon the application of an
external stimulus (such as an electric field,) can exhibit a significant
change in dimension or geometry. EAPs can act as sensors and/or
actuators and are typically of the following compositions.
Polymer gels can take on water and expand, or conversely expel water

THE BASIC ONE-WAY SHAPE MEMORY EFFECT

The actual mechanism of the shape memory effect can be described simply as a
reversible, thermoelastic, phase transformation between a parent austenitic phase
and a martensitic phase. The phase transformation occurs when a material in the
austenitic phase is cooled below the martensite start temperature (Ms), where the
two phases coexist. The material must then accommodate the two phases without
De

(b)
changing shape through a mechanism called twinning. This is where mirror-image
for
g

Twinned Martensite
n

ma
oli

lattices form adjacent to the parent lattices. The phase transformation is completed
Co

tion

upon reaching the martensite finish temperature (Mf). The material can then be
plastically deformed into another shape. During this deformation the twinned
martensite is converted to a deformed martensite. The material remains deformed Heating
until it is heated to the austenite start temperature (As), and at this point the
martensite begins to transform back into austenite. Heating above the austenite fin-
ish temperature (Af) allows the material to regain its original shape. (The extent to (a) Austenite
(c) Deformed Martensite
which the shape is regained usually depends on the type of SMA, amount of defor-
mation, and the material’s thermomechanical history.) When cooled again the Austenite (a) Cooled to Form Twinned Martensite
(b) without a Shape Change, then Deformed by Moving
material does not automatically revert to the deformed shape. This is called the one- Twin Boundaries (c). Heating State (b) or (c) will Return
way shape memory effect. The entire shape memory process can be repeated. the Original Austenitic Structure and Shape.[1]

The AMPTIAC Quarterly, Volume 7, Number 2 11

 Material
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and contract in response to a change in the surrounding chemical
environment. The movement of water can be induced by a change in
pH, electric field, temperature, light or other environmental condi-
tions. Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) has been used in polymer gel systems,
as it is a polyelectrolyte.[2] Another polymer gel activated by a
change in pH includes a polyvinyl alcohol-polyacrylic acid (PVA-
PAA) component.
Ionic polymer metal composites (IPMCs) are made up of a per-
fluorinated membrane (meaning all of the hydrogen atoms attached
to carbon atoms are replaced with fluorine atoms) with noble metal
plating (typically gold or platinum) for electrodes.[3] The ionic poly-
mers used are typically either Flemion® (a perfluorocarboxylate) or
Nafion® (a perfluorosulfonate) which swell in water due to their ionic
and hydrophilic nature. Anions are located on the polymer mem-
brane, while cations are present and freely moving in the fluid. When
an electric field is applied to the IPMC, the cations diffuse toward the
negative electrode, which causes the composite to deform.
Conductive polymers (CP) experience a volume change when they
are subjected to an electrochemical oxidation or reduction process
called doping. Polyacetylene, polyaniline (PANi), nylon, polypyrrole
(PPy) and polythiophene (PT) are examples of conductive polymers.
For these to function, an electrolyte must be present in order to supply
the ions. The application of a small electric field will prompt the elec-
trochemical reactions causing the polymer to become conductive or
insulative, thus causing the ions and solvent to migrate either into or
out from the polymer matrix resulting in the volume change.
E
Although carbon nanotubes are not polymers, they are considered
to be the most recent addition to this list of electroactive actuators.
[3, 4] Carbon nanotubes, known to exhibit sensing and actuating
capabilities, are sheets of graphite one atom thick that are rolled into
cylinders forming a structure that has a very small diameter (on the
order of a nanometer) but a length greater than a micrometer.
Applying a voltage to a carbon nanotube structure residing in an elec-
trolyte will cause it to bend achieving strains up to 0.2%.[3] Ions from
the electrolyte build up around the carbon nanotube surface and the
charge injection causes the bond lengths between carbon atoms to
change, thus causing the dimensions of the nanotube to change. With
dimensional changes in individual nanotubes being coherent the
effect is seen macroscopically also.
Electrorheological and Magnetorheological Fluids
Electrorheological (ER) and magnetorheological (MR) fluids experi-
ence a nearly instantaneous change in their rheological properties
upon the application of an electric or magnetic field, respectively. (See
accompanying article in this issue.) This change is reversible and
occurs also nearly instantaneously upon the removal of the applied
field. The physical changes can be quite substantial, turning a low
viscosity fluid into a much more viscous, almost-solid substance.
These special fluids typically consist of a dispersed, polarizable
particulate phase suspended in a carrier fluid. While ER and MR
fluids can use the same type of carrier fluid (e.g. high electrical resis-
tivity, low-viscosity substance such as a hydrocarbon or silicone oil),

THE ELECTRO- AND MAGNETO-RHEOLOGICAL EFFECTS

The electrorheological effect occurs in an ER fluid when an Field direction

electric field is applied causing the uniformly dispersed
solid particles to become polarized. Once polarized, they
begin to interact with each other, and form chain-like
structures, parallel to the electric field direction, connecting
the two electrodes (see figure below). Upon further intensi-
fication of the electric field, the chains begin to form thick-
er columns. A dramatic change in the suspension’s rheo-
logical properties is associated with this change in its struc-
ture. The columnar particle structures give the fluid a
greater yield stress. Upon removing the electric field, the
particles lose their polarization and return to their freely
roaming state. The period of time over which these events
occur is on the order of milliseconds. The magnetorheo-
(a) No Electric Field (b) Applied Electric Field
logical effect is similar to the ER effect, but obviously,
instead of an electric field, a magnetic field is applied to
polarize the particles.

12 The AMPTIAC Quarterly, Volume 7, Number 2

 A D VA N C E D M AT E R I A L S
the particulate phase is different. For ER fluids the dispersed particles are
commonly metal oxides, aluminosilicates, silica, organics, or polymers.[5]
MR fluids use ferromagnetic or paramagnetic solid particles. Activators, sur-
factants, and other additives are also commonly included in both types of
fluids to improve their properties.
ER and MR fluids are mostly considered for use in damping applica-
tions. Specific applications include exercise equipment, valve, braking and
clutch systems, as well as in vibration control and shock absorbing systems.
Electroluminescent and Photoluminescent Materials
Luminescence is the property of emitting energy in the form of light
(having a wavelength in the visible spectrum). The process of luminescence
occurs when a material’s valence electrons are excited to higher energy
levels by some stimulus, then fall back to lower energy levels giving off pho-
tons, or light. Luminescent properties can be classified by the type of input
energy used to excite electrons to higher energy levels. Thermoluminescent,
electroluminescent and photoluminescent materials’ electrons are excited
by heat, applied electric field, and incident photons, respectively.
Electroluminescence (EL), in basic terms, is the emission of light
induced by an applied electric current. It is not the same phenomenon as
incandescence used in standard light bulbs, which generates heat. EL,
rather, is a much more efficient process since it is the direct conversion of
energy from an electric current into light. Electroluminescent and photo-
luminescent (PL) materials include inorganic as well as organic materi-
als. Often the inorganic materials are made up of a combination of ele-
ments from the II, III, V, and VI groups on the periodic table. Some of the
inorganic base materials that have been studied include GaAs, CdS, InP,
and GaN.
Electroluminescence in polymers has received much attention recent-
ly. They can be fabricated to emit red, yellow or blue light, with blue light
being the most difficult to achieve. Some examples of conjugated (also
known as conducting) electroluminescent polymers include poly(alkyl-
fluorenes), polyparaphenylene (PPP), and poly(p-pyridine) (PPy).[6]
Other electroluminescent polymers include polythiophenes (PT), poly(p-
phenylene vinylene) (PPV), poly(p-phenylene), and polyfluorenes.[7]
Polythiophenes and PPVs can exhibit electroluminescence from blue to
the near-infrared depending on the side group. Copolymers with an elec-
troactive segment of poly(p-phenylene benzobisthiazole) (PBZT), exhibit-
ed photoluminescence with wavelengths representing blue to red visible
light.[8, 9] In general, conjugated polyquinolines can be modified to emit
light having a wavelength anywhere in the visible spectrum.[7]
The most common application of an electroluminescent material is in
a light emitting diode/device (LED). LEDs consist of an electroluminescent
material sandwiched between two electrodes, one of which is transparent
allowing the transmittance of the emitted light.
Electrochromic
When an electric current is passed through an electrochromic material
its optical properties change such that the material has a significantly
different appearance. That is, the absorptive, reflective, or transmissive
properties are altered enough to cause a change in its color, reflectivity
or transparency.[10]
AND PROCESSES TECHNOLOGY
A MPTIAC
The mechanism relies on electrochemical reactions (oxidation/reduc-
tion) involving a transfer of electrons and ions between electrodes and the
electrochromic material. When an electric current is applied and electrons
and ions are being exchanged from one electrode to the other, there is an
amount of incident energy, with wavelengths in the visible spectrum, which
can be absorbed, therefore causing the material to change color and in
effect become less transmissive. The degree to which the color is changed
depends on the extent of the reaction, which is basically controlled by the
applied electric field. Oxides of the following metals exhibit electrochromic
properties: tungsten, molybdenum, titanium, manganese, vanadium,
ruthenium, iridium, rhodium, and niobium.[11]
WO3, which turns from clear to blue, is the most studied electrochromic
material. [11] The reaction is rather slow, but the coloration remains for a
significant amount of time after the electric current is removed.[12] V2O5
changes from favoring the red end of the spectrum to the blue end. Lithium
nickel oxide, LixNi1-xO (x is typically 0.3-0.5), turns from being clear into a
neutral gray color.[13]
The electrochemical oxidation of polyaniline can change it from
being transparent to green, then blue, and then purple. Upon electro-
chemical reduction this color scheme is reversed, and thus it is an
electrochromic material. Polydiphenylamine (PDPA) is another elec-
trochromic polymer.[10]
Electrochromic materials can be used to create a smart windows capa-
ble of reducing their transmittance by at least 65% in less than a minute
when an electric field is applied . Once the electric field is removed the effect
remains, but it is reversible when the current is reversed.[14]
SUMMARY
Major sensor and actuator technologies as well as current state-of-the-art
materials for those technologies have been presented in this MaterialEASE.
The use of sensor and actuator materials is continuing to grow in an
increasing effort to optimize operating systems. Pertinent examples include:
• Pyroelectric sensors offer infrared detection capabilities used for night
vision and motion detectors.
• Piezoelectric materials offer both sensing and actuating applications for
pressure detection and micropositioning applications respectively.
• Electrostrictors and magnetostrictors offer non-linear micropositioning
capabilities.
• Shape memory alloys offer temperature sensing and a high strain
response (but with a slow response time.)
Smart structures built with these materials will allow for more flexibility
and greater functionality over conventional materials systems in various
applications.
There are numerous unexplored avenues for the application of sensing
and actuating materials, but their development is still far from complete.
Continued research on the materials themselves will spawn new as-yet-
unknown applications, and will also provide improved performance in
existing applications.
Although these special materials will not simply replace conventional
hydraulic, pneumatic and electric motor actuators altogether, the new
actuators may eventually be implemented more widely than their long-
established counterparts, as they have a high energy density, large band-
The AMPTIAC Quarterly, Volume 7, Number 2 13
 Material
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width, and simple packaging. Traditional actuators can be large and
complex systems, adding weight and various additional costs to the
application. Sensor and actuator materials can decrease manufactur-
ing, operating and maintenance costs, reduce weight and improve sys-
tem performance. Therefore, when designing new systems, these mate-
rials should be given proper consideration as they present a very legit-
imate alternative to conventional systems.
REFERENCES
[1] Metals Handbook, 10th Edition, Vol. 2: Properties and Selection:
Nonferrous Alloys and Special-Purpose Materials, ASM International,
1990; DTIC Doc. AD-D450 152
[2] W.W. Gibbs, “Artificial Muscles,” Scientific American, 1996.
Available at http://www.sciam.com/
[3] Electroactive Polymer [EAP] Actuators as Artificial Muscles:
Reality, Potential, and Challenges, edited by Y. Bar-Cohen, SPIE – The
International Society for Optical Engineering, The Society of Photo-
Optical Instrumentation Engineers, 2001
[4] Y. Bar-Cohen, “Nanotechnology Using Electroactive Polymers as
Artificial Muscles”, MST news, International Newsletter on
Microsystems and MEMS, Vol. 3/01, 2001, pp. 45-46
[5] S. Ramamurthy, M.V. Gandhi, and B.S. Thompson, Smart
Materials for Army Structures, Quantum Consultants, Inc.,
Michigan 1992; DTIC Doc. AD-A300 215
[6] D.D. Gebler, Y.Z. Wang, J.W. Blatchford, S.W. Jessen, L. –B. Lin, T.L.
Gustafson, H.L. Wang, T.M. Swager, A.G. MacDiarmid, and A.J. Epstein,
“Blue Electroluminescent Devices Based on Soluble Poly(p-pyri-
dine),” Journal of Applied Physics, The American Institute of Physics,
1995; DTIC Doc. AD-A297 041
[7] X. Zhang, A.S. Shetty, and S.A. Jenekhe, “Electroluminescence
smart materials
http://amptiac.alionscience.com/ProductsAndServices/products.html
or call Gina Nash at 315-339-7080
14 The AMPTIAC Quarterly, Volume 7, Number 2
E
and Photophysical Properties of Polyquinolines,” University of
Rochester, 1999; DTIC Doc. AD-A366 991
[8] X.L. Chen and S.A. Jenekhe, “Electroactive and Photoactive
Nanostructured Materials from Self-Assembling Coil-Rod-Coil
Triblock Copolymers,” Polymer Material Science and Engineering,
Vol. 73, 1995, pp. 304-305; DTIC Doc. AD-A314 776
[9] J.A. Osaheni, and S.A. Jenekhe, “Copolymers: Design, Synthesis,
and Supramolecular Regulation of Photophysical Properties,”
Journal of the American Chemical Society, 1995; DTIC Doc. AD-
A294 825
[10] L.H. Dao, M.T. Nguyen, J.W. Chevalier, T.N. Do, J.Y. Bergeron,
and R. Paynter, “Processible, Stable, Conducting Polymers for
Electrochromic Display and Window Applications,” ANTEC ‘91
Conf. Proc., Society of Plastics Engineers and Plastics Engineering,
1991, pp. 861-863
[11] C.G. Granqvist, “Electrochromic Materials: Metal Oxide
Nanocomposites with Variable Optical Properties,” Materials Science
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Doc. AD-D258 149
[12] P. Judeinstein and J. Livage, “Electrochromic Properties of Sol-
Gel Derived WO3 Coatings,” Sol-Gel Optics, Vol. 1328, SPIE, 1990; pp.
344-351
[13] S.J. Wen, K. von Rottkay, and M. Rubin, “Electrochromic Lithium
Nickel Oxide Film by Pulsed Laser Deposition,” Electrochemical
Society Meeting Symposium on Electrochromic Materials and Their
Application III, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1996
[14] J.C.L. Tonazzi, B. Valla, M.A. Macedo, P. Baudry, and M.A.
Aegerter, “Characterization of an all Solid-State Electrochromic
Window,” Sol-Gel Optics, Vol. 1328, SPIE, 1990, pp. 375-390; DTIC
Doc. AD-P006 442
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