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Expert System for Optimization of Welding Process of Thin Walled HSLA Steel Structures
CHAPTER 4
FE MODELING & SIMULATION OF GTAW PROCESS OF
THIN-WALLED STRUCTURE FOR CIRCUMFERENTIAL WELDING
4.1
Introduction
In this chapter, FE modeling & simulation methodology, analytical model of arc

welding, FE formulation, heat source modeling, heat losses modeling, material modeling,
filler metal deposition, simulation approach in ANSYS, welding simulation numerical
aspects used for the development of FE models of thin walled structure for circumferential
welding of cylinder are presented for the studies of welding induced residual stresses and
distortions followed by FE discretization, other simulation aspects, thermal effects of
welding, welding residual stress fields and welding distortions. Further, the details of
experimental setup for validation of FE models for circumferential welding of thin walled
cylinder are presented.
4.2
FE Modeling & Simulation Methodology
The traditional manufacturing processes were mainly established from trial-and-error

experiments approach. Such trial-and-error procedure approach requires tremendous
material, energy, labors, as well as produces significant waste, fumes and emissions. The
traditional trial and error approach based on costly and time-consuming welding experiments
faced hindrance to sound welds due to welding process parameters optimization. The
appropriate control techniques are mandatory with reliability and cost effectiveness for the
application of arc welding process on shop floor level. Whereas the welding simulations
simulates an actual welding process based on science and physics and the tests can be
performed inside computer without the wastage of resources and hazardous environment
impact. A hybrid approach involving both FE modeling and experimental work has proven
very beneficial.
FE models provide a very suitable tool for analyzing the thermal and mechanical
consequences of welding process. FE simulations of welding processes have been a major
topic in welding research for several years [141]. The availability of 64-bit high performance
computing machines and enhanced FE computational techniques has made it possible to
simulate temperature fields developed from the welding process. FE models allow a variety
of welding process and heat source parameters studies without considering the practical
limitations. FE models can be used for analysis of temperature and stress & strain during and
after the welding for the improvement of the process with the experimental validation of FE
models. The FE models after validation can be used for welding process optimization by
performing virtual design of experiments (DOE). Many commercially available finite
element codes such as ANSYS, ABAQUS, FEMLAB, ADINA, MSC MARC, and
SYSWELD etc. can be applied to carryout such type of manufacturing processes
simulations. However, in expert opinion there is no single model available to realistically
account for the arc physics, weld pool phenomenon and finally the deformations and heat
conduction in the solid model [2].
99
University of Engineering & Technology, Taxila-Pakistan
The some subroutines are integrated in ANSYS for the facilitation and the coding
comprises elements activation and deactivation functionality, meshing algorithm, heat source
modeling, material models, heat flux distribution for analytical model and material properties
management depending on the elements temperature etc. Transient thermal analysis followed
by elasto-plastic stress analysis is applied to simplify the simulation procedure.
In the following section, the simulation strategy for the transient thermal modeling
using code(s) from commercially available, analytical model for temperature fields during
arc welding simulation, thermal properties of the materials, adaptation of heat source
modeling and the filler metal deposition mechanism are presented in detail.
4.2.1
Analytical Model of Arc Welding
Arc welding is a highly non-linear coupled thermo-mechanical phenomenon in which

localized heat generation and large thermal gradients results due to the moving heat source
and consequently thermal stresses and distortions due to the non uniform temperature
distribution. According to the first law of thermodynamics, the energy is conversed.
Application of this to a differential control volume V, the heat conduction equation
ignoring the heat of deformations is given in Equation 4.1 [4].
(T ) c (T )
T ( x , y , z , )
= .q + Q ( x, y , z , )
(4.1)
Q ( x, y, z, ) , is the heat generation per unit volume.
The constitutive equation is the Fourier law of heat conduction as given by Equation
4.2 which relates the heat flux and the temperature distribution.
q = k (T ). A.T ( x, y, z , )
(4.2)
From Equation 4.1 into Equation 4.2

(t )c(T )
T ( x, y, z , )
+ (k (T ). A.T ( x, y, z , )) = Q( x, y, z , )
T
(4.3)
Considering thermal conductivity as constant, then

(T )c(T )
T ( x, y, z ,
+ K (T ). A. 2T ( x, y, z, ) = Q( x, y, z , )
(4.4)
Temperature distribution is governed by Equation 4.4.

The sum of all the forces and moments acting on a body is zero according to the law
of equilibrium. It can be written mathematically as Equation 4.5.
2ui 1 v
=
+ Fl
t 2
p x j
(4.5)
100
Where i = 1, 2, 3
The stress-stain relationship in terms of Lames constant is given by Equation 4.6 for
linear thermo-elastic problems.
v = v kk + 2 (3 + 2 )T
(4.6)
The strain displacement relationship is given by Equation 4.7.

1 ui u j
)
+
2 x j xi
= (
(4.7)
From Equations 4.6 and 4.7 into Equation 4.5 and simplifying into Equation 4.8.
2ui
T
= ( + ) kk + 2ui (3 + 2 )
+ Fl
2
t
xi
x j
(4.8)
T
provides a coupling between Equations 4.4 and 4.8. The
x j
temperatures are calculated from Equation 4.4 and applied as body loads through
T
(3 + 2 )
in Equation 4.8. From displacements, the strains and stresses are calculated.
x j
The term (3 + 2 )
4.2.2
FE Formulation
Temperature distribution for isotropic material given in Equation 4.4 can be written in
the form as given in Equation 4.9 [4].
C
T
T
T
= (K
) + (K
) + (K
)+Q
t x
x
y
y
z
z
(4.9)
It can be written in matrix form as

C
T
= ( L )T ( D { L} T ) + Q
t
Where,
L=
y
(4.10)
and
D= 0
0
0
K
0
0
K
101
Applying convective boundary conditions at the surface enclosing the volume V, it can
be written as given in Equation 4.11.
[ q ]T = h f (TB T )
(4.11)
Equations 4.6 becomes by taking the boundary effects into account as

C
T
= {L}T ([ D ]{L}T ) + Q + h f (TB T )
t
(4.12)
Equation 4.10 when multiplied by T yields and integrated over the control volume using
the boundary conditions
T
T
(TC )dv + (T{L} [D]{L}T)dv = (TQ)dv + Thf (TB T)dA
t
v
v
v
(4.13)
Let for any element E, the temperature can be represented by
and
T = [ N ]TE
(4.14)
T = [ N ] TE
(4.15)
Where, TE is the nodal temperature and [N] is the matrix of element shape functions.
This equation is valid for all permissible TE . If
B = [ L ][ N ]
(4.16)
By substituting Equations 4.14, 4.15 and 4.16 in Equation 4.13

(C[ N ][ N ]T {t}) dv + ([ B ]T [ D ][ B ]{TE }) dv
= [ N ]Qdv + [ N ]h f (TB [ N ]T {TE })dA
v
(4.17)
Equation 4.17 containing nodal temperatures can be written in another form as [4]:
[C ]{TE } + [ K ]{TE } = {FE }
(4.18)
Where, [C ] = C[ N ][ N ]T )dv
Specific heat matrix
[ K ] = ([ B ]T [ D ][ B ])dv + h f [ N ][ N ]T dA
v
Thermal conductivity matrix
{FE } = Q[ N ]dv + h f TB [ N ]dA

V
Heat generation and convection matrix
In thermal analysis, the temperature fields can be obtained from the Equation 4.14.
These results can be used further for structural response in mechanical analysis. By
assembling the individual elemental equations, a system of equations is obtained and solved
102
for the unknown nodal temperatures TE. By using the principle of virtual work, which states
that a virtual change of internal strain energy must be offset by an identical change in
external work due to applied load, the finite element form of Equation 4.8 can be obtained
and it can be written mathematically as
U = P
(4.19)
U = Internal strain energy (internal work)

P = External Work (inertia effect)
Where,
= Virtual operator
Whereas the virtual strain energy is given as
U = { }T { }d {V }
(4.20)
= Strain Vector, = Stress Vector, and V = Volume of element

From the theory of basic solid mechanics
and
= D el
(4.21)
= el + th
(4.22)
Where,
= total Strain, el = Elastic strain, th = Thermal Strain, D = Material Stiffness

The thermal strain vector for an isotropic medium with temperature dependent
coefficient of thermal expansion is given as:
th = T (T )
(4.23)
T is the difference between the reference temperature and actual temperature.
By substituting Equations 4.20 and 4.21 in Equation 4.19 gives
U = {{ }T [ D ]{ } { }[ D ]{ th }) dV
(4.24)
The strain is related to nodal displacement by the following relations

{ } = [ B ]{u}
(4.25)
For a constant displacement, virtual straining energy is given as:
U = { u}T [ B ]T [ D ][ B ]dV {u} { u}T [ B ]T [ D ]{ th }dV

V
(4.26)
103
The external virtual work due to inertia forces is given as:
P = { w}T
v
{F a }
dV
v
(4.27)
Where
w = displacement vector of a general point, {F a } = acceleration force vector
According to Newton second law of motion
{F a }
2
= 2 {w}
v
(4.28)
If the displacement within the element is related to nodal displacement by
{w} = [ N ]{u}
(4.29)
The Equation 4.27 can be also written as

2
P = { u} p [ N ] [ N ]dV 2 {u}
(4.30)
By substituting Equations 4.26 and 4.30 in Equation 4.17

{ u}T [ B ]T [ D ][ B ]dV {u} { u}T [ B ]T [ D ]{ th }dV
V
= { u} p [ N ]T [ N ]dV
2
{u}
2
(4.31)
{ u}T Vector is a set of arbitrary virtual displacement common in all terms, the
condition required to satisfy Equation 4.30 gives [4].
[ K c ] {Fcth } = [ M c ]{u&&}
Where,
[ Kc] = [ B ]T [ D ][ B ]dV
(4.32)
Element stiffness matrix
{Fcth } = [ B ]T [ D]{ th }dV
Element thermal load vector
[ M c ] = [ N ]T [ N ]dV
Element mass matrix
104
4.2.3
Interaction of Different Fields
The structural modeling is carried out to study the macroscopic thermal-mechanical

behavior of thin-walled cylinders during circumferential welding. The computational domain
of the finite element model is only limited to the thin walled structure (i.e. cylinders) i.e. the
heat source and clamping fixtures explicitly are not modeled. Further, the finite element
model does not predict weld pool geometries that are used as input parameters. Therefore,
this model is most reliable outside the weld pool. The thermal field is the motive force
behind the changes in mechanical and material fields during welding process. Numerical
simulations that are concerned with the mechanical effects of welding require the
computation of thermal and mechanical fields. Due to the changing microstructure, the
material behavior depends on the temperature and deformation histories. In the structural
analysis, stresses and deformations based on temperature are accommodated by incorporating
the results of thermal-metallurgical analysis into the structural analysis.
4.2.4
Heat Source Modeling and Efficiency
The problems of residual stresses, distortion, and reduced strength of structures in and
near the welded joint are a major concern of the welding industry which is in result directly
from the thermal cycle caused by localized intense heat input [51]. Computing the transient
temperature fields accurately is the first critical step of creating an efficient welding
simulation strategy because the temperature has a first order effect on the microstructure,
strain, stress and consequently defects formation in the welds and has a second order effect
on the temperature fields [142].
The welding induced imperfections are believed to be due to non-uniform
temperature fields arising during the welding and this phenomenon is even more significant
in arc welding process like GTAW [143, 144]. Weld induced residual stresses and
deformations are highly dependent on transient temperature gradients, a function of the total
heat input, and the patterns of heat distribution within the weldments, a critical requirement
to determine the temperature gradients in the weldments realistically. Therefore, an accurate
moving heat source modeling is mandatory to analyze the exact temperature distributions and
accordingly the weld induced imperfections like residual stresses and deformations etc.
A double ellipsoidal moving heat source model to incorporate the volume heating was
presented by Goldak et al. [51, 52]. The size and shape of the moving heat source can be
easily modified to model both the shallow and deep penetrating welding processes. Initially,
Goldak presented a semi-ellipsoidal heat source model in which heat flux was distributed in a
Gaussian manner throughout the heat sources volume. The temperature gradients predicted
by using this heat source model were less steep in front of the arc and steeper behind the arc
as compared to experimental observations. Therefore, a double ellipsoidal heat source model
was presented to overcome this problem and here, in the present research, the double
ellipsoidal heat source model is opted to model the heat input from the welding torch.
In Goldak double ellipsoidal heat source model as shown in Figure 4.1, the front half
of the source model is the quadrant of one ellipsoid and the rear half is the quadrant of
another ellipsoid. The specific mathematical equation is shown in the following.
105
The power density distribution of the front half is given in Equation 4.35 [51].
q( x, y, z) =
6 3Qf f
a f bc
3x2 3 y2 3z2
)
b2 c2 a f 2
(4.35)
Whereas the power density distribution of the rear half is given in Equation 4.36 [51].
q( x, y, z) =
6 3Qfr
ar bc
Where,
3x2 3 y2 3 z2
)
b2 c2 ar 2
Q = VI
(4.36)
f f + fr = 2
and
Where af, ar, b c are the shape parameters, qo is the effective heat input, ff and fr are
the fractions of the heat deposited both in the front and rear half, and all are the heat input
parameters. The 63 is heat flux distribution parameter that characterizes the concentration
level of heat flux distribution based on the heat flux concentration level or heat flux
distribution feature of a welding method to determine its value. The shape of the volume of
the power distribution can be selected by varying the parameters af, ar, b and c. By this way,
the geometry of the experimental fusion zone can be achieved. From experiments, the data
for weld pool geometries can be obtained [145]. However, the methods for estimating the
weld pool dimensions for arc welding suggested by Christensen et al. [146] can be used upon
the unavailability of such data. A good agreement between actual and modeled weld pool
sizes, if the modeled heat source size is approximately 10% smaller than the experimental
weld pool size, was presented by Goldak et al. [52]. Further, in the absence of better data, the
distance in front of the heat source equal to one-half of the weld widths and the distance
behind the heat source equal to twice of the width give better approximations [51].
Y
Heat flux
(watt m-3)
Z
b
c
af
ar
X
X
Fig. 4.1 Goldak's double ellipsoid heat source model for welding heat source [52]
The parameters for the Goldak model were derived from the experiments and values
are given in the Table 4.2 in the respective section. The problems may occur by slight
changes in the welding conditions due to lack of a good physical background between the
parameters from Goldaks model. Therefore, a new setting is to be required for every set of
106
welding parameters and material composition. Therefore, the model cannot predict any
fusion zone geometries that can be only back-calculated. However, the good results were
obtained from experiments for the weld pool geometry with estimations. In the heat source
geometry, very small changes affect the temperatures very close to the weld pool and in the
resultant, the calculated temperature history in and near the weld pool are less accurate. This
accuracy affects due to the uncertainties in the heat source geometry as well as in the high
temperature thermal material properties and also due to the convective and radiative
boundary conditions.
In the FE model, the origin of the coordinate system is located at the center of the
moving arc in order to simulate the welding torch (heat source) movement with the
respective welding speed. To calculate the centroidal distance of elements from the moving
arc center corresponding to the welding arc position at any instant, a user-subroutine in
APDL is utilized. The welding process parameters and the characteristics of the heat source
transient heat fluxes representing the moving of the distributed heat source can be calculated
at respective positions in welding areas based on the FE mesh generated by the ANSYS. It
is assumed that the heat source moves through volume and the calculated heat applied to
elements is volumetric heat generation. Mainly few researchers reported that the heat
introduces into the work-piece from the surface under welding current of 200 amperes due to
lack of turbulent motion into the work-piece [147]. Whereas, Kermanpur, Shamanian and
Yeganeh [91] proved that the heat flow function depends upon the welding current as well as
on the work-piece thickness.
For circumferential welding, a modified double ellipsoidal heat source model in
cylindrical coordinates is used. For better approximation of the weld pool, the use of
superimposed four ellipsoid quadrants is modeled as per recommendations of Goldak. The
modified double ellipsoid model used for circumferential welding with a single scalar
controlling parameter is given in Equations 4.37 and 4.38 [4].
qf =
6 3 M (r , z ) Q f f
a f bc
3{
r 2 2
af
r 2 2
6 3 M (r , z ) Q f r 3{ ar 2
qr =
e
ar bc
+3
+3
z2
b
Ro2 + r 2 -2 rRo
c2
z 2 Ro2 + r 2 -2 rRo
+
}
b2
c2
(4.37)
(4.38)
The value of scalar multiplier M ( r , z ) can be recalculated iteratively to match the weld
pool shape and dimensions. The origin of the coordinate system is selected at the centre of
the heat source for the calculations of spatial heat distribution from the Equation 4.37 and
Equation 4.38 and a user subroutine provides the movement of heat source at the defined
welding speed. To calculate the centroidal distances of elements from the centre of moving
heat source at every load step, another subroutine is used. The heat input to the elements
from the heat source parameters and welding process parameters is calculated and projected
through the thickness of finite element mesh.
107
A wide range of variation for the value of heat source efficiency in GTAW process is
shown in literature [148]. The temperatures with thermocouples at a specified location are
measured and compared with the related values for different efficiencies. Finally, it can be
concluded that the efficiency of heat source between the range 75% to 80% provides the best
agreement with the experiments. Therefore, an efficiency of 70% to 80% in different studies
is used. The simulations for circumferential welding are performed with the assumption of
perpendicularly focused welding torch as well as during the experimentation.
4.2.5
Heat Losses Modeling
By means of convection and radiation, a considerable amount of heat is lost through

the surfaces of cylinder during the welding process. Except the symmetry surface, the
convection and radiation to the environment from all the exposed surfaces is included in the
thermal boundary conditions. Figure 4.2 shows the schematic representations of thermal
boundary conditions i.e. heat losses from the cylinder surface by both convection and
radiation. At higher temperatures, the radiation losses are significant near the weld zone
whereas the convection losses are significant away from the weld line at low temperatures.
The heat lost is calculated for all heat dissipating surfaces by Equation 4.39 and Equation
4.40 [4].
q loss = q convestion + q radiation
(4.39)
q loss = htotal x A(T Tamb )
(4.40)
Where A = surface area, T = current temperature at the cylinder surface, Tamb =

ambient temperature and htotal = combined convection and radiation heat transfer coefficient,
given by the Equation 4.41.
2
htotal =[hconvection + em bol (T + Tamb )(T 2 + Tamb
)]
Where, hconvection
em
bol
=
=
=
(4.41)
Convective heat transfer coefficient (Wm-2K)

Radiation emissivity of cylinder surface
Stefan-Boltzman constant (5.6703 x 10-8 Wm-2K-4)
In addition to convection and radiation heat losses, some researchers [149] refer that
contact heat losses also play a role whereas the other researchers [150] ignore the contact
heat losses. However, the contact heat losses are ignored in the present research due to point
contact of the clamping fixtures with cylinder through the bolts away from the weld line.
There are two unknown parameters, the convective heat transfer coefficient
(hconvection) and the radiation emissivity (em), in the Equation 4.41. The radiation heat losses
play a major role in high temperature zones and become in significant in low temperature
zones. Whereas the convection heat losses play a major role at lower temperatures only.
Mostly the handbooks on heat transfer have listed tabulated data for temperature dependent
emissivity for several materials [151, 152]. However, the emissivity is strongly dependent on
the surface conditions of the metal from em < 0.1 (for un-oxidized surfaces) to em = 0.8 (for
108
oxidized surfaces) [153]. The value of the emissivity is estimated during the welding due to a
constant changing of the temperatures and surface conditions of a metal surface. The
temperature dependent emissivity for common materials including AISI stainless steels and
low carbon steels is listed by many internet resources [154, 155]. The emissivity value (em =
0.51) is used on the surface of the steels in the present research, which is the average value
for hot rolled steel plates [156].
CL
Convection boundary conditions

Thermal Symmetry boundary conditions
Heat source
Fig. 4.2 Schematic representations of thermal boundary conditions

In Equation 4.41, the convective heat transfer coefficient is also temperature
dependent. Generally, the temperature dependency of the convective heat transfer coefficient
is much lower than the radiative heat transfer coefficient but the radiative heat transfer
dominates the convective heat transfer at higher temperatures. Therefore, it is assumed that
there is no benefit of using a temperature dependent convective heat transfer coefficient
[157]. A convective heat transfer coefficient (hconvection) of 7 - 12 Wm-2C-1 is recommended
by the researchers [158-161]. For HSLA steel as in this research work, a temperature
dependent heat transfer coefficient is used as shown in Figure 4.3.
4.2.6
Material Modeling
In arc welding simulation, the FE heat transfer analysis requires the precise values of
thermal conductivity, material density, specific heat and latent heat of fusion upto melting
point. The values of low temperature materials are mostly available in different literature like
[162-164], but the higher temperature values of materials in the published literature are
limited. Therefore, the material values at elevated temperatures are required to be estimated
or extrapolated from the available low temperature data. In the present research work, a high
strength low alloy steel (HSLA) is used for the experimental investigations and the
corresponding finite element predictions. The temperature dependent properties are taken
109
from the published literature. The weld dilution effects on the property changes are not
considered and the materials are assumed as homogenous and isotropic. The materials
temperature dependency is fully considered during the welding (a temperature range from
room temperature to materials melting point) and prescription of temperature independent
properties induces significant errors in the predicted results [46].
4.2.6.1 Material Model for High Strength Low Alloy Steel

The temperature dependent thermo-mechanical properties such as conductivity,
specific heat and density, and temperature-dependent thermalstructural properties including
Youngs modulus, Poissons ratio, thermal expansion coefficient, yield strength and strainhardening rate are used for thermal analysis and mechanical analysis, respectively. The
analysis and optimization of welded structures of High Strength Low Alloy (HSLA) steel is
carried in the present research work. The chemical composition, both from literature [137,
138] and in-house spectroscopic measurement of HSLA under investigation is tabulated in
Table 3.8.
The standard room temperature properties are readily available from published
literature [137, 138]. But the high temperature material data is not available in open
literature. Due to scarcity of elevated temperature material properties data, an engineering
approach proposed and successfully implemented by ZHU and CHAO [165] is adopted in the
present research. It is proposed by the author's that "except for the yield stress, using material
properties at the room temperature gives reasonable predictions for the transient temperature
fields, residual stress and distortion". Based on this expert opinion the following
simplifications are introduced in the material model.
Temperature-dependent thermo-physical and thermo-mechanical (except yield
strength) properties of low alloy steel (AH36) grade, previously implemented and
closely co-related with the experimental data by [4, 166] are used in the
simulation work. For the experimental work, HSLA steel grade with chemical
composition previously shown in Table 3.8 is used.
For the yield strength of HSLA, the engineering approach from Zhu and Chao
suggests the use of "simplified properties constituted by a piece-wise linear
function with temperature for the yield stress for computational weld simulation".
Based on recommendations, temperature dependent yield strength of the material
from [165] is employed, as shown by Equation 4.42, 4.43 & 4.44 below.
(0 T 100 oC)
YS = YSRM
YS = 5% x YSRM +
YS = 5% x YSRM
Tmelt2/3-T
x
Tmelt2/3-100
95% x YSRM (100 < T < Tmelt2/3)

(T Tmelt2/3)
(4.42)
(4.43)
(4.44)
Where, YS, YSRM and Tmelt2/3 are yield strength, yield strength at room
temperature and 2/3 of melting temperature of HSLA respectively.
110
Similar values of yield strength for both base and weld metal are used. For the
experimental work, HSLA steel grade with chemical composition previously
shown in Table 3.8 is used.
Thermal properties i.e. specific heat and thermal conductivity and density as a
function of temperature for HSLA adopted from [166] are given in Figure 4.3.
For specific heat, latent heat associated with low temperature solid-solid phase
transformation is accounted for both the base metal and the weld metal. Enthalpy formulation
is used to avoid the numerical non-convergence. 247 KJ/Kg1 oC-1 of latent heat for solidliquid phase transformation is distributed over the melting and solidification range i.e.
between solidus and liquidus temperatures. Due to similar material i.e. low alloy steels, the
solidus and liquidus temperatures are taken as 1440oC (1713K) and 1560oC (1833K)
respectively.
The rmal C onducti vity x 125 (W /m-C )
Spe ci fi c He at x 1000 (J/Kg-C )
C onve ctive C oe ffe cie nt x 10 (W /m-C )
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0
600
1200
1800
2400
3000
Temperature ( C)
Fig. 4.3 Thermo-physical properties of HSLA steel

To model the weld puddle and to compensate for enhanced convective heat transfer
effects caused by the fluid flow within the vicinity of weld metal, the thermal conductivity
value of 2-5 times of the solidus; at the liquidus is suggested by the previous researchers
[167-170]. In this research a factor of 3.55 is used and at the solidus, an artificial increase
to120 Wm-1 oC-1 is given to compensate for fluid flow. A constant density of 8096 Kgm-3
(standard value for most the steels) is used.
Temperature dependence of thermo-mechanical properties of HSLA steel is shown in
Figures 4.4. The main features are given in the following:
Reduction of elastic modulus at high temperature reflects the material softening
behavior of at elevated temperatures and the Poissons ratio increases with the
increase in temperature.
111
The elastic modulus reduces to almost zero values at elevated temperatures equal
to or greater than the melting temperature. Some recent research work in the
similar area [4] shows that numerical instabilities are encountered when
excessively low values of elastic modulus at and above the melting temperatures
are used. To overcome this issue, a constant value is set to 15.0 GPa. However
even lower values upto 1 GPa are reported in the literature [171].
The values for both the bulk modulus and Poissons coefficient are taken constant
after melting temperature of 1000oC.
Volumetric changes associated with low temperature solid-solid phase
transformations is not taken into account because [75] and [76] reported stress
reversals in hoop stresses at weld centerline, in contradiction to the experimental
measurements from [76]. However, later studies showed that volumetric changes
may give satisfactory results if the transformation plasticity is included which is
not included in the present simulation approach. Therefore, for the thermal
expansion, the material in the melt and heat affected zones follows material
properties of the base metal during heating and cooling.
The material behavior of elastic perfectly-plastic is considered whereas the dislocation
hardening effect and the effects of creep and transformation induced plasticity is not
considered here. A bi-linear kinematic hardening model (von mises yield criterion with
associated flow rule, kinematic hardening rule and bi-linear kinematic hardening material) as
given in Equation 4.45 [141] is used with 1, 2, and 3 being the three principal stresses.
v =
1
2
[( 1 - 2 ) 2 + ( 2 - 3 ) 2 + ( 3 - 1 ) 2 ]
(4.45)
El astic Modul us x 2.0E+5 MPa

Poi sson Ratio x 1
The rmal Expansion C oe ffe cie nt x 2.0E-05 / C
1.1
0.9
0.7
0.4
0.2
0.0
0
400
800
1200
1600
2000
Temperature ( C)
Fig. 4.4 Thermo-mechanical properties of HSLA steel

112
4.2.7
Filler Metal Deposition
In arc welding, modeling of filler metal deposition with metal addition as Gas
Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) processes is an important aspect for accurate result
prediction in numerical analysis. Presently, three different techniques for the filler metal
addition are in practice as the deactivated element or the elements rebirth technique, the quiet
element technique and the element movement technique. The conventional quiet element
technique is used in the FE models in the present research [175-178], which is relatively easy
to implement by utilizing the ANSYS features of element birth and death. All elements are
generated in the start including the filler metal elements to be deposited later. The filler
elements are not actually removed from the FE model to achieve the element death effect.
Instead, the conductivity, stiffness and other analogous material properties are multiplied by
a severe reduction factor to deactivate their contribution in the analysis. Although zeroed out
of the load vector, element loads associated with the deactivated elements still appears in the
element load lists. During the thermal analysis, all the nodes of deactivated elements except
those shared with the base metal are also fixed at ambient temperature until the birth of the
respective element and deactivated elements are reactivated sequentially when they come
under the influence of the heat source i.e. welding torch. For the sequel mechanical analysis,
a similar approach is used where the elements to be welded are first assigned a set of
artificial, very soft properties. The actual properties of the metal are reassigned as the
elements solidify from the weld pool.
4.2.8
Simulation Approach in ANSYS
For simulation, a coupled thermo-mechanical simulation approach is divided in two

sequentially coupled simulations based on weak thermal to structural coupling. For the
analysis of the thermal behavior, a transient non-linear thermal analysis is performed i.e.
nodal temperature distribution followed by iterative structural analysis. Figure 4.5 shows an
overview of de-coupled thermo-mechanical simulation approach in the present research.
Figure 4.6 shows the detailed sequentially coupled thermo-mechanical simulation
strategy adopted in the research. The quiet element technique is used in this work for the
filler metal deposition. At the start, the nodal temperature of the filler metal elements is equal
to the ambient temperature. The nodal constraints are removed at that time when the
elements sequentially come under the influence of the heat source. The heat source is
supposed to stay at least once on each element along the weld line for better computational
results [179]. Equation 4.46 gives the appropriate time step used in the analysis to
accomplish the task.
Load step
Total welding time (sec)

No. of circumferential elements along the weld line
(4.46)
Therefore, a constant time step is used during the heating phase and the heat source
moves with the specified welding speed quasi-stationary. However, the different time steps
are used during the cooling phase. As the cooling of the weldments approaches to the
ambient or equal to pre-heat temperature (if any), the time steps continuously increases.
113
THERMAL ANALYSIS
Thermal boundary conditions
Moving heat source
Non-linear material model
TEMPERATURE
HISTORIES FROM
THERMAL
ANALYSIS
THERMAL POST PROCESSING

Temperature fields
3D FINITE ELEMENT MODEL

Geometry data
Meshing parameters
SEQUEL STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

Structural boundary conditions
Non-linear thermo-elastic-plastic
material model
STRUCTURAL POST PROCESSING

Transient and residual stress profiles
Transient and residual deformations
Fig. 4.5 Overview of de-coupled thermo-mechanical simulation approach

In structural analysis, computing the stress and strain field is a very important aspect
of the computational weld mechanics. The localized heating during the welding causes the
non linear distribution of temperature field in the weldments. The main cause of welding
induced imperfections like transient and residual stresses and distortions after the completion
of the welding process is the uneven temperature fields that generate the transient thermal
stresses and deformations. In the present research, the sequel non-linear structural analysis is
driven by the application of temperature histories as the thermal strain fields controls the
stress fields in the welding. Whereas, the critical link between the thermal and mechanical
analysis is the application of nodal thermal history from the transient thermal analysis as the
nodal body loads in the structural analysis. The thermal histories computed at all nodes in the
thermal analysis are recorded and stored in a thermal analysis result file that is read by using
the LDREAD command in the structural analysis for the mapping of the thermal histories
onto the nodes in the structural model. For proper data mapping, it is necessary to use ISO
meshed with same element topology (8-noded brick elements) in the thermal and structural
models. The similar transient fashion from thermal analysis is replicated iteratively by these
mapped nodal temperature fields at different times. The similar load steps from thermal
analysis are also used for the corresponding structural load steps. Upon solidus temperature,
the elements of that particular bead are activated. To track the averaged peak temperature of
each element of filler metal and record the time for each element upon attaining the solidus
temperature after the peak temperature the thermal analysis, a user APDL subroutine is used.
Further in order to simulate the mechanical strains relaxation behavior, the strain history of
each element at the time of activation is initiated.
114
Geometric parameters
Solid Modeling
Heat source parameters

Thermal material properties
Meshing parameters
Boundary conditions
Next element
Finite element
modeling
Elements centroid
calculation
Meshing parameters
Structural boundary conditions
Structural material properties
Finite element
modeling
Apply heat
source
No
Calculate heat input based on

heat source parameters and
centroidal distance
Next load step
Yes
Elements properties
switching
(If applicable)
Elements material
record file
Elements activation
(If applicable)
Elements activation
time record file
Application of heat
input
Check data
mapping
completion
Activation of elements
under influence of
heat source
No
Next element
Yes
Elements average
temperature calculation
Elements material number
switching
Elements material number
record file
Elements activation time
record file
Iterative transient
non-linear thermal
solution
Yes
Load steps
completed
Yes
Transient
temperature history
Iterative transient
non-linear structural
solution
No
Load steps
completed
No
Next load step
Yes
Structural results file

(Stress/strain data)
Fig. 4.6 Detailed sequentially coupled thermo-mechanical simulation strategy [180]

To model the enhanced heat losses (localized forced convection) due to the trailing
argon gas, a cooling media based on the properties of argon gas is introduced at a fixed
trailing distance of 25 mm from the that source.
The heat exchange coefficient for forced convection is evaluated by using the
correlation shown in Equation 4.47 initially proposed by Steen [68] and later also employed
by Shah Alam [5].
115
hforced = 13Re1/2 Pr1/3Kar/NPD
(4.47)
Where,
Re
Pr
ar
ar
ar
Kar
Car
D
NPD
= Reynolds number of argon = D x ar ar / ar

= Prandlt number of argon = ar Car / Kar
= Argon flow rate
= Density of argon
= Dynamic viscosity of argon
= Heat conductivity of argon
= Specific heat of argon
= Nozzle diameter
= Stand-off distance of nozzle
Based on nozzle diameter, an APDL subroutine is developed to select the elements

for the application of forced convective heat transfer co-efficient for number of iterations
based on movement of heating source (welding torch).
4.2.9
Welding Simulation Numerical Aspects
A general purpose finite element code ANSYS is used for modeling/simulation and
welding phenomena is modeled as sequentially coupled transient non-linear thermal-stress
analysis in the present research work. There are generally three types of non-linearties in the
structural mechanics as geometric non-linearties (large deformations), boundary nonlinearties (contact), and material non-linearties (hyper-elasticity, plasticity, creep, anisotropy
etc.)
The incorporation of geometrical non-linearties (NLGEOM, ON) into welding
simulations can introduce ill conditioned matrix, resulting in numerical non-convergence
issues. Kinematic non-linearties are not included by using small displacement formulation in
modeling. No contact/target elements are used in the present research, therefore in most of
the work non-linearity due to contact opening and closing between the contact and target
elements is not present. Material model with temperature dependency are utilized and
properties used in different studies are, however, highly non-linear and are the major source
of non-linearties in finite elements studies. Iterative incremental Newton-Raphson (NR)
scheme was used to solve the system of equation. The use of this scheme is also essential in
the software to adopt quiet elements technique for filler metal deposition. The opted FULL
NR scheme updates the stiffness matrix at every, equilibrium iteration and thus shows more
flexibility to incorporate non-linear behavior of material properties. Though more frequent
updating of stiffness matrix needs larger matrix formulations and inversions but gives
relatively fast convergence [174]. The matrices obtained from finite element formulations are
usually sparsely populated. Therefore, the system of simultaneous equations is solved by
using direct sparse matrix solver (elimination solver). Since linear elements are used in the
both the thermal and structural analysis, during structural analysis average temperature at the
element centroids is used to calculate constant thermal strain within each element. It is
considered essential to avoid inconsistency between the thermal strain and displacement
strain fields because temperature field directly becomes the thermal strain in mechanical
116
analysis. The alternate is to have one degree higher finite element shape function in structural
analysis in comparison to thermal analysis. Similarly, when ever elements with linear shape
function are in use volumetric strain should be under integrated to avoid undesired locking.
Such locking may results in relatively small deformation but significantly high stresses and
excessively large computational time. In the present work, reduced integration is performed
at the element centroid. However, in contrast reduced integration in solid elements may cause
the elements more prone to the zero-energy modes. These modes, commonly referred to as
hourglass modes, are oscillatory in nature and tend to have periods that are much shorter than
those of the overall structural response. They typically have no stiffness and give a zigzag
appearance to a mesh, therefore should always be minimized. Hour-glassing is controlled by
adding artificial elastic stiffness to the model.
To enhance the convergence, different options available within the ANSYS such as
line search (LNSRCH), adaptive decent, ramped and stepped load (KBC, 0/1) are used. The
LINE-SEARCH option attempts to improve a NR solution by scaling the solution vector by a
scalar value termed the LINE-SEARCH parameter at the start of equilibrium iterations. The
scalar multiplier is automatically determined by minimizing the energy of the system which
reduces to find the zero of the nonlinear equation. An adaptive descent is a technique which
switches to a stiffer matrix if convergence difficulties are encountered, and switches back to
the full tangent as the solution convergence, resulting in the desired rapid convergence rate
[174].
4.3
Welding Induced Stresses and Distortions
To produce high strength welded structures, arc welding is mostly used as an effective
joining method enabling the welding community around the globe. The thermal stresses
occurs in the weld zone and the adjacent areas producing significant residual stress fields due
to the non-uniform expansion and contraction of the weld metal and surrounding base metal
by heating and cooling cycles during the welding. These high magnitude residual stresses of
the order of yield strength of the material within the heat affected zone (HAZ) can be a major
threat for the in-service structural integrity of welded structures [181]. The strains produced
due to the welding during the heating phase always induce plastic deformation of the metal
and in a result of these strains internal forces produced that cause a variety of welding
distortions. The shortening strength issue of the structures is a major challenge of the welding
industry for decades due to the residual stresses issues in and near the weld zone, and due to
poorly fabricated and distorted structures. Therefore, the accurate prediction of transient and
residual stress fields and distortions patterns is of critical importance to ensure the in-service
structural integrity and reliability of these welded structures.
To predict the magnitude and trends of residual stress fields is a complex phenomenon
due to the involvement of various factors including short term localized heating and rapid
cooling, moving heat source, temperature dependent material behavior and metallurgical
transformations. Therefore, the FE based numerical simulations attained a considerable
importance for the prediction of adverse consequences of complex welding phenomenon in
the last three decades [19, 182-183]. For the analysis of residual stress fields in
circumferentially welded structures focusing on pipe and cylinders, a significant contribution
is available in literature [184-192]. Mostly, the previous researcher [185-188] reduces
117
computational power requirements by simplifying with the assumptions of such as rotational

symmetry and lateral symmetry in numerical simulations as the computer simulation of
welding processes is highly intensive with the requirement of a large computer storage and
CPU time. However, these assumptions and simplifications were made to reduce the
computational demand but at the cost of results accuracy because the model was over
simplified by limiting the solution domain to only a section of the whole with forced
symmetry assumptions. Furthermore, these simplified assumptions are not capable to cover
the considerable effects of weld start, stop and weld tack modeling. In this regard, an
experimental work by Jonsson and Josefson [192] and some three-dimensional finite element
studies [189, 190, 193], reported the deviations from rotational symmetry specifically at the
beginning and end of the welding cycle for circumferential joint in welding of pipes with
lateral symmetry. Dong and Burst [194] and Dong [195], presented that both the moving heat
source and weld start and stop effects are inclined to violate the axis-symmetric conditions
and the circumferential variation in residual stresses was presented by the authors to
strengthen the statement. Later Fricke et al. [196] presents that residual stresses are by no
means axis-symmetric by using a full 3D model for multi-pass welding of pipes.
The detailed three-dimensional FE models to get insight of this complex phenomenon are
still lacking and needs to explore although various three-dimensional FE based numerical
investigations are available in the published literature for the circumferential welding of
pipes or cylinders. Therefore, initially the investigations in this chapter focusing on the study
of thermal and residual stress patterns and the variation in both transient and residual axial
and hoop stresses in circumferentially welded cylinders are discussed. Further, the estimation
of transient and residual deformation patterns is also discussed. It is supposed that these
initial studies based on the FE models developed to get in depth the evolution of stress and
deformation patterns in this chapter, as the same modeling and simulation strategy will be
further utilized in parametric studies to investigate the different aspects of arc welding
phenomenon and then for the optimization purpose.
4.3.1
FE Discretization
For the circumferential welding of two cylinders, a full three-dimensional FE model

along with finite element detail with "V" groove developed in ANSYS is shown in Figure
4.7 [197]. The element types used in modeling are SOLID70 (linear 8-node brick element
with one degree of freedom, i.e., temperature at each node) and SOLID45 (linear 8-node
brick element with three degrees of freedom at each node: translations in the nodal X, Y, and
Z directions.) for thermal analysis and structural analysis respectively. Further details about
these elements can be found in [198]. A relatively fine meshing of elements is used within a
10 mm distance on both sides of the weld line (WL) due to high temperature and flux
gradients expected in and near the fusion zone (FZ) and heat affected zone (HAZ). The
element size increases with an increase in the distance from the WL away from the HAZ. The
element size in the weld direction is kept constant equal to 1.96 mm through out the
circumference. The element size in transverse direction is used of 1 mm upto 10 mm distance
on each side of the weld line (WL) i.e. HAZ area whereas the element size increases with the
increase in distance away from weld region. Three elements of 1 mm each in size are used in
thickness direction for "V" groove modeling. The two tack welds on the start i.e. 0 and 180
118
"V" groove
Tack Welds
WL
Root Opening
Total No. of nodes: 71040
Total No. of elements: 54720
Fig. 4.7 (a) 3D FE mesh based on sensitivity analysis. (b) "V" groove, tack weld and root
opening in FE model [197]
2100
Temperature ( K)
1864
1836
1900
1730
1700
1860
1865
1790
1525
1500
1655
1300
1305
1100
1009
900
29,000
35,000
41,000
47,000
53,000
59,000
Numbe r of e le me nts
Fig. 4.8 Mesh sensitivity analysis based on maximum temperature attained [197]
of the weld are modeled comprising each of 4 elements (7.85 mm) in circumferential
direction, 4 elements (4 mm) and 2 elements (2 mm) in two layers in thickness direction. The
mesh sensitivity analysis based on maximum temperature attained was performed for
successive mesh refinements as shown in Figure 4.8 i.e. maximum temperature (1864 K) at
54720 elements. The tack lengths used in the FE models are according to the physical weld
sample. The two cylinders should be considered theoretically as separate parts in the model
setup because they are independent units until the moving heat source passes over them and
join those. But practically these cylinders are tack welded and mechanically restrained before
119
the welding. Therefore, the cylinders are modeled as single model in FE modeling because
they stay stationary relative to each other during the welding.
4.3.2
Other Simulation Aspects
300 mm
The detail of modeling and simulation approach is already discussed in the previous
sections. For better understanding of the thermo-mechanical results, the other simulation
aspects are given in the following section. The same sequentially coupled thermo-mechanical
simulation approach and material model is used. The Goldak double ellipsoidal heat source
model along with quiet element technique for addition of filler metal is used for heat source
and filler material modeling. The modeling of heat losses from the exposed surfaces (inner
and outer) by convection and radiation are considered in thermal analysis. The combined heat
transfer coefficient is calculated and applied on all the applicable surfaces. The geometric
parameters and joint geometry of two cylinders for circumferential welding by GTAW
process are shown in Figure 4.9 and Figure 4.10 respectively. The total heating time along
the weld path of 300 mm diameter cylinder with a torch speed of 3 mm/s is about 314.16 sec
and the complete welding sequence is divided into 480 load steps of 0.65 sec with equally
space increment. For effective application of thermal load during the load step, the available
stepped load option in ANSYS is used. An other additional 47 load steps of different time
lengths are used for cooling of the weldments after extinguishing the arc. The total cooling
time from the start of the cooling phase to the ambient temperature of 300 K is about 1500
sec (i.e. 25 minutes). Only boundary condition is applied as the constraints to represent the
clamping of the cylinders under welding on welding positioner in the structural analysis. All
the nodes on a cartesian coordinate axis at the positioner end of the cylinders are constrained
in axial direction to match the experimental boundary conditions. In addition, two nodes 180o
apart at the positioner end are also constrained in axial radial and circumferential directions
for the stability of FE model. The welding process parameters and heat source parameters
used in the study are given in Table 4.1 and Table 4.2 respectively.
WL
3 mm
X
Y
Z
Y
Z
X
Y
Z
Legends:
X
Y
Structural constraints in X, Y and Z
Fig. 4.9 Schematic representations of structural boundary conditions

along with geometric parameters [197]
120
Table 4.1 Welding process parameters

Parameters
Current (I)
(amperes)
Voltage (V)
(volts)
200
12.5
Efficiency () Welding Speed (WS)

(%)
(mms-1)
75
Table 4.2 Goldak heat source parameters

Length of ellipsoidal
Front (af)
Rear (ar)
(mm)
(mm)
5.0
15.0
Heat source
width (2b)
depth (c)
(mm)
(mm)
10.0
3.0
Fraction of heat in ellipsoidal

Front (ff)
Rear (fr)
1.25
0.75
R
F
R
L
O
Fig. 4.10 Butt-weld joint geometry
4.3.3
Experimental Validation
To conduct the full-scale experiments with proper instrumentation for data measurement
for the experimental validation of the developed FE models is a mandatory to ensure the
reliability of the developed models before the application on a shop floor. An automatic TIG
welding setup with minimum human intervention and skill is also mandatory for the proper
validation of FE results due to the possibility of the variations associated with the skill of the
operators and rotary synchronization problems in arc welding experiments. A careful data
acquisition for proper data measurement, calibrated thermocouples and analysis system are
very necessary during the welding experiments for the validation purpose.
For the validation of FE models developed, GTAW (TIG) experiments on two thinwalled cylinders with same parameters of geometric and welding process as used in FE
models were conducted. The material used is high strength low alloy steel with chemical
composition as already given in Table 3.8. Further, argon as shielding gas with 99.999%
purity was used with flow rate (25 liters/min). A high-tech fully automatic SAF GTAW
welding equipment as shown in Figure 3.4 and Figure 3.5 commercially available along with
rotary positioner and required welding fixtures was used to achieve the desired structural
boundary conditions. A single pass butt-weld geometry was used with single "V" groove of
angle of 90o, 1 mm root face, 1 mm root opening, 3 mm wall thickness and 300 mm length of
cylinder as shown in Figure 4.10.
121
The two cylinders of 300 mm outer diameter, 3 mm wall thickness and 150 mm length
were used with placing of two tack welds of ~ 8 mm length at 0o and 180o from the starting
position of weld. Further, these tack welds were used to create a root opening prior to
welding with the insertion of spacers of 1 mm at some suitable locations during the tack
welding and these were removed after the tack welds cooling to room temperature. The areas
in and near the tack welds were considered as post weld heated upto 300oC to minimize the
effects of initial stress due to tack welds prior to welding. For heating, a conventional gas
torch was used with both infrared and touch probe thermocouples for the measurement.
However, the stress data was not recorded after the tack welds and the post weld heating and
these effects are not considered. Further, the effects of the linear seam weld was not
considered as first these cylinders were linearly seam welded after roll forming of sheet
metals and stress relieved by heat treatment prior tack welds on cylinders for circumferential
welding.
o
P1 @ outer surface, 10 mm from WL and 30 from weld start

o

o

o
1000
Temperature (oC)
850
700
550
400
250
100
0
32
64
96
128
160
Time (sec)
P1-FE
P2-EXP
P2-FE
P3-EXP
P3-FE
P4-FE
P1-EXP
P4-EXP
Fig. 4.11 Comparison of computed and measured transient temperature profiles at

four different locations on cylinders outer surface
For the sequel structural analysis, the nodal temperature distributions from the thermal
analysis are used as a basic input. There is a prerequisite for this purpose whether the
experimental data correlation for the FZ and HAZ dimensions or some nodal temperature
122
verification for the accurate predictions of subsequent stress fields and distortion patterns. In
the present research for the thermal model validation, the later technique is used by using the
thermocouples and data acquisition system with computer interfacing. Four thermocouples at
different locations were placed and temperatures were recorded through the data logger after
the interval of each 10 seconds for the comparison with FE results. Figure 4.11 shows a
quantitative comparison of measured and predicted transient temperatures at four
thermocouple locations. Three thermocouples at P1, P2 and P3 show a close agreement with
the FE data whereas the fourth thermocouple at P4 shows slightly a higher variation of
predicted and measured temperatures. However, the overall temperatures are within the
maximum variation of about 8% only.
The residual stresses are measured at some specified points for comparison through the
predicted results for structural model validation,. A centre hole drilling strain gauge method
as already discussed in chapter 3 in section 3.3 is used to measure the residual hoop and axial
stresses at specified locations i.e. Points P1 to P3 on cylinder outer surface and P4 to P6 on
cylinder inner surface. Figure 4.12 shows the the gauge locations from P1 to P6. The further
details of the hole drilling residual strain measurement method can be found in [199]. Figure
4.12 shows a quantitative comparison of residual stresses from experiments with predicted
data with a good agreement. Figure 4.11 and Figure 4.12 shows the qualitative comparison of
nodal temperatures and residual stresses which are an evident that predicted results agreed
well with the experimental data showing the experimental validation and the developed FE
models can be used further for the research.
Legends:
o
PX @ Y mm from W L and Z from weld start

Where X=1 to 6
Y = 10, 15, 20, 10, 10 and 10 mm for X 1 to 6 respectively
Z = 30, 30, 30, 45, 135 and 225 from weld start for X 1 to 6 respectively
200
Stress (MPa)
90
-20
-130
-240
-350
FE
Legends: PXS = S stress @ point X

where X = 1 to 6
S = A (Axial) or H (Hoop)
P1-A P1-H P2-A P2-H P3-A P3-H P4-A P4-H P5-A P5-H P6-A P6-H
-118.4 70.25 10.24 -36.17 143.2 -63.21 -210.6 115.6 -220 120.5 -226.1 112.2
EXP -88.8 88.42 12.87 -55.01 101 -39.71 -326.7 187.4 -152.9 163.8 -258.7 153.8
Fig. 4.12 Computed and measured residual stress values for different
locations at cylinder outer surface
123
4.3.4
Thermal Effects of Welding
The temperature distributions at four different times (13 sec, 52 sec, 318 sec and 1277
sec) during the welding process of cylinder of 300 mm diameter are shown in Figure 4.13 (a
d). The peak temperatures are observed close to the weld line at the heat source location and
steep temperatures gradients ahead of the heat source are observed representing the least heat
flow significance ahead of the heat source/welding torch. The cooling phenomenon after the
peak temperature achieved is shown by the gradients behind the torch as the torch moves
ahead from a certain point. The temperature distribution of the weldments after cooling to
almost uniform temperature is shown in Figure 4.13(d) that require some more time steps
further to simulate the cooling phase.
(a) t = 13s
(c) t = 318s
(b) t =
52s
(d) t = 1277s
Fig. 4.13 Temperature profiles at four different time steps during the welding process
The axial temperature distributions for four different cross-sections from the weld start
towards the time progress at different time steps is shown in Figure 4.14 (ad). The
temperature distribution at a section is steep as the arc crosses the section as incase of Figure
4.14 (a), the section is located at an angle of 45o from the weld start position (0o). The
welding torch at a speed of 3 mm/s reaches the section after 39.27s around a circumference
of 300 x mm and the maximum temperature is observed at the torch position. As the torch
crosses the section, the temperature falls down with slow rate. Figure 4.14 (c) and Figure
4.14 (d) shows the preheating action of the section due to the forward heat flow through the
torch just before the torch arrival at a section which is more dominant incase of the sections
oriented at 225o and 315o respectively.
124
The transient thermal cycles observed at various points at weld line at 5 mm and 15 mm
from the weld line and at 0o, 90o, 180o and 270o from the weld start position respectively are
shown in Figure 4.15(ad). When the arc crosses the corresponding section, the thermal
cycles shows that temperature at a point reaches a peak value corresponding to that time. The
figure shows that a point nearest to the weld line gets heated to a maximum temperature
whereas the points away from the weld line show peak temperatures very low.
1800
1800
Te m p-39.27 s e c
1650
Temperature (K)
Temperature ( K)
Te m p-196.35 s e c
1350
Te m p-39.27 s e c
1650
Te m p-117.81s e c
1500
Te m p-274.89 s e c
1200
1050
900
750
600
450
Te m p-117.81 s e c
1500
Te m p-196.35 s e c
1350
Te m p-274.89 s e c
1200
1050
900
750
600
450
300
300
-85
-68 -51
-34 -17
17
34
51
68
85
-85
-68 -51
Distance from WL (mm)
-34 -17
(a)
34
51
68
85
51
68
85
1800
Te m p-39.27 s e c
1650
Te m p-196.35 s e c
1350
Te m p-39.27 s e c
1650
Te m p-117.81s e c
1500
Temperature (K)
Te m p-274.89 s e c
17
(b)
1800
Temperature (K)
1200
1050
900
750
600
450
Te m p-117.81 s e c
1500
Te m p-196.35 s e c
1350
Te m p-274.89 s e c
1200
1050
900
750
600
450
300
300
-85
-68 -51
-34
-17
17
34
51
68
85
-85
-68
-51 -34
-17
17
34
(c)
(d)
Fig. 4.14 Axial temperature distributions for four different cross-sections at
different time steps from the weld start position.
4.3.5
Welding Residual Stress Fields
4.3.5.1 Axial Residual Stress Fields

The stress normal to the direction of the weld bead is called as the axial stress incase
of circumferentially welded cylinders. The tensile and compressive axial stress fields are
observed in and near the weld region based on different temperature profiles on the inner and
outer surfaces of the cylinders respectively. The different temperature gradients results in
tensile and compressive residual stress fields and varying shrinkage patterns through the wall
thickness near the weld line on inner and outer surfaces respectively. The axial stress
distributions on cylinders outer surface at different cross sections (50o, 90o, 150o and 250o)
from the weld start position are shown in Figure 4.16.
125

1800
1800
0 mm from WL
1400
0 mm from WL
1600
5 mm from WL
5 mm from WL
15 mm from WL
1200
1000
800
600
1400
Temperature ( oK)
Temperature ( oK)
1600
15 mm from WL
1200
1000
800
600
400
400
200
200
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
50
100
150
(a)
250
300
350
400
300
350
400
(b)
1800
1800
0 mm from WL
1600
5 mm from WL
1400
Temperature ( oK)
1400
0 mm from WL
1600
5 mm from WL
15 mm from WL
1200
1000
800
600
15 mm from WL
1200
1000
800
600
400
400
200
200
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
50
100
150
200
250
Time (se c)
Time (se c)
(c)
(d)
Fig. 4.15 Transient thermal cycles experienced by various points at different
cross sections from the weld start position
200
100
Outer Stress (MPa)
Temperature ( oK)
200
Ti me (se c)
Ti me (se c)
0
-100
-200
-300
-400
-90
-72
-54
-36
-18
18
36
54
72
90

Axial @ 50 Deg
Axial @ 90 Deg
Axial @ 150 Deg
Axial @ 250 Deg
Fig. 4.16 Residual axial stresses (MPa) on outer surface at different cross
sections from the weld start position
126
The compressive residual axial stresses near the weld line approaches to zero after 18
mm on both sides of the weld line on the outer surface of cylinder. The stress reversal from
compressive to tensile is observed after 18 mm on outer surface. Almost 70 mm away from
the weld line, these low values tensile stresses again approach to a zero value. A constant
axial stress value near to zero after 70 mm from the weld line is observed as shown in Figure
4.16.
Figure 4.17 shows the high tensile residual stresses on the inner surface near the weld
line approaching to zero and then reversing to lower compressive residual stresses at 18 mm
same as observed in outer surface. Again these lower compressive residual stresses
increasing to almost constant value of zero at 70 mm on both sides of weld line observed for
cylinder inner surfaces at different cross sections (50o, 90o, 150o and 250o) from weld start
position. The general residual axial stresses distribution shows a similar trend as observed in
the previous research [4, 185, 187, 189, 192-193, 197].
500
Inner Stress (MPa)
400
300
200
100
0
-100
-200
-90
-72
-54
-36
-18
18
36
54
72
90

Axial @ 50 Deg
Axial @ 90 Deg
Axial @ 150 Deg
Axial @ 250 Deg
Fig. 4.17 Residual axial stresses (MPa) on inner surface at different cross
The quantitative variation of higher or lower residual stresses in the present research
study are due to the different material properties i.e. mechanical properties like yield strength
for base and weld filler metals along with other parameters such as weld geometry and heat
source parameters etc. The significant related to axial stress fields from Figure 4.16 and
Figure 4.17 are given in the following:
127
The compressive and tensile stress fields of high magnitude are observed on and
near the FZ for outer and inner surfaces respectively. These stresses are
symmetric across the weld line due to the symmetry.
Figure 4.16 shows a bulge showing stress variations beneath the weld crown near
the weld line at the outer surface of cylinder.
Figure 4.16 and Figure 4.17 shows the axial residual stresses on outer and inner
surfaces at four different cross sections (50o, 90o, 150o and 250o) and all are
almost of the same magnitude and trend with slightly higher tensile axial stresses
on inner surface. This previous research [4, 7, 197] shows the same trend. The
axial stresses are weakly dependent on the circumferential location and have
almost homogeneous distribution around the circumferential direction except the
weld start and near region.
4.3.5.2 Hoop Residual Stress Fields

Due to the radial expansion and contraction during the welding by heating and cooling
sequence of welding process, the residual hoop stresses are developed parallel to the
direction of the weld bead.
Figure 4.18 and Figure 4.19 shows the residual hoop stresses distribution for inner and
outer surfaces of cylinder along the axial directions in different cross sections (50o, 90o, 150o
and 250o) from the weld start position respectively.
A large tensile and compressive hoop stresses are observed on and near the weld line on
the inner and outer surfaces respectively. The stress reduction and stress reversal trends are
same as observed for hoop residual stresses in the case of axial residual stresses and also are
in a good agreement with the other previous research [4, 185, 187, 189, 192-193, 197].
However, the quantitatively variation is due to the different welding parameters, material
properties and heat source parameters respectively. The main observations are as follows:
The hoop residual stresses are also symmetric due to symmetry across the weld
line.
High tensile stresses of 146 MPa and 333 MPa are observed near the FZ on outer
on inner surfaces respectively. A compressive residual stresses of 230 MPa and
208 MPa are observed away from the HAZ region at about 17 mm from weld line
on outer and inner surfaces respectively.
The hoop stresses are based on the circumferential location from the weld start to
weld end. The hoop residual stresses at three different cross sections (50o, 90o and
250o) varies in magnitude on outer and inner surfaces as shown in Figure 4.18 and
Figure 4.19 with almost similar trend as shown by [4, 7, 197].
128
150
17
-50
-117
-183
-250
-90
-72
-54
-36
-18
18
36
54
72
90

Hoop @ 50 Deg
Hoop @ 90 Deg
Hoop @ 150 Deg
Hoop @ 250 Deg
Fig. 4.18 Residual hoop stresses (MPa) on outer surface at different cross
350
250
Inner Stress (MPa)
Outer Stress (MPa)
83
150
50
-50
-150
-250
-90
-72
-54
-36
-18
18
36
54
72
90

Hoop @ 50 Deg
Hoop @ 90 Deg
Hoop @ 150 Deg
Hoop @ 250 Deg
Fig. 4.19 Residual hoop stresses (MPa) on inner surface at different cross
129
4.3.5.3 Axial and Hoop Residual Stress Fields along the Circumference
Figure 4.20 shows the comparison of axial and hoop residual stresses distribution at the
weld line for outer and inner surfaces on a circumferential path. The stress distribution
profiles are generally in agreement with the other previous research. The important
observations are summarized as:
The hoop stress varies from -234 MPa to 117 MPa on the outer surface. However,
some exceptions at weld start and end and tack weld locations at 0o and 180o are
observed and almost a zero hoop residual stress is observed at these locations (0o
and 180o). For hoop residual stresses on inner surface, a slight variation in
magnitude and trend is observed from -95 MPa to 140 MPa, with some exceptions
on weld start and end and tack weld locations. Again the stress values almost to
zero are observed at tack weld locations.
Figure 4.20 shows the compressive axial stresses profile on the outer surface
varying from 203 MPa to 505 MPa. Almost a stable stress profile from weld start
to weld end with some exceptions near to the weld start and end and tack
locations is observed of a low magnitude. The significant effects of weld start and
at tack weld points are observed for axial stress on inner surface. The compressive
axial stresses varies from -286 MPa to about 490 MPa in magnitude with a
reduction upto about 286 MPa and 222 MPa at the weld start of 0o and tack weld
locations of 180o respectively.
575
Stress (MPa)
383
192
0
-192
-383
-575
0
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240 270
300
330
360
Angle from Weld Start (o)

Hoop-Inner
Axial-Inner
Hoop-Outer
Axial-Outer
Fig. 4.20 Axial and hoop residual stress fields on cylinder outer and inner
surfaces on a circumferential path at the WL
130
4.3.6
Welding Distortions
4.3.6.1 Axial Tilt of Cylinders

A comparison of predicted and experimentally measured axial tilt of the restraint free end
of the cylinder after the welding and cooling of the weldments is shown in Figure 4.21. The
accurate measurement of the face tilt of the cylinder experimentally is a difficult task by
keeping in view the thickness of the cylinder face. Keeping the welded cylinders fixed in the
welding positioner, a digital dial indicator by fixing at an average diameter of the cylinder at
297 mm by using some holding arrangements was used for the measurements by rotating the
welding positioner. Five different readings after the tack weld and cooling of the weldments
at room temperature are recorded to minimize the error of data acquisition. Figure 4.21
shows the plots of an average value for comparison with predicted results.
The maximum range of axial face tilting is observed from -2.61 mm to +1.65 mm during
the cylinder face tracking of the dial indicator from 0o to 360o. The degree of axial shrinkage
is based on a many factors including welding process parameters, tack weld sizes and
orientation. The maximum axial shrinkage of 2.61 mm at 84o is observed whereas the
maximum axial deflection of 1.65 mm at 330o is observed near the weld end for the welding
process parameters and tack weld geometry used in the this study. The FE predictions shows
the lower values as compared to experimental data from 20% to 40% with an average of 20%
from the weld start position at 0 to 150. Whereas again the FE predictions shows the lower
values as compared to experimental data with a variation at an average under prediction of
30% from the weld start position at 150 to 359. The variation is slightly on the higher side,
however the results are in a good qualitative agreement from the weld start to weld end.
2.0
1.5
Face Tilt (mm)
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
-2.5
-3.0
0
36
72
108
144
180
216
252
288
324
360
Angle from We ld Start ( )

Predicted
Experimental
Fig. 4.21 Measured and predicted axial deformation (face tilt) of the cylinder face
131
4.3.6.2 Axial Shrinkage

The axial shrinkage at four different sections (50o, 90o, 150o and 250o) from the WL at
cylinder outer surface is shown in Figure 4.22. The shrinkage on restraint free end is
observed as by locating the coordinate axis on the weld line. The maximum axial shrinkage
of 1.0 mm and 1.25 mm are observed for axial sections at 50o and 90o from the weld start
position near the weld line at 10 mm from weld line towards restraint free end respectively.
The minimum axial shrinkage value of 0.05 mm is observed as the axial shrinkage
decreases away from the weld line towards the free end. The maximum axial shrinkage of 1.4
mm is observed at a distance of about 10 mm from the weld line for all the sections (50o, 90o,
150o and 250o) on the constrained end. A minimum shrinkage equal to about zero is shown at
the restrained end as the axial shrinkage continuously decreases away from the weld line.
2.50
Axial Shrinkage (mm)
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
-0.50
-1.00
-1.50
-2.00
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
Distance from Weld Line (mm)

Axial-50
Axial-90
Axial-150
Axial-250
Fig. 4.22 Axial shrinkage at four different cross sections from the WL on cylinder outer
surface
132
4.3.6.3 Radial shrinkage

Figure 4.23 shows the transient forces primarily responsible for the radial shrinkage
during the welding phenomenon incase of circumferentially welded cylinders. This
phenomenon can be explained with the concept of advancing solidification front [89]. A
common observation during the welding is shrinkage of the weld bead transverse to weld line
and along the weld path. A nearly hemispherical solidification front advance at rear of the
weld pool exerts three-dimensional forces as shown in Figure 4.23. Figure 4.24 shows the
radial shrinkage on outer surface of the cylinder at various cross sections (50o, 90o, 150o and
250o) from the weld start.
Fig. 4.23 Schematic representation of transient forces on solidifying weld pool
Radial Shrinkage (mm)
4.00
3.07
2.14
1.21
0.29
-0.64
-1.57
-2.50
-100
-75
-50
-25
25
50
75
100
Distance from Weld Line (mm)

Radial-50
Radial-90
Radial-150
Radial-250
Fig. 4.24 Radial shrinkage at different cross sections from the WL on cylinder outer surface
133
4.4
Experimental Setup for Validation of FE Models
To validate the FE models, Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) experiments were
carried out. The appropriate way to ensure the reliability of the numerical simulations for the
utilization of the research work for applications is by conducting the full-scale experiments in
actual with proper instrumentation for data measurement. This section describes the
experimental welding set-up, data measuring and acquisition systems used in the present
research work for circumferential welding with the methodologies for experimental
procedures.
4.4.1
Experimental Setup
Due to the variations associated with the skill of the operators and rotary synchronization
problems in the manual arc welding, an automatic welding setup with minimum human
intervention is used for arc welding experiments. The skill is mandatory for the proper
validation of numerical simulations results because the heat source moves with constant
speed i.e. the phenomenon is quasi-stationary in numerical simulations. A proper data
acquisition system is required for the careful data measurement and analysis during the
experiments.
The TIG welding setup consisting of SAF TIGMATE 270 AC/DC power source,
automatic rotary positioner, and fully automatic torch control and movement system is used
to conduct the experiments. TIGMATE 270 welding power source as shown in Figure 3.1 in
chapter 3 is a computerized waveform control technology for high quality TIG welds with
the control of required parameters.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 4.25 Automatic rotary positioner with clamping and strain gages arrangements
134
To control and locate the torch movement, an automatic torch positioning system is used.
Initially, the tack welded cylinders clamped according to the desired structural boundary
conditions are rotated by rotary chuck with torch positioning at 90o to the cylinder. For
details of automatic rotary positioner along with TIG torch, clamping and strain gages
arrangements is given in Figure 4.25.
4.4.2
FE Models Validation
The welded part is subjected to a highly non-uniform and rapidly changing temperature
field during welding approaching to temperatures above the melting point and the heat
conducts away from the weld by convection and radiation to the surroundings. Numerous
factors of the thermal field distribution during welding are the welding heat input, the
thermal material properties, the amount of convective flow in the weld pool, the latent heat of
melting and solidification, cooling to the surroundings, and contact with the surrounding
materials as shown in Figure 4.26 [200]. Figure 4.27 shows the overall experimental
validation approach of TIG welding in the present research for circumferential welding.
Fig. 4.26 Factors affecting the heat distribution during welding [200]
TIG WELDING EXPERIMENTS

(Circumferentail Welding)
Thermal
Structural
model validation
model validation
Transient
temperature
measurement
Weld pool
measurement
by macrograph
Residual stress
measurement
Distortion
measurement
Fig. 4.27 Overall experimental validation approach for circumferential welding

135
4.4.2.1 Thermal Model Validation

Generally two different types of experimental approaches are used for the validation of
weld thermal model. The first approach is based on transient temperature measurements
through thermocouples directly mounted on welded surface or by using the infrared
pyrometers [201-208] whereas the second approach mostly acceptable is the comparison of
FZ and HAZ from experimental macrograph as given by [18, 208-212].
Both temperature measurement approaches at some specified locations by using
thermocouples and experimental macrograph for the measurement of FZ and HAZ are used
to get data for the calibration of thermal FE models. TIG welding experiments are performed
on thin-walled structure (cylinders) for circumferential weld and the sample for macrograph
is cut by using water jet cutting process from the cylinders in rectangular cross section to
avoid the undesired heat effects by gas or machine cutting process. The sample is cut away
from the weld start and end, and tack weld locations in order to avoid the major effects
related to these locations. Figure 4.28 shows the sample and the welded cylinder after water
jet cutting. The macrograph is prepared as shown in Figure 4.29 (front view of the sample
with FZ and HAZ) by doing these steps as sample preparation by wet cutting, mounting of
the prepared sample in cast, sequential grinding by using silicon carbide abrasive paper with
varying grit sizes in the order of 300, 500, 700, 800 and 1000, diamond paste polishing with
particle sizes of 9 m, 6 m, 3 m, and 1 m, the etching of the sample by 2% nital solution
and washing the sample to study the HAZ and FZ dimensions of the sample.
Fig. 4.28 Macrograph sample after water jet

cutting from cylinder
Fig. 4.29 Low magnification

metallographic sample of FZ and HAZ
K-type thermocouples are mounted directly on the outer surface of the cylinder prior to
welding and connected directly to multi-channels data logging system for transient
temperature history measurement. The temperature profile during welding at any specified
time can be easily stored in computer readable formats like MS Excel for data processing and
comparison with FE results later on. The thermocouples and data logger (acuracy and
resolution = 1oC) used in research work are shown in Figures 4.30 and 4.31 respectively.
136
Fig. 4.30 K-type thermocouples for transient temperature measurement
Fig. 4.31 Multi-channels data logging system with thermocouples connected

The thermocouples are not suitable for the accurate measurement of temperature history
within the FZ due to the limitations. The high precision general purpose infrared optical
pyrometers (Cyclopes) from Minolta/Land are used to validate the temperature within the
weld bead. Two Cyclopes with temperature measurement range of 800oC to 3000oC are
utilized to measure the temperature with the FZ and on the weld line respectively. The
pyrometer used is shown in Figure 4.32.
Fig. 4.32 Digital infrared pyrometer (Cyclopes from Minolta/LAND)

137
4.4.2.2 Structural Model Validation

Two different types of validation i.e. residual stresses and distortion are required to
validate the weld structural model as already shown in Figure 4.27. Transient axial and radial
distortions are measured on the welded cylinders for distortion measurement. Further, the
hoop and axial residual stresses are also measured on the same welded cylinder to compare
the results.
4.4.2.2.1 Validation of Distortions

Transient axial deformation during the welding at the cylinder face and residual radial
deformation near the weld line are measured and compared with the related predicted data
from the FE analysis. A digital dial indicator ( 0.001 mm) is carefully located to track the
transient distortion at the restraint free face of the cylinder for the measurement of axial
shrinkage and precision micrometers ( 0. 01 mm) are used to measure the post weld residual
radial shrinkage on the specified points along the entire surface of welded cylinders in the
HAZ near weld line as shown in Figure 4.33.
Fig. 4.33 Experimental setup used for distortion measurement

4.4.2.2.2
Validation of Residual Stresses
As already shown in Figure 3.16 in chapter 3, the hole-drilling method is used for the
measurement of residual stresses and the equipment for hole-drilling strain gage along with
P3500 strain meter from Vishay Group as already discussed is used for experimental
determination of residual stress fields in circumferential welding. The milling guide RS-200
as shown in Figure 3.16 can be used for cylindrical surfaces with some special arrangements.
A separate fixture to hold the welded cylinder for proper mounting of RS-200 milling guide
is used for hole-drilling and measurements. Complete experimental setup for residual stress
measurement in circumferential welding is shown in Figure 4.34. The detail of six basic steps
involved for measurement of residual stresses by hole-drilling method is discussed in section
3.3 of chapter 3. The two strain gage rosettes (EA-XX-062RE-120 and CEA-XX-062UM120) are used as already shown in Figure 3.18.
138
Fig. 4.34 Experimental setup used for experimental measurement of residual stresses
4.5
Chapter Summary and Conclusions
In this chapter, the theoretical background and finite element modeling aspects of the
thermal-mechanical behavior during arc welding was discussed. In order to validate the FE
models, Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) experiments were carried out to ensure the
reliability of the numerical simulations with proper instrumentation for data measurement.
Computational methodology and techniques based on finite element analysis (FEA) for
the prediction of temperature profiles and subsequent weld induced residual stress fields and
distortion patterns in GTA welded thin-walled cylinders of high strength low alloy steel were
developed and implemented successfully with close correlation to the experimental
investigations. The results related to residual stress fields and distortion was discussed in
detail. The significant conclusions from the results are:
1. Due to symmetry across the weld line, the residual stresses (both hoop and axial) are
symmetric. Along and near the weld line, a high tensile and compressive axial
residual stresses occurs on the cylinder inner and outer surfaces respectively.
139
Compressive and tensile axial residual stresses produced on inner and outer surfaces
away from the weld line. Axial stresses are weakly dependent on the circumferential
locations from weld start.
2. Hoop residual stresses are sensitive to the angular location from the weld start
position. On the inner surface, the weld start effect is more severe for both axial and
hoop stresses and is dominant in the weld start direction. The significant effect of
tacks on the axial stress on the inner surface is observed at angular positions of 0 and
180 from the weld start point, whereas, the effect of tacks on hoop stresses is not as
prominent. The stress distribution is no more axis-symmetric for a single pass butt
circumferential weld with initial tacks. However, if the weld start/end effects are
ignored hoop stresses are almost uniform.
3. Maximum axial and radial deflection is observed near the weld line. The axial
shrinkage decreases continuously away from the WL and a minimum shrinkage of
almost zero shown at the restrained end. However, on the restraint free end some
deflection with face tilting is observed.
Further, this chapter described the details of experimental welding set-up, data measuring
and acquisition systems used for the validation of developed FE models.
The FE model developed proves to be very effective and efficient for conducting virtual
experiments for the prediction of residual stresses and distortion by using design of
experiments (DOE) for optimizing the TIG welding process of thin walled structure
(cylinder) and also to provide the data for developing the expert system.
140

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Expert System for Optimization of Welding Process of Thin Walled HSLA Steel Structures

In this chapter, FE modeling & simulation methodology, analytical model of arc

FE Modeling & Simulation Methodology

The traditional manufacturing processes were mainly established from trial-and-error

University of Engineering & Technology, Taxila-Pakistan

Analytical Model of Arc Welding

Arc welding is a highly non-linear coupled thermo-mechanical phenomenon in which

Q ( x, y, z, ) , is the heat generation per unit volume.

From Equation 4.1 into Equation 4.2

Considering thermal conductivity as constant, then

Temperature distribution is governed by Equation 4.4.

The strain displacement relationship is given by Equation 4.7.

It can be written in matrix form as

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Equations 4.6 becomes by taking the boundary effects into account as

Let for any element E, the temperature can be represented by

By substituting Equations 4.14, 4.15 and 4.16 in Equation 4.13

Specific heat matrix

Thermal conductivity matrix

{FE } = Q[ N ]dv + h f TB [ N ]dA

Heat generation and convection matrix

U = Internal strain energy (internal work)

Whereas the virtual strain energy is given as

= Strain Vector, = Stress Vector, and V = Volume of element

= total Strain, el = Elastic strain, th = Thermal Strain, D = Material Stiffness

T is the difference between the reference temperature and actual temperature.

By substituting Equations 4.20 and 4.21 in Equation 4.19 gives

The strain is related to nodal displacement by the following relations

For a constant displacement, virtual straining energy is given as:

U = { u}T [ B ]T [ D ][ B ]dV {u} { u}T [ B ]T [ D ]{ th }dV

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The external virtual work due to inertia forces is given as:

If the displacement within the element is related to nodal displacement by

The Equation 4.27 can be also written as

By substituting Equations 4.26 and 4.30 in Equation 4.17

{Fcth } = [ B ]T [ D]{ th }dV

Element thermal load vector

Element mass matrix

Interaction of Different Fields

The structural modeling is carried out to study the macroscopic thermal-mechanical

Heat Source Modeling and Efficiency

University of Engineering & Technology, Taxila-Pakistan

University of Engineering & Technology, Taxila-Pakistan

Heat Losses Modeling

By means of convection and radiation, a considerable amount of heat is lost through

q loss = htotal x A(T Tamb )

Where A = surface area, T = current temperature at the cylinder surface, Tamb =

Convective heat transfer coefficient (Wm-2K)

Convection boundary conditions

Fig. 4.2 Schematic representations of thermal boundary conditions

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4.2.6.1 Material Model for High Strength Low Alloy Steel

95% x YSRM (100 < T < Tmelt2/3)

Fig. 4.3 Thermo-physical properties of HSLA steel

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El astic Modul us x 2.0E+5 MPa

Fig. 4.4 Thermo-mechanical properties of HSLA steel

Filler Metal Deposition

Simulation Approach in ANSYS

For simulation, a coupled thermo-mechanical simulation approach is divided in two

Total welding time (sec)

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