Magoon, L B, and W C Do, eds , 1991, The petroleum

systrmfrom court e to leap AAPG Memoir 60

Chapter 12

7
Secondary Migration and Accumulation
of Hydrocarbons
William A. England
RI' RI'V'fIN
Ji Celltle
.Sxnrbury
MlitlifrSCA
0?!I
U. K.

Abstract
Secondary migration is the proces, by which petroleum is transported from the pod of active
soume rock to the trap. Most petroleum migrates as a separate, immiscible phase through watersaturated rock The driving force for migration is the vertical buoyancy force due to the lower
density of petroleum compared to that of formation water. The capillary pressure difference
between the oil and water phases opposes the buoyancy force, discouraging the entry of petroleum
into smaller water -wet pores. The interaction of these two forces causes petroleum to migrate along
coarser parts of the "carrier bed," often by a tortuous pathway that is disrupted by the presence of
heterogeneities. Subsurface water potential gradients due to active aquifers or rapid sedimentation
(such as in the Gulf Coast) can alter the direction of secondary migration. Secondary migration by
aqueous solution is not expected to be a significant process due to the low solubilities of most
components of petroleum_
Secondary migration efficiency is an important parameter when estimating the degree of fill of a
prospect or the location of thy hole belts. It can be estimated by a statistical analysis of past Exploration results or by assuming that a certain fraction of the migration pathways pore space must be
saturated by petroleum before a prospect can fill with oil or gas.
Once petroleum starts to fill a trap, the tortuous migration pathway tend to fill from one side.
Because petroleum composition changes with time as the source rock becomes more mature,
compositional differences (e.g., in GOR, API gravity) may be "inherited" from the filling process. In
the presence of barriers, difhtsional and convective mixing may be too slow, even on geologic time
scales, to eliminate all compositional differences. By Examining present-day compositional differences from a set of wells in a field under appraisal or development, it is possible to identify the
presence of flow barriers and the direction from which the field filled.
the surface that is usually rich in hexane through decane
(C6-C10). Some condensates contain significant quantities
Secondary migrationis the movement of petroleum
of higher molecular weight material in the C
30range. Oil
beyond the point where the hydrocarbon exits the active reservoirs are liquid in the subsurface When taken to the
source rock. The fate of this migrating hydrocarbonsurface,
is
the liquid produced (stock tank oilcrude
or oil)is
dependent on the efficiency of the conduit within which
rich in heavier hydrocarbons (CHi). Substantial quantiit is moving and the nature and efficiency of a trap it may ties of gas (rich in 1C-05and possibly N2, CO
2, and H2S
originally dissolved in the subsurface) are usually
encounter. A
trap includes a reservoir rock and a seal
rock that are in a three-dimensional configuration
produced with the oil.
capable of impeding or storing petroleum in the subsurUsing an extensive database of case studies, Sluirk and
face. Reservoired petroleums are classified into three
Nederlof (NIA, showed that the modal lateral migration
types according to their subsurface phase behavior:gas
distance for petroleum was about 10 kin, with a significant number of cases that exceed 80 km. Vertical
reservoirs, gas condensate reservoirs,
andoil reservoirs.
Gas reservoirs contain mostly methane (Cr) and some distances range up to 1200 m. The purpose of this
ethane through pentane (C2-05) in diminishing concen- chapter is to provide a short review of the current
trations. Gas condensate reservoirs are entirely gas phase theories of secondary migration, particularly with respect
in the subsurface, but produce a liquid (orcondensate)at
to its place in the evaluation of a trap within a petroleum
INTRODUCTION

211

212

England

system. Comprehensive reviews of this topic arc given

by Durand (1983). Schowalter (1979), WeIte (1988), and
two conference proceedings edited by Doliguez (1988)
and England and Elect (1991).
MIGRATION MECHANISMS
Solution in Water
The theory that petroleum migrates by aqueous
solution in formation water has been proposed by
several authors, for example, Toth (1987). After the
trthoratirq Petroleum
mucistono
expelled petroleum near the source rock is dissolved,
secondary migration is postulated to occur by bulk flow Figure 12.1. Dendritic migration pathway. The petroleum
moves generally updip, but contrasts in capillary entry
of water prior to exs.olution of the petroleum in the trap.
In different parts of the pathway may lead the
Most authors have rejected this as a major mechanism pressures
migrating
petroleum
to follow the coarsest beds preferendue to the low solubilities of most components of
tially. In uniform units, the capillary effects are small and
petroleum in water (McAuliffe, 1980). To account for the
the petroleum tends to move along the upper part of the
large size of known accumulations, unrealistically large carder bed.
volumes of water would be required to migrate updip
from a deeply buried thermally mature source rock.
Furthermore, the petroleum in this aqueous solution
as by the perturbation brought about by hydrtxlynamic
would have to experience a drastic compositional change
flow (Hubbert, 1953). By mapping the depth from sea
during migration, which in practice is undetected
level
to the top surface of the carrier bed at the time of
(England et al., 1991).
migration, it is possible to determine the directions of
petroleum migration for the region. This map can be
Two -Phase Migration
modified to include the effect of hydrodynamics (see
Presently, there is a consensus that secondary Dahlberg, 1982, for details). This map is an inva:uable aid
migration occurs by a mechanism involving two phases:to exploration because it provides a basis for determining
which direction to go to find additional accumulations;
petroleum and water (Durand, 1983; England et al., 1987;
from a full trap, move updip, or from a partially filled
Welte, 1988). Petroleum, expelled from the mature source
rock gradually accumulates as a separate phase (since its trap, move dovilidip.
solubility in water is so low). Because petroleum in gas orTo use the two-phase migration scheme in petroleum
liquid phase is less dense than surrounding pore water, a exploration, one should map the interface between the
net upward buoyant force is experienced by the growing seal and carrier beds, kick for any residual hydrocarbons
of petroleum. As the stringer grows, or shows within the carrier bed, and map the geometry
globule stringer
or
the pressure at its upper surface tor seal rock) increases of traps to determine how they filled with petroleum.
so it moves laterally updip, provided it can overcome the
local capillary pressure barrier, such as the pore throatPressure
of
and Temperature Reduction
a coarse -grained sandstone. Here, the coarse -grained
rock is defined as the carrier bed. Any capillary pressure Gas (Ci-Cs) and condensate/oil (C 6, ) are no:
mutually
soluble in any given proportion. As gas and
heterogeneities in the carrier bed are expected to lead to
a
tortuous migration pathway involving much of the condensate/oil migrate to shallower depths, formation
carrier bed, as shown in Figure 12.1. Presumably in a pressure and temperature drop. This drop causes gas to
lithologically homogeneous carrier bed, the migration exsolve from the subsurface liquid phase, creating
pathway would be more restricted along the upper
increasing volumes of gas compared to the liquid phase
contact with the overlying seal. However, in either case, (England and Mackenzie, 1988). These phase changes
only a small fraction of the total carrier pore volume is will also lead to alteration of petroleum composition
exploited by the migrating petroleum (England et al., (Mills and Larter, 1991) and engineering parameters,
1987). Because the migrating petroleum phase uses
such aas the condensate -gas ratio (CGR) and gas -oil ratio
small fraction of the water phase of the carrier bed, this (GDR) which are measured at the well head.
two-phase migration process is extremely efficient,
Price et al. (1983) and Lhuze et al. (1%3) have considconsidering that the petroleum must pass through an ered the solubility of Ch in
t subsurface gases. For
enormous volume of water -saturated rock.
example, if a mature source rock expels a gas condensate
lie final step of migration occur.; when hydrocarbonat a depth of 4 km (12,000 ft) with a CGR of 175
passing through a carrier bed reaches a trap and the
bbl/MMscf (barrels per million standard cubic ft), this
process of accumulation starts. The trap may be defined composition might be stable as a single gas phase.
by the capillary barrier presented by the top seal, as well However, when the gas migrates to a shaLower trap at 2