Question 1

Elaborate how the human brain is specialized for specific cognitive and affective functions.
The human brain is a complex organ that allows human to think, move, feel, see, hear, taste and
smell. This is the main organ that controls our body, receives information, analyzes information
and stores information or memories. Human brain is the most powerful organ, yet weighs only
about three pounds. It has three main parts. The cerebrum, cerebellum and brain stem. The
cerebrum fills up most of the human skull. This part is functioning in remembering, problem
solving, thinking and feeling and also controls movement. The cerebellum controls coordination
and balance. While the brain stem connect brain to the spinal cord and control automatics
function such as breathing, digestion, heart rate and blood pressure.
When talking about cognitive and affective function of human brain, cerebrum is the part
that controls this area. Before we talk more about cognitive and affective function, firstly let see
what is the definition of cognitive and affective function and next I will elaborate how human
brain works for these two functions.
What is cognition? Cognition was related to how a person understands and responds.
Cognition is a set of ability or processes that are part of nearly every human action. Cognitive
abilities are brain-based skills we need to carry out any task from the simplest to the complex.
They have more to do with the mechanisms of how we learn, remember, problem-solve and pay
attention rather than with any actual knowledge. For instance, answering the telephones involves
at least perception (hearing the ring tone), decision taking (answering or not), motor skill (lifting
the receiver), language skills (interpreting tone of voice and interacting properly with another
human being).
Cognitive function can be defined as cerebral activities that lead to knowledge, including
all means and mechanisms of acquiring information. This also can be refers to a persons ability
to process thoughts. Cognitive function encompasses reasoning, memory, attention, and language
and lead directly to the attainment of information and thus knowledge. Nevertheless, if cognitive
performance is directly linked to these functions, other endogenous factors such as mood and
1

physical health can impact it tremendously. Cognitive function is studied by a lot of different
scientist working in different domains like neuroscience, psychology, anthropology, philosophy.
Different models and theories exist to explain how works cognitive function.
Cognitive brain functions constitute the ability to work with information in a meaningful
way, apply information that has already been gained, perform preferential changes and the ability
for someone to change opinions about that information. Within psychology, the idea of cognitive
brain function has long been associated with very abstract ideas such as learning, intelligence
and mind. Of course these ideas are extremely broad but so are the cognitive brain functions.
They are formulated out of memories and how they relate to current information intake.
Because cognitive thinking relies on the ability to link diverse, stored information keen
cognitive brain function is related to a persons ability to plan and make decision. Rather than
seeing things for exactly what they are a person with very good cognitive brain function will be
able to infer information from complex information in reference to previous knowledge and use
that to their own advantages. For this reason, in management situation, it is very important.
However, like executive brain function should not be construed to understand that it is only
working with complex decision and information. Rather, cognitive brain function is directly
related to a persons ability to make an informed decision. Therefore, it is also directly related to
a persons quality of life.
Two very important aspects of the ability to use cognitive functions are current mood and
state of health. If a person is depressed, for example, it may be exceedingly difficult for them to
recall and link information in a manner that will enable them to make an appropriate decision. So
within the field of cognitive therapy, it may be necessary to work on certain other disorders or
ailments before diversifying into treatment of the persons cognitive ability. The first goal of any
therapy around cognitive brain function is invariably to identify and underlying hindrances to
that persons ability to enter into the therapy in the first place. Therefore, the everyday stresses
and problems associated with destructive mood must first be mitigated before therapy of
cognitive functions can necessarily begin.

Mental function or cognitive abilities are based on specific neuronal networks. For
instance memory skills rely mainly on parts of the temporal lobes and parts of the frontal lobes
(behind the forehead). With age, some cognitive abilities decline, especially the executive
function. In addition, cognitive abilities that are not used regularly tent to diminish over time.
Fortunately, these skills can also be improved with regular practice.
Cognitive approach emphasizing on internal mental processes. Information received is
processed through the selection, comparison and integration with other existing information in
memory. Consolidation of this information will then be revised and rearranged. The ideas
depends on the internal mental processes. Cognitive psychologists emphasize that we are not
receiving the stimuli passively. Instead our brains will process actively and exchange information
received or information to form a new category. The individual is supposed to maximize the use
of their minds so that they can become active thinkers. As a man who has been blessed with a
brain to think, we should be able to react accordingly upon receipt of a heartbeat information and
is prepared to change their attitude if we find that our idea before it is incorrect or negative.
Affective domain is associated with the realm of attitudes and values. Affective includes
character behaviors such as feelings, interests, attitudes, emotions, and values. Some experts say
that a person's attitude can be predicted changes when someone has had a high-level cognitive
powers. The characteristics of affective learning results will appear on the learners in a variety of
behaviors. Such as: his attention to the subject, discipline in following religious subjects in
schools, high motivation to know more about the subjects received, appreciation or respect to
teacher education and so on.
Affective into more detail into five levels, namely:
(1) Receiving
Receiving or attending (receive attention), is the sensitivity of a person to receive a
stimulus (stimulus) from outside who come to him in the form of issues, situations,
and other symptoms. Included in the levels of this example is: the awareness and
willingness to accept the stimulus, control and selecting the symptoms or the
stimulation that comes from outside. Receiving or attention also often cited as a sense

of willingness to pay attention to an activity or an object. At this level learners

constructed so that they are willing to accept the value or values taught to them, and
they want to incorporate themselves into the value or to identify yourself with that
value.
(2) responding
Responding implies active participation. So the ability to respond to is the ability of
a person to include themselves actively in certain phenomena and make a reaction to
it one way. This level is higher than the level receiving.
(3) Valuing
Valuing (judging = respect), assessing or appreciate the meaning of giving value or
reward for an activity or an object, so that when the activity was not done, it was felt
would bring harm or regret. In relation to the learning process, students here are not
only willing to accept the values taught but they have been capable to assess a
concept or phenomenon, which is good or bad. If a doctrine that has been able to their
values and being able to say it is good, then this means that students have to
undergo the assessment process. Value was started in the bear (internalized) in him.
Thus these values have stabilized in learners
(4) Organization
Organization (arrange or organize), meaning that take into-discover the difference
value to form a new, universal values, leading to a general improvement. Arrange or
organize the development of value into one organizational system, including the
relationship of the value with other values, Stabilization and value that has its
priorities.
(5) Characterization by value complex
Characterization by value complex (characterization with a value or complex values),
namely the integration of all value systems that have been owned by someone, which
affects personality and behavior patterns. Here the internalization process has
occupied the highest place in a hierarchy of values. That value has been consistently
embedded in the system and has affected his emotions. It is the highest effective
level, because the inner attitude.
4

Thinking or behavior should have two criteria to be classified as affective domain

(Andersen, 1981: 4). First, the behavior involves feelings and emotions. Second, the behavior
must be typical behavior. Other criteria include affective domain is the intensity, direction, and
the target. Stating the degree of intensity or strength of feeling, some feelings are stronger than
others, for example, love is stronger than joy or love. Most people are likely to have stronger
feelings than others. Directions feelings associated with positive or negative orientation of the
feelings that indicates whether it is good or bad feelings.
For example delighted at the positive interpreted lessons, being interpreted negatively
anxiety. When the intensity and direction of feelings are reviewed together, then the affective
characteristics are in a continuum scale. Target refers to an object, event, or idea as a way of
feeling. When anxiety is affective characteristics were reviewed, there are several possible
targets. Learners may react to school, math, social situation, or learning. Each element can be the
target of anxiety. Sometimes the target is known by someone but sometimes unknown. Often
students feel anxious when facing a test in the classroom. These students tend to be aware that
the target is test anxiety.
There are 5 types of affective characteristics that are important based on its purpose, i.e.
attitudes, interests, self-concept, values, and morals.
1. Attitude
Attitude is a tendency to act like or dislike of an object. Attitudes can be formed through
observing and imitating something positive, then through the strengthening and receive verbal
information. Changes in attitude can be observed in the learning process, objectives, firmness,
and consistency to something. Assessment, the assessment is conducted to determine the
attitudes of students towards subjects, learning conditions, educators, and so on. According to
Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) attitude is a learned predisposition to respond positively or negatively
to an object, situation, concept, or people. For example, the attitude of learners towards objects
such as attitudes toward school or to subjects. The attitude of the learner is essential to improved
(Popham, 1999). Attitudes of learners to subjects, such as English, should be more positive after
5

the learners follow English Class. This change is one indicator of the success of teachers in
implementing the learning process. For that educators should create a learning plan including
learners' learning experience that makes the attitude of students towards subjects become more
positive.
2. Interests
According Getzel (1966), interest is a disposition that is organized through experience
that encourages a person to obtain a specific object, activity, understanding, and skills for the
purpose of attention or achievement. Meanwhile, according to an Indonesian large dictionary
(1990: 583), interests are desires towards something. It is important for interest to have its
intensity. In general, interests include affective characteristics that have a high intensity.
3. Self Concept
According to Smith, the concept of self is an individual evaluation of the capabilities and
weaknesses. Target, direction, and intensity of self-concept basically like other affective domain.
The target of self-concepts usually towards people, but could also towards institutions such as
schools. The concept of self-direction can be positive or negative, and its intensity can be
expressed in a region of the continuum, i.e. ranging from low to high. Self-concept is important
to determine the career path of learners, i.e. by knowing the strengths and weaknesses of
ourselves to lead us to choose the right alternative for learners. Information about the concept of
self is important for schools to motivate learners appropriately.
4. Value
Value according to Rokeach (1968) is a confidence about deeds, actions, or behaviors that
are considered good and which are considered bad. He also explained that attitude drive into
confidence. Target value refers to the value of an idea, the target value may also be something
like attitudes and behavior. Direction values can be positive or negative. Furthermore, the
intensity value can be said to be high or low depending on the situation and the other factors.
Value definition delivered by Tyler (1973: 7), as he said that it is the value of an object, event, or
idea expressed by individuals in direct interests, attitudes, and satisfaction. He also explained that
humans learn to assess an object, activity, and the idea that this object becomes an important
6

regulator of interests, attitudes, and satisfaction. Therefore education units should help learners
find and strengthen meaningful and significant value for learners to gain personal happiness and
give a positive contribution to society.
5. Moral
Piaget and Kohlberg deal about moral development among children. However Kohlberg
ignore the relationship between moral judgment and moral action. He only studied ones moral
principles through the interpretation of verbal responses to hypothetical dilemmas or conjecture,
rather than on how someone actually acts. Associated with feelings of moral right or wrong of
the happiness of others or the feelings of the actions carried out yourself. For example deceive
others, deceive others, or injure another person both physically and psychologically. Moral is
also often associated with a persons religious beliefs, namely the belief in a sinful act and
rewarding. So moral can be related with principles, values, and beliefs.

References
Abraham H. Maslow (1984). Motivasi Dan Keperibadian Jakarta: Pustaka Binoman Pressido.
Azizi
7

Bloom, B.S., editor, Taxonomy of Educational Objectives Book 1 Cognitive Domain, ISBN: 0582-280109-9, Longman, 1984.
Krathwohl, D.R., Bloom, B.S., and Masia, B.B., Taxonomy of Educational Objectives Book 2
Affective Domain, ISBN: 0-582-28239-X, Longman, 1964.
McNeill, B., Bellamy, L, Burrows, V. A Quality Based Assessment Process For Student Work
Products, Journal of Engineering Education, Vol. 88, No.4, October 1999, pp. 485-500.
Mohd. Sharani Ahmad & Zainal Madon (2007). Tip Pandai Belajar. Kuala Lumpur.: PTS
Millenia.
Yahaya.et.al (2005). Psikologi Kognitif . Johor : Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Gagne,Ellen D
(1985). The Cognitive Psychology Of School Learning. Boston: Little Brown.
Zimmerman, B.J.,Self-Regulated Learning and Academic Achievement: An Overview,
Educational Psychologist, 25, 1990, (1), pp. 3-1.

Question 2
Discuss the relationship between emotion and cognition. Provide specific examples.

When emotions beating concentration, which is paralyzed by the mental abilities of cognitive
scientists called "working memory", which is the ability to keep in mind all the information
relevant to the task at hand.
In the late cognitive psychologists pay great attention to the emotional aspects of the
relationship between cognitive processes due to several reasons can be put forward. First, that the
emotional state can influence cognitive processes in forms or ways that are very important, even
fatal. Therefore, there is something that is essential for psychology to understand what and how
emotions affect one's cognitive activity. Second, ways more useful to be developed, making it
possible to do manipulation or engineering experience emotions experimentally as independent
variables. Eg emotional atmosphere with hypnotic or verbal, that makes them happy or sad
emotions experienced at the time. With increasingly sophisticated methods used it is possible to
do more extensive research.
Third, the limitations of the research conducted in the clinical field. Since ten years ago,
most research on the effect of depression on memory and other cognitive processes using clinical
patient, and do not involve engineering emotions on normal people. By doing so, without any
direct manipulation of the emotional subject that normally it is difficult to know clearly whether
a cognitive process is influenced by the ongoing emotional atmosphere, or because of the
depressive syndrome in general. Finally, the growth of a belief that the theoretical considerations
about memory and cognition in general should be able to explain well the influence of affective
aspects or emotions such as stress, anxiety, depression, values, arousal, to cognitive processes.
Thus, a complete cognitive theory ultimately should include an explanation of how the important
roles in the emotional aspects of the overall human cognitive processes.
Anything that affects emotions, how the working memory work? We will discuss one by
one starting from the emotional, motivational, cognitive processes and the relationship between
emotion, motivation, and cognitive processes.
Emotion is essentially the impulse to act, instant plans to address problems that have been
planted through the mechanism of evolution. The root of the word emotion is movere (Latin)

meaning "move, move", plus the prefix "e-" to give the sense of "moving away", implying that
the tendency to act is absolute in emotion.
According to the dictionary "Oxford English Dictionary" defines emotion as "any activity
or turbulence of thoughts, feelings, desires, any great mental state or overflowing". In general,
psychologists focused emotions definition on three main components: physiological changes
(changes in the face, brain and body), cognitive processes (interpretation of an event), and the
influence of culture (forming the experience and expression of emotions). Emotion is a situation
that involves a change in the stimulation of the body and face, activation of the brain, cognitive
assessment, subjective feelings, and the tendency to commit an act that is formed entirely by
rules contained in a culture.
Most experts classify emotion between primary emotions and secondary emotions. The
behavior then materialized from primary or secondary emotion (a combination of several
primary emotions).
Primary emotions that develop are:

Anger: fury, rampaging, hate, angry, irritated, annoyed heart, disturbed, bitter taste,

irascible, irritable, hostile, violent and pathological hatred.

Grief: poignant, sad, somber, gloomy, melancholy, self-pity, loneliness, despair, rejection,

and if it becomes pathological, severe depression.

Fear: Anxiety, fear, nervousness, worry, anxiety, feeling scared, worried, wary, sad, calm,

horrified, scared, intimidated, and as pathology is phobia and panic.

Enjoyment: happiness, joy, light, satisfied, cheerful, happy, entertained, proud, sensory
delight, amazement, a sense of awe, a sense of satisfaction, fulfillment, joy extraordinary,

happy, happy, and boundary edges mania.

Love: acceptance, friendship, trust, kindness, feel close, devotion, respect, love, affection.
Shocked: shock, floored, amazed, stunned.
Annoyed: contempt, disgust, disgust, hate, dislike, want to vomit (synesthesia).
Shame: guilt, shame liver, liver upset, regret, contempt, disgrace, and liver destroyed.

10

Activities emotions are influenced by physiological activity (brain and hormonal

transformation). The amygdale is a small part of our brain that has an important role in emotions,
especially fear. The amygdale is tasked with evaluating the sensory information we receive, and
then quickly determines the emotional interests, and made the decision to toward or away from
an object or a situation. The amygdale worked to evaluate the danger or threat. Role of the
prefrontal cortex, is to respond and motivate specific responses, set up and keep emotions remain
balanced (freshly love and hate, away and closer and others).
Gland associated with emotions are the adrenal glands which will produce the hormone
epinephrine and nor epinephrine. This hormone works in response to various challenges in the
environment. This hormone will be produced at the time of laughing, amused, angry, fearful and
others.
The area is very extensive cognitive processes (process thinking, intelligence, general
knowledge, etc.). Here we will only discuss between intelligence and emotion. Emotional
intelligence is an ability to identify emotions experienced by myself and others with accurate, the
ability to express emotions appropriately, and the ability to regulate emotions in oneself and
others. People who have emotional intelligence (EQ) is high are able to use their emotions to
improve their motivation, stimulate creative thinking, and develop empathy for others. People
who have poor emotional intelligence will have difficulty in identifying emotions in themselves.
Some people have argued that emotional intelligence is not a special cognitive ability, but rather
a collection of personality characteristics, such as empathy and extroversion.
Regardless of the controversy, the development of the concept of intelligence is
something that is very useful for us all. The development forces us to think critically about the
meaning of intelligence and force us to consider various types of "intelligence" that helps us to
live our daily lives. Cognitive approach also helps to traverse a variety of learning strategies of
children who are able to effectively improve children's ability to read, write, do homework and
undergo exams. For example, children are taught to use the time wisely so do not procrastinate
and are able to distinguish preparation for a multiple choice exam with essay exams. Most
importantly, new approaches in explaining intelligence have removed the wrong mental set,
11

which considers intelligence as measured by IQ tests is the only variable that determines a
person's success or failure in life.
Human mind includes cognitive work such as categorization, remembering, analyzing,
interpreting, evaluating and others. The core purpose of cognitive work is to understand
everything about the environment and themselves. Therefore, emotions and thoughts (cognitions)
have close links and inseparable.
Emotions appear after going through the interpretation of an event. Nevertheless,
cognitive processes spawned emotions can not always be realized. For example angry. Prior
angry, then no assessment you did before. It could be your judge had lied, others do not act the
way you want, the situation is not as desired or otherwise disturb you. After the assessment, then
you get angry. At any moment of anger, you keep doing cognitive work. For example, if that
does not satisfy you is your boss, then you are probably not your anger show. Whereas that does
not satisfy weaker than you, then perhaps you dare scold. During angry, you might also think of
revenge, assessing the causes of a person does not satisfy, or others. That is, the mind always
worked before or during emotional.
The same situation will not necessarily produce the same emotions because it depends on
the meaning of the situation. For example, when you are facing scores big bear in the woods, if
you interpret that bears it threatens you, then you might be frightened. But if you interpret that
the bear was just a normal animal that is not dangerous, then you will not be scared. Similar case
when a friend left you because of death. If you judge it as a big loss, then you are very sad.
Conversely, if you judge that the death is a natural phenomenon for human. You probably will
not be sad. May actually relieved because your friend has suffered chronic severe pain.
Therefore, the emotions generated by the interpretation of a person to a particular
situation. Well, because it can be identified situations that give rise to certain emotions. Here are
some situations that the cause for the emergence of the emotion of anger, sadness, happiness,
disgust, surprise and fear.

12

Perception, memory, thinking, and cognitive processes can be influenced by the ongoing
emotional state in a person. Emotional state of a person that can influence cognitive processes is
such as stress, depression, anxiety, and mood (mound). Emotional effect can occur on any part of
the overall human cognitive activity; ranging from recording information (sensory registers), the
transformation of information (encoding), the storage of information in the memory bank, then
extracting the information that is stored in the memory (retrieval) to appear in the back in order
to respond to a task (percale), until the processes of thinking, solving problems (problem
solving), and creativity.
Why lately cognitive psychologists increasingly paying attention to the enormous
emotional aspects of the relationship between cognitive processes? There are several reasons that
can be given here. First, emotional state is directly can influence the cognitive processes in forms
or ways that is very important even can cause to fatality, therefore, it is essential for
psychologists to examine what and how emotions influence cognitive activity.
Both ways are more useful for creating momentary emotional state has begun to be
developed, making it possible to do manipulation or engineering experience emotions
experimentally as independent variables. Third, the limitations of the research conducted in the
clinical field. The last reason is the growth of belief that consider theoretically about memory
and cognition. In general, the affective aspects or emotions influenced stress, anxiety, depression,
value, and arousal on cognitive processes.
Numerous studies have been conducted by cognitive psychologists about how the effect
or effects of specific emotions on cognitive processes, especially memory.

References
Carol Wade & Carol Tavris. Psikologi.Jilid 2. Hal 106
13

Carole Wide & Carole Tavris. 2007. Psikologi Umum. Edisi Kesembilan. Jilid 1 & 2. Jakarta:
Erlangga
Chaplin J.P. 1981. Kamus Lengkap PSIKOLOGI. Terjemah. Jakarta: Rajawali Press.
Daniel Goleman.2009. Emotional Intellegence. Hal: 110
Goleman, Daniel. 2009. Emotional Intelligence. Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama
Prof. Dr. Suharnan, MS. Psikologi Kognitif. Hal 416 417
Sternberg, Robrt J. 2008. Psikologi Kognitif. Edisi Keempat. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar
Suharnan, MS. 2005. Psikologi Kognitif. Surabaya: Srikandi

Question 3
Explain cognitive strategy instruction can help learning. Provide specific examples.

14

A cognitive strategy is a mental process or procedure for accomplishing a particular cognitive

goal. For example, if students' goals are to write good essays, their cognitive strategies might
include brainstorming and completing an outline. The cognitive strategies that students use
influence how they will perform in school, as well as what they will accomplish outside of
school. Researchers have found that effective learners and thinkers use more effective strategies
for reading, writing, problem solving, and reasoning than ineffective learners and thinkers.
Cognitive strategies are internally organized capabilities that can help students in the
learning process, the process of thinking, solving problems and making decisions (Gagne, 1974).
The ability of cognitive strategies causes a person's thinking process is unique, which is called
the executive control (high-level control). Cognitive strategies are not associated with a
particular material science, because it is the thinking skills of students internally and can be
applied in various fields of science.
Cognitive strategies (Gagne, 1974) (in Yamin, 2005: 5) is the internal ability for someone
to think, solve problems, and make decisions. The ability of cognitive strategies led to a unique
thought process in analyzing, solving problems and in making decisions. The thinking ability and
uniqueness as executive control, or so-called high-level control, which is a sharp analysis,
precise and accurate.
Bell-Gredler (1986) (in Yamin, 2005: 5), said the strategy of cognition as a process of
inductive thinking, which makes generalization of facts, concepts, and principles are not related
to one's own knowledge, but an internal thinking skills owned by a person and can be applied in
the field of science. However the formal educational background influences the thinking skills of
a person, because they had been provided with analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. With this
thinking skills students can live independently and take analyze decisions, solve problems, and
make decisions on the phenomena around them.
Strategy capabilities that regulate cognition is the way how students manage their
learning, when recalled, and thought, it is also a process controller or regulator of the
implementing measures. Cognitive strategies affect students' attention to the stimuli, arrangement
15

of password scheme of the student, and "stacks" of information stored in the memory. This
capacity also affects the strategy of the students in finding and rediscovering things are stored
and to organize responses. Gagne (1977a) suggest that the cognitive strategies similar to the
behavior of self-management. Skinner (1968) and behavioral mathemagenic from Rothkopf
(1970) (in Yamin, 20046).
Gagne and Briggs (1974: 52) (in Yamin, 2004: 6) states an example of cognition strategy
is the process of inference or induction. Experience with objects or events, and there someone
tried to obtain an explanation of a given phenomenon resulted in the induction. For example,
after observing bold style iron bar against spikes, students may observe this pull towards other
objects, such as iron filings. When these observations give rise to the inference about the
"magnetic force", then the student has to implement a strategy called induction, when applied
strategy become a new capability that is ready to be used as a strategy to confront other
situations.
In contrast to the verbal information and intellectual skills, that are related directly to the
content. Objects cognitive strategy is the thinking of students themselves. Another important
feature of cognitive strategies do not like intellectual skills, the strategy was not critically
affected by the implementation of learning, minute by minute. The opposite strategy was shaped
cognition cognitive strategies to a certain degree that can be better developed with formal
education, and students learn and develop themselves, thought to be independent (Gagne 1977a:
64) (in Yamin, 2005: 6).
Cognitive strategy is based upon the paradigm of constructivism, expended cognition.
Constructivism comprehensive meta theory by Jean Piaget, he was known to a psychologist, is
ultimately more interested in the philosophy of constructivism in the learning process. The
central point is the development of the theory of Jean Piaget mind naturally from birth to
adulthood, according to Piaget; to understand this theory we must understand about the
biological assumptions and implications of these assumptions in interpreting knowledge. By Jean
Piaget's constructivism paradigm underlying the onset of cognitive strategies, called the theory of
metacognition. Meta cognition is a skill possessed by students in organizing and controlling the
16

process of thinking, Preisseisen (1985). According Preisseisen metacognition includes four types
of skills, namely:
1. Problem Solving Skills (Problem solving), namely:
Individual skills in using the process of thinking to solve the problem through the collection
of facts, information analysis, compile various alternative solutions and select the most
effective problem solving.
2. Decision Making Skills (Decision making), namely:
Individual skill in using the process of thinking to choose a decision that is best from some of
the options available through the collection of information, comparison of goodness and
disadvantages of each alternative, the analysis of information, and making the best decision
based rational reasons.
3. Critical Thinking Skills (Critical thinking), namely:
Individual skills in using the thinking process is to analyze the argument and give an
interpretation based on the perception that the correct and rational analysis of the
assumptions and biases of the argument, and logical interpretation.
4. Creative Thinking Skills (Creative thinking), namely:
Individual skills using the process of thinking to generate new ideas, constructive based on
the concepts and principles of rational and perception, and intuition individuals.
Cognitive strategies (Gagne, 1974) is an internal ability for someone to think, solve
problems, and make decisions. Gredler Bell (1986), said the strategy of cognition as a process of
inductive thinking, which makes generalization of facts, concepts, and principles of what is
known to someone. Cognitive strategies are capabilities that regulate how students manage their
learning, while remembering and thinking, it is also a process controller or regulator of the
implementing measures. Gegne and Briggs (1974) states an example of cognition strategy is the
process of inference or induction. Experience with objects or events, and someone tried to obtain

17

an explanation of a particular symptom that results in induction. Object cognitive strategy is the
process of thinking students themselves.
Cognitive strategies is a skill that is organized from within that function to regulate and
monitor the use of concepts and rules or internal capability organized to help students in the
learning process, the process of thinking, solving problems and making decisions (Gagne, 1974)
cognitive .Stretegi the highest capability from the cognitive domain (Gagne's Taxonomy) after
analysis, synthesis and evaluation (Bloom's Taxonomy).
The type of cognitive strategies, among others:
i.
ii.

Strategy pay attention and observe effectively

Strategy encode facing material for long-term storage (image forming, focusing,

iii.
iv.

scanning, etc.)
Strategy recall (retrieval), (mnemonic system, visual images, Rhyming)
Strategy troubleshooting

Good teaching includes teaching students how to learn, how to remember, how to think
and how to motivate themselves. Learning emphasis more on cognitive strategies so that learning
can be called the cognitive strategies. Learning strategies can be divided into three types,
namely:
1.

Repeating Strategy (Rehearsal)

For that to happen learning, learners must take action on the new information and connect the
new information with prior knowledge. The strategy used for the encoding process is called the
repeat strategy (rehearsal). Repeat strategy consists of a simple repeat strategy (rote rehearsal) by
way of repeating and repeating complex strategies in a way to underline the main ideas (under
lining) and make marginal notes (marginal note). Repeating the simplest strategy, which is
merely repeating loudly or softly the information you want us to repeat memorized so-called
strategy is simple, for example, be used to memorize phone numbers and directions to a
particular place in the short term. A learner can not remember all the words or ideas in a book
just to read something about the book aloud. Absorption material is more complex requiring
repeat complex strategy, which needs to undertake further efforts simply repeat information.
18

Underline the key ideas and make marginal notes are two strategies that can repeat complex
taught to students to help them remember the teaching materials more complex.
a) Underline
Underline the key ideas of a text is a technique that most students have learned by the
time they enter college. Underscoring help students learn more of the text for several
reasons. First, physically finding underlines the key ideas, therefore, repetition and
memorization faster and more efficiently. Second, the process of selecting what is
underlined assist in connecting new information with existing knowledge. Unfortunately,
students do not always use underlines procedure is very effective. Some students also
underlines irrelevant information. This usually occurs in elementary school students or
junior who had difficulty determining which information is most and less important.
b) Make edge notes
Making marginal notes and other records to help supplement the bottom line. It should be
noted that the students had been able to circle the words that are not understood,
underlining the important ideas, give numbers and make a list of events, identifying
confusing sentences, and write notes and comments to be remembered. Repeat repeat
strategy especially complex strategies, helping students pay attention to the specific new
information and help coding. But this strategy does not help students make new
information more meaningful.

2.

Elaboration Strategies

Elaboration is the process of adding new details so that the information will be more meaningful,
therefore makes coding easier and provide more certainty. Elaboration strategies to help the
transfer of new information from short-term memory into long-term memory by creating a
combined and the relationship between the new information with what you already know.
Elaboration strategies can be done by making a note, making the analogy and apply PQ4R.
a) Note manufacture
A large amount of information provided to students through presentations and
demonstrations teachers. Making the records helps students in learning this information
19

brief and concise store information for later replay and memorized. When done correctly,
note also help organize information so that the information can be processed and linked
with existing knowledge more effectively.
b) Analogy
Analogy is a comparison made to point out the similarity between the principal
characteristics of an object or ideas, besides whole different characteristics, such as the
heart pumps.
c) PQ4R
PQ4R methods are used to help students remember what they read. P stands for preview
(read with a quick glance), Q is the question (asked), and 4R stands for read (reading),
reflect (reflection), Recite (question and answer itself), reviews (repeat as a whole).
Preview and ask questions before reading activate prior knowledge and begin the process
of making the connection between the new information with what you already know.
Examining the titles or key topics is important to help readers aware of the organization
of the new materials, so this can facilitate the displacement of short-term memory into
long-term memory. Recitation of basic information, especially when accompanied by
some form of elaboration, will presumably enrich coding.
3.

Organizational Strategy

As well as the elaboration of strategy, organizational strategy aims to help learners improve the
meaningfulness of new materials, mainly done by imposing new organizational structures in
these materials. Strategies organizations can consist of regrouping the ideas or terms, or share the
ideas or terms it into smaller sub-set. These strategies also consists of identifying ideas or key
facts from a larger set of information. Outlining, mapping, and mnemonics is a common strategy
of the organization.
a) Outlining
In outlining or create a skeleton outline, students learn to connect a wide variety of topics
or ideas with some of the main ideas. In the manufacture of traditional outline the
framework of the only kind of relationship is the topic of a lower position to another
topic. Together with other strategies, students are rarely as good frame maker at first, but
20

they can learn to be a good writer framework if given proper instruction and practice
enough.
b) Concept mapping (mapping)
One of the statements in Ausubel's theory is that the most important factor that influences
learning is what students know (prior knowledge). So in order to learn to be meaningful,
then the new concept must be linked with existing concepts in cognitive structure of
students. Ausubel has not provided a suitable tool or way teachers can use to find out
what is already known by the students (Dahar, 1988: 149). In connection with that Novak
and Gowin (1985) in Dahar (1988: 149) argues that the way to know the concepts that
have been owned by the students, so that meaningful learning takes place can be done
with the help of the map concept.
c) Mnemonics
Mnemonics associated with techniques or strategies to aid memory by helping to form
associations which naturally do not exist. A mnemonics helps to organize the information
that reaches the working memory in a known pattern such that the information is more
easily matched with the pattern of the scheme in the long-term memory. Examples of
mnemonics are:
Chunking (cutting)
For example one can remember 10 digit phone numbers because he has divided it
into three groups, namely the area code, a code, and three number one

destinations.
Acronym (abbreviation)
For example RIP that is stand for Rest In Peace.
Words related (Link-work)
a mnemonics to learn foreign language vocabulary.

21

References

Alexander, P. A., Graham, S., & Harris, K. (1998). A perspective on strategy research: Progress
and prospects. Educational Psychology Review, 10, 129154.
Chinn, C. A. (2006). Learning to argue. In A. M. O'Donnell, C. Hmelo-Silver, & G. Erkens
(Eds.),Collaborative learning, reasoning, and technology (pp. 355383). Mahwah, NJ:
Erlbaum.
Graham, S., MacArthur, C., & Schwartz, S. (1995). Effects of goal setting and procedural
facilitation on the revising behaviors and writing performance of students with writing
and learning problems. Journal of Educational Psychology, 87, 230240.
22

Guthrie, J. T., Wigfield, A., Barbosa, P., Perencevich, K. C., Taboada, A., Davis, M. H., et al.
(2004). Increasing reading comprehension and engagement through concept-oriented
reading instruction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96, 403423.
Langer, J. A. (2001). Beating the odds: Teaching middle and high school students to read and
write well. American Educational Research Journal, 38, 837880.
Stanovich, K. E. (1999). Who is rational? Studies of individual differences in reasoning.
Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Thevenot, C., & Oakhill, J. (2006). Representations and strategies for solving dynamic and static
arithmetic word problems: The role of working memory capacities. European Journal of
Cognitive Psychology, 18, 756775.
Zimmerman, B. J. (1998). Academic studying and the development of personal skill: A selfregulatory perspective. Educational Psychologist, 33, 7386.
Zimmerman, B. J., & Kitsantas, A. (1999). Acquiring writing revision skill: Shifting from
process to outcome self-regulatory goals. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 241
250.

Question 4
What is an attitude? Demonstrate how attitude influence the thinking of humans. Support
your answer with specific answer.
Psychologists define attitudes as a learned tendency to evaluate things in a certain way. This can
include evaluations of people, issues, objects or events. Such evaluations are often positive or
negative, but they can also be uncertain at times. For example, you might have mixed feelings
about a particular person or issue. Researchers also suggest that there are several different
components that make up attitudes. Attitudes can be defined as evaluations of ideas, events,
objects, or people. Attitudes are generally positive or negative, but they can also be uncertain at
times. For example, sometimes we have mixed feelings about a particular issue or person.
23

Regardless, attitudes are an important topic of study for social psychologists because they help
determine what we do - what we eat, how we vote, what we do with our free time, and so on.
i.
ii.
iii.

An Emotional Component: How the object, person, issue or event makes you feel.
A Cognitive Component: Your thoughts and beliefs about the subject.
A Behavioral Component: How the attitude influences your behavior.

Affective Component
First, the affective component refers to the emotional reaction one has toward an attitude object.
Think of someone well name her Alice - who has ophidiophobia (a phobia of snakes). A snake
is an attitude object. Whenever Alice is exposed to a snake - whether she sees one or thinks about
one - she feels extreme anxiety and fear. This is only one component of this specific attitude,
though; we will discuss the other two components a little later in this lesson. Now, an attitude
that is stemmed from or originally created by an emotion is called an affectively-based attitude.
Attitudes about hot-button issues - such as politics, sex, and religion - tend to be affectivelybased, as they usually come from a person's values. This type of attitude is used to express and
validate our moral belief or value systems.

Behavioral Component
The next component of an attitude is the behavioral component, and it refers to the way one
behaves when exposed to an attitude object. Think about Alice and her snake phobia again. We
already identified the affective component of her attitude towards snakes - fear and anxiety. How
do you think she behaves when it comes to snakes? Most likely, she avoids them whenever
possible. If she does see one, she probably screams or cries. This behavior is the second
component of that particular attitude.

As for attitudes that are rooted in behavior, think again about the question: where does an attitude
come from? Sometimes, we are unsure of our feelings about a particular topic. Imagine a friend
24

asks if you like hummus. Since you don't regularly eat hummus and can't immediately recall
what it tastes like, you think back about the times that you have eaten it. You remember that you
normally eat all of the hummus you are given, so conclude that you must like it (or at least, that
you don't dislike it). Because your attitude is determined by observing your own behavior, this is
an example of a behaviorally-based attitude.

Cognitive Component
The third and final component of an attitude is the cognitive component, and it refers to the
thoughts and beliefs one has about an attitude object. We've already determined that Alice avoids
snakes and is scared when she is exposed to them. But, what does she think about snakes? It's
likely she believes that all snakes are dangerous and gross. Beyond the physical and emotional
reactions of her phobia, there is also this cognitive component of her attitude.

Attitudes can also be explicit and implicit. Explicit attitudes are those that we are
consciously aware of and that clearly influence our behaviors and beliefs. Implicit attitudes are
unconscious, but still have an effect on our beliefs and behaviors. Attitudes form directly as a
result of experience. They may emerge due to direct personal experience, or they may result from
observation. Social roles and social norms can have a strong influence on attitudes. Social roles
relate to how people are expected to behave in a particular role or context. Social norms involve
society's rules for what behaviors are considered appropriate.
Attitudes can be learned in a variety of ways. Consider how advertisers use classical
conditioning to influence your attitude toward a particular product. In a television commercial,
you see young, beautiful people having fun in on a tropical beach while enjoying a sport drink.
This attractive and appealing imagery causes you to develop a positive association with this
particular beverage.
Operant conditioning can also be used to influence how attitudes develop. Imagine a
young man who has just started smoking. Whenever he lights up a cigarette, people complain,
25

chastise him and ask him to leave their vicinity. This negative feedback from those around him
eventually causes him to develop an unfavorable opinion of smoking and he decides to give up
the habit. Finally, people also learn attitudes by observing the people around them. When
someone you admire greatly espouses a particular attitude, you are more likely to develop the
same beliefs. For example, children spend a great deal of time observing the attitudes of their
parents and usually begin to demonstrate similar outlooks.
The word attitude can refer to a lasting group of feelings, beliefs and behaviour
tendencies directed towards specific people, groups, ideas or objects. An attitude is a belief about
something. It usually describes what we think is the proper way of doing something. The
attitudes that we feel very strongly about are usually called values. Other attitudes are not so
important and are more like opinions. Sometimes our own attitudes can make us blind to other
peoples values, opinions and needs. Attitudes will always have a positive and negative element
and when you hold an attitude you will have a tendency to behave in a certain way toward that
person or object.
We will need to be aware of our own personal values, beliefs and attitudes and how they
might impact on our work. It is important to consider the mapping of our own life what have
been some significant events that shaped us, what qualities we admire in ourselves and others,
what beliefs are important to us, what our value and so on. Some examples of these may be
personal features such as strength of character, helping people, respect, honesty, wealth, success,
health etc.
What we believe are important qualities, or what qualities we admire in ourselves and
others, generally reflect our life experiences and the values which we established in our early
years through the influence of family, teachers, friends, religion, our culture, our education.
Given that all of us have differences which have been shaped by our life experiences, we can
understand that we will all have different sets of values and beliefs. We do not think about all
issues in the same way.
To behave effectively, it is critical to understand our own values and beliefs and to
understand the importance of not allowing them to affect the way in which we work suppose to
26

behave. Remember that are our values and may be quite different to the values of the others such
as families and friends. When we are carrying out our daily duties at work we rarely think about
our attitudes, we are immersed in work itself and often remain unaware of just how different our
attitudes could be to others around us. As previously defined an attitude is simply a belief, and
describes what we think is the proper way of doing or thinking about something. Attitudes vary
in intensity.
When we feel strongly about something attitudes are called values. Attitudes that are less
important to us are called opinions. For example we may feel strongly that older people should
give up their jobs when they reach a certain age, so that younger people can get work. Strong
attitudes are often very emotional and can cloud our judgment in meeting other peoples needs.
This means that some people or clients may be denied their rights to be allowed to make their
own choices and decisions about their life.
As long as we live, either consciously or not, the mind becomes everything and we
become our thoughts. Our outward appearance is a reflection of the world within us. We become
what we think because our mind gives energy that embodies what we want to create. In our lives
mngenal positive thinking (positive thinking), in positive thinking (positive thinking) describe an
attitude or behavior which is always posotif in addressing this life.
Positive thinking makes a big difference in our lives. Because a good attitude starts from
positive thinking. Positive thinking has an important role in the formation of each individual. The
power of positive thinking is an important element in determining the type of life. Life and
happiness can not be measured by the size of the degree, position and family background. That is
seen is how the way people think of it. Indeed, our success is more influenced by the way we
think.
A positive attitude does not mean that has to guarantee the achievement of a success.
However, if our attitude is positive, at least we've been on the road to success. Our success or
failure will be determined by what we do along the way we've been through it. Not everyone
accepts or believes positive thinking patterns. Some people consider positive thinking is just
27

nonsense, and some laugh at those who believe and receive positive thinking patterns. Among
those who received the pattern of positive thinking, not many people know how to use this way
of thinking to obtain effective results. However, it can be seen that more and more people are
becoming interested in this topic, as can be seen from the large number of books, lectures, and
courses on positive thinking. This topic is gaining popularity quickly.
Positive thinking involves the process of entering the thoughts, words, and images
constructive (building) for the development of your mind. Positive thoughts bring happiness, joy,
health, and success in every situation and actions. Positive thinking begins with a belief in
ourselves. Belief says that he himself could. If you see yourself could, then yo'll be. If
you see yourself going to produce, then you will produce. If you can not do things like this, then
you are still dominated by negative thoughts.
Positive thinking is not a goal but a means to an end. Make positive thinking as the goal
is to bring benefits but not yet how these benefits when compared to the benefits gained if
positive thinking be used as a road.
Factors That Affect Positive Thinking according to Widarsono (2002), the factors that
influence positive thinking are:
a. Optimism - Someone was sure of what to do and always see the bright side of
everything.
b. Creativity - The ability of individuals to develop themselves and create everything that
is different from others.
c. Self-confident - An attitude or feeling confident in her ability to self so that the person
concerned is not too anxious in action, can feel free to carry out the things that are liked
and responsible for his actions, warm and polite in their interaction with others, can
receive and recognize the advantages and shortage.
References

28

Hockenbury, D., & Hockenbury, S. E. (2007). Discovering Psychology. New York, NY: Worth
Publishers.
Kamarudin Hj. Husin (1993). Pedagogi 3. Penggunaan Psikologi dalam Bilik Darjah. Petaling
Jaya. Longman Malaysia.
Khadijah Rohani, Mahani Razali, Ramlah Jantan (2005). Psikologi Pendidikan. Kuala Lumpur;
UNITEM Sdn. Bhd.
Myers, D. G. (1999). Social Psychology. McGraw-Hill College.
Smith, E. R. & Mackie, D. M. (2007). Social Psychology. London: Psychology Press.

29