EXTRA INFO.

TOPIC 6

29/11/2015

Viruses:
Cannot become active outside living host cells. They simply exist as
inert virus called virions. Only when they invade a cell and take over its
metabolic machinery, can the virus carry out its living programme
Cell:
Cell remain alive as long as their metabolic reactions in the
cytoplasm are maintained. If metabolism is halted, the cell dies.
Entry of an enveloped virus into a cell:
1. Attachment- when a viral particle encounters the cell surface, it
attaches to the receptor sites of proteins on the cells plasma membrane.
2. Penetration- one the viral particle is attached, the host cell begins to
engulf the virus by endocytosis. This is the cells usual response to foreign
particles.
3. Uncoating- the nucleic acid core is uncoated and the biosynthesis of
new viruses begins. Mature virions are realised by budding from the host
cell.
The bodys defences:
The ability to ward off disease through the various defence mechanisms is
called resistance.
Non-specific resistance includes a first line of defence such as the physicl
barriers to infection (skin and mucous membranes)
Second line of defence (phagocytes, inflammation, fever and antimicrobial
substances)
Specific resistance is a third line of defence that forms the immune
response and targets specific pathogens. Specialised cells of the immune
system, called lymphocytes, produce specific proteins called antibodies
which are produced against specific antigens.
Specific and non-specific resistance:
Non-specific resistance comes under innate immune responses and it
means a degree of resistance in general to a group of organisms.
Specific resistance involves the activity of memory cells and are targeted
to a specific organism
Action of phagocytes:
Humans cells ingest microbes and digest them by the process of
phagocytosis are called phagocytes.
How a phagocyte destroys microbes: Detection/ Ingestion (microbe is
engulfed)/ Phagosome forms (encloses microbes in a membrane) / Fusion
with lysosome (enzymes that digest the microbe) / Digestion (microbes
are broken down by enzymes) / Discharge (indigestible material is
discharged from the phagocyte cell)

Inflammation:
Damage to the bodys tissue can be caused by a series of physical
agents, microbial infection, or chemical agents. The damage triggers a
defensive response called inflammation.
Stages of inflammation:
1. Increased diameter and permeability of blood vessels- increases
blood flow to the area of damage
2. Phagocyte migration and phagocytosis- the squeeze between cells
of blood vessel walls to reach damaged area.
3. Tissue repair- create new tissue to replace dead or damaged cells.
The lymphatic system:
Some tissue fluid returns back into the circulation through a network of
lymph vessels. This fluid, is called lymph, is similar to tissue fluid, but
contains more leucocytes. Has an important function in the immune
response. Lymph nodes are primary sites where the destruction of
pathogens and other foreign substances occur.
Lymph node- As lymph passes trough the nodes, it filters foreign particles
(including pathogens) by trapping them in fibres. Lymph nodes are also a
store of lymphocytes. Once trapped macrophages destroy the foreign
substances by phagocytosis. T cells may destroy them by releasing
various products, and/or B cells may release antibodies to destroy them.
The immune system:
The humoral immune response involves the action of antibodies secreted
by B cell lymphocytes. Protects the body against circulating viruses and
bacteria and their toxins.
The cell mediated immune response is associated with the production of
specialised lymphocytes called T cells. It is more effective against bacteria
and viruses located within host cells.
B cells:
Develop from stem cells located in the liver or foetuses and bone marrow
of adults. Mature in the bone marrow. B cells recognise and bind antigens.
Each B cell recognises one specific antigen. Helper T cells recognise
specific antigens on B cell surfaces and induce their maturation and
proliferation. B cells defend against bacteria and viruses outside the cell
and free antigens. Types: Memory cells and plasma cells.
T cells:
Develop from stem cells located in the liver or foetuses and bone marrow
of adults. Mature in the thymus gland. T cells responds only to antigen
fragments that have been processed and presented by infected cells or
macrophages. Types: Helper T cell, T cell for delayed hyper sensibility,
Suppressor T cell, Cytoxic T cell.
Antibodies and antigens:

Play an important role in the response of the immunes system.

Antigens- foreign molecules that are able to bind to antibodies and
provoke specific immune response. They include potentially damaging
microbes and their toxins.
Antibodies- proteins that are made in response to antigens. They are
secreted into the plasma where they circulate and can recognise, bind
tom and help destroy antigens. Each type of antibody is specific to only
one particular antigen.
The ability of the immune system to recognise and ignore the antigenic
properties of its own tissue occurs in early development and is calledself tolerance.
Acquired immunity:
Acquired immunity refers to the protection an animal develops against
certain types of microbes or foreign substances. Immunity can be
acquired passively or actively.
Active immunity- develops when a person is exposed to microorganisms
of foreign substances and the immune system responds.
Passive immunity- is acquired when antibodies are transferred from one
person to another, recipients do not make the antibodies themselves and
effect last only as long as the antibodies are present.
Antibiotics:
An antibiotic is a chemotherapeutic agent that inhibits or prevents
microbial growth. Antimicrobial drugs interfere with the growth of
microorganisms by either killing microbes directly ( bactericidal) or
preventing them from growing (bacteriostatic).
The ideal antimicrobial drug has selective toxicity, killing the pathogen
without damaging the host.
Narrow and broad spectrum drugs:
Some antimicrobial drugs have a narrow spectrum of activity and affect
only a limited number of microbial types.
Other are broad spectrum drugs and affect a large number of microbial
species.
When identity of pathogen is not known, a broad spectrum drug may be
prescribed in order to save time culturing and identifying it.
However broad spectrum drugs target both the pathogen and the hosts
normal micro flora too. The micro flora controls the growth of pathogens
and other microbes competing with them. It they are removes, microbes
in the community that do not normally cause problems, may flourish and
become opportunistic pathogens.
Antibiotic resistance:
Some pathogens have developed resistance, this means they have
developed the ability to survive exposure to an antibiotic. This makes it
difficult to treat and control some diseases.

Superbugs have acquired genes encoding antibiotic resistance to all

penicillin and other narrow spectrum drugs.
Drug resistance in TB- develop through mutations at several stages in the
bacterial DNA. Resistant strains usually occur because patients have failed
to complete the course of antibiotics, or dose prescribed was too low.
Drug resistance in HIV- arise when the virus mutates during DNA
replication. May develop as a result of a single mutation, or through a
step-wise accumulation of specific mutations. Drug resistance is likely to
develop in patients who do not follow their treatment schedule closely, as
the virus has an opportunity to adapt more readily to a non-lethal drug
dose.
The most successful treatment fro several diseases, including HIV and TB
appears to be a multi-prolonged attack using a cocktail of drugs to target
the pathogen at many stages.
Basis of resistance:
Resistance can arise spontaneously when an organisms DNA is altered as
a result of transcription error or it can be induce through exposure to
mutations.
A bacterium can also transfer genetic material to bacteria other than its
own offspring by horizontal gene transmission. Material can pass between
organisms that re not even of the same species, genus, or kingdom.
Vertical gene transmissions involves passing gene by descent, e.g. a
bacterium receives genetic material directly form its ancestor.
Avoiding detection:
A pathogen need to evade its hosts immune system and survive the host
organism long enough to reproduce. Pathogens have developed a number
of mechanisms to avoid detection:
Hiding within the hosts cells
Protective capsules to prevent attack
Secretion of biofilms that diminish or redirect the hosts immune
response
Production of surface proteins that bind antibodies and prevent them
working
TB- can remain dormant in its host for many years, becoming active when
the hosts immune system is compromised.
Thick waxy coating that protects them from being attacked by immune
system
Bacterium can multiply without interference from the immune system
Inhibiting lysosome activity prevents being destroyed
Can produce toxins that destroy the phagocyte

HIV- rapidly mutate and change the proteins on its viral envelope so its
not detected by the immune system.
Able to reduce the production of specific immune proteins on the
surface of host cells. Reduces/prevents immune response to HIV.
Hides its antibody binding sites within valleys on its protein coat that
are too small for antibodies to reach.
Definitions:
Lysozyme- enzyme that tears contain. Kills bacteria by breaking down
their walls. Protects the body from harmful bacteria in the air we
breath or the food we eat and wash out foreign material.
Phagocytosis- often seen in association with inflammation. It involves
two groups of white blood cells, the neutrophils and macrophages.
These are both known as phagocytes as they ingest pathogens. The
phagocytes can sometimes be seen as pus where they accumulate.
Inflammation- often occurs when the infection is localised at a site.
When the tissue is damaged mast cells and damaged while blood cells
release histamine.
Interferon- when cells are invaded by viruses they produce a group of
chemicals called interferon. An interferon diffuses from the cell where
it is made into the surrounding cells. It then binds to receptors into the
surface membrane of uninfected cells. This stimulates a pathways
which makes the cells resistant to infection by viruses by stopping
them reproducing. This prevents the infection of more cells when the
virus breaks out of first cells.
Fever- when a pathogen invites the hypothalamus sets a higher
running body temperature. This reduces the pathogens ability to
reproduce quickly. The specific response system works better at
slightly higher temperatures so will be more successful at fighting
infection.
Histamine- released by mast cells/damaged white blood cells. Cause
the blood vessels to dilate causing local heat and redness. Locally
raised temperatures reduces pathogen reproduction. They make the
wall of the capillaries leaky, forcing plasma, white blood cells and
antibodies out of the capillary. This results in swelling and pain.