Xiongnu

mainly titles and personal names, were preserved in

the Chinese sources. Proposals by scholars include
Iranian,* [5]* [6]* [7]* [8]* [9] Mongolic,* [10] Tocharian,
Turkic,* [11]* [12] Uralic* [13] Yeniseian,* [14]* [15] or
multi-ethnic.* [16] The name Xiongnu may be cognate
with that of Huns (Hunni) and Huna,* [17] but the evidence for this is controversial.* [15]* [18]

Xiongnu

1 History
1.1 Early history
An early reference to the Xiongnu was by Sima Qian who
wrote about the Xiongnu in the Records of the Grand Historian (c. 100 BCE), drawing a distinct line between the
settled Huaxia people (Chinese) to the pastoral nomads
(Xiongnu), characterizing it as two polar groups in the
sense of a civilization versus an uncivilized society: the
HuaYi distinction.* [19] Sources from the pre-Han eras
Territory of the Xiongnu which includes Mongolia, Western
often classied the Xiongnu as the Hu () people, even
Manchuria, Xinjiang, East Kazakhstan, East Kyrgyzstan, Inner
though this was more a blanket term for nomadic people
Mongolia, Gansu
in general; it only became an ethnonym for the Xiongnu
*
The Xiongnu (Old Chinese: /qo.na/, WadeGiles: during the Han. [20]
Hsiung-nu),* [1]* [2] were a large confederation* [3] of Ancient China often came in contact with the Xianyun
Eurasian nomads who dominated the Asian Steppe from and the Xirong nomadic peoples. In later Chinese histothe late 3rd century BCE to the late 1st century CE. Chi- riography, some groups of these peoples were believed to
nese sources from the 3rd century BC report them as hav- be the possible progenitors of the Xiongnu people.* [21]
ing created an empire under Modu Chanyu, the supreme These nomadic people often had repeated military conleader after 209 BC.* [4] This empire (209 BC 93 AD) frontations with the Shang and especially the Zhou, who
stretched beyond the borders of modern-day Mongolia. often conquered and enslaved the nomads in an expansion
After defeating the previously dominant Yuezhi in the drift.* [21] During the Warring States period, the armies
2nd century BC, the Xiongnu became a dominant power from the Qin, Zhao, and Yan states were encroaching and
on the steppes of central and eastern Asia. They were ac- conquering various nomadic territories that were inhabtive in regions of what is now southern Siberia, Mongolia, ited by the Xiongnu and other Hu peoples.* [22]
Inner Mongolia, Gansu and Xinjiang. Relations between Qin's campaign against the Xiongnu expanded the Qin
early adjacent Chinese dynasties to the south east and the dynasty's territory at the expense of the Xiongnu.* [23]
Xiongnu were complex, with repeated periods of mili- In 215 BCE, Qin Shi Huang sent General Meng Tian
tary conict and intrigue, alternating with exchanges of to conquer the Xiongnu and drive them from the Ordos
tribute, trade, and marriage treaties.
Loop, which he did later that year.* [24] After the catasVarious attempts to identify them with groups known
from further west across the Eurasian Steppe under different names remain highly controversial. The identity of the ethnic core of Xiongnu has been a subject of varied hypotheses, because only a few words,

trophic defeat at the hands of General Meng Tian, the

Xiongnu leader Touman was forced to ee far into the
Mongolian Plateau.* [24] The Qin empire became a threat
to the Xiongnu, which ultimately led to the reorganization
of the many tribes into a confederacy.* [23]
1

1.2

Xiongnu tribes

Chubei* [25]
Huyan
Lan (tribe)
Luandi
Qiulin
Suibu

1.3

State formation

HISTORY

deal with the Qin unication of China* [27] that resulted

in a loss of the Ordos region at the hands of Meng Tian or
the political crisis that overtook the Xiongnu in 215 BCE
when Qin armies evicted them from their pastures on the
Yellow River;* [28]
After forging internal unity, Modu expanded the empire on all sides. To the north he conquered a number
of nomadic peoples, including the Dingling of southern
Siberia. He crushed the power of the Donghu people of
eastern Mongolia and Manchuria as well as the Yuezhi in
the Hexi Corridor of Gansu, where his son, Jizhu, made a
skull cup out of the Yuezhi king. Modu also reoccupied
all the lands previously taken by the Qin general Meng
Tian.
Under Modu's leadership, the Xiongnu threatened the
Han Dynasty, almost causing Emperor Gaozu, the rst
Han emperor, to lose his throne in 200 BCE.* [29] By
the time of Modu's death in 174 BCE, the Xiongnu had
driven the Yuezhi from the Hexi Corridor, killing the
Yuezhi king in the process and asserting their presence
in the Western Regions.* [17]
The Xiongnu were recognized as the most prominent of
the nomads bordering the Chinese Han empire* [29] and
during early relations between the Xiongnu and the Han,
the former held the balance of power. According to the
Book of Han, later quoted in Duan Chengshi's ninth century Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang:

Domain and inuence of Xiongnu under Modu Chanyu around

205 BC

Also, according to the Han shu, Wang Wu

() and others were sent as envoys to pay a
visit to the Xiongnu. According to the customs
of the Xiongnu, if the Han envoys did not remove their tallies of authority, and if they did
not allow their faces to be tattooed, they could
not gain entrance into the yurts. Wang Wu and
his company removed their tallies, submitted
to tattoo, and thus gained entry. The Shanyu
looked upon them very highly.* [30]

1.4 Xiongnu hierarchy

See also: Chanyu
Asia in 200 BCE, showing the early Xiongnu state and its neighbors.

In 209 BCE, three years before the founding of Han

China, the Xiongnu were brought together in a powerful confederation under a new chanyu, Modu Chanyu.
This new political unity transformed them into a more
formidable state by enabling formation of larger armies
and the ability to exercise better strategic coordination.
The Xiongnu adopted many of the Chinese agriculture
techniques such as slave labor for heavy labor, wore silk
like the Chinese, and lived in Chinese-style homes.* [26]
The reason for creating the confederation remains unclear. Suggestions include the need for a stronger state to

After Modu, later leaders formed a dualistic system of

political organisation with the left and right branches
of the Xiongnu divided on a regional basis. The
chanyu or shanyu, a ruler equivalent to the Emperor of
China, exercised direct authority over the central territory. Longcheng (), near the Orkhon inscriptions in
modern Mongolia, became the annual meeting place and
served as the Xiongnu capital.* [31]
The ruler of the Xiongnu was called the Chanyu.* [32]
Under him were the Tuqi Kings.* [32] The Tuqi King of
the Left was normally the heir presumptive.* [32] Next
lower in the hierarchy came more ocials in pairs of left

1.6

War with Han dynasty

and right: the guli, the army commanders, the great governors, the dunghu and the gudu. Beneath them came
the commanders of detachments of one thousand, of one
hundred, and of ten men. This nation of nomads, a people on the march, was organized like an army.* [33]

3
158 BCE, his successor sent 30,000 cavalry to attack
Shangdang and another 30,000 to Yunzhong.
The Xiongnu also practiced marriage alliances with Han
dynasty ocers and ocials who defected to their side.
The older sister of the Chanyu (the Xiongnu ruler) was
married to the Xiongnu General Zhao Xin, the Marquis of Xi who was serving the Han dynasty. The
daughter of the Chanyu was married to the Han Chinese General Li Ling after he surrendered and defected.* [37]* [38]* [39]* [40] The Yenisei Kirghiz Khagans claimed descent from Li Ling.* [41]* [42] Another
Han Chinese General who defected to the Xiongnu was Li
Guangli who also married a daughter of the Chanyu.* [43]

Yap,* [34] apparently describing the early period, places

the Chanyu's main camp north of Shanxi with the Tuqi
King of the Left holding the area north of Beijing and the
Tuqi King of the Right holding the Ordos Loop area as far
as Gansu. Grousset,* [35] probably describing the situation after the Xiongnu had been driven north, places the
Chanyu on the upper Orkhon River near where Genghis
Khan would later establish his capital of Karakorum. The
Tuqi King of the Left lived in the east, probably on the
high Kherlen River. The Tuqi King of the Right lived in
the west, perhaps near present-day Uliastai in the Khangai 1.6 War with Han dynasty
Mountains.
Main article: HanXiongnu War
The Han dynasty made preparations for war when the

1.5

The marriage treaty system

In the winter of 200 BCE, following a siege of Taiyuan,

Emperor Gaozu of Han personally led a military campaign against Modun. At the Battle of Baideng, he was
ambushed reputedly by 300,000 elite Xiongnu cavalry.
The emperor was cut o from supplies and reinforcements for seven days, only narrowly escaping capture.
The Han Chinese sent princesses to marry Xiongnu leaders in their eorts to stop the border raids. Along with arranged marriages, the Han sent gifts to bribe the Xiongnu
to stop attacking.* [36] After the defeat at Pingcheng,
the Han emperor abandoned a military solution to the
Xiongnu threat. Instead, in 198 BC, the courtier Liu Jing
was dispatched for negotiations. The peace settlement
eventually reached between the parties included a Han
princess given in marriage to the chanyu (called heqin
Chinese: ; literally: harmonious kinship); periodic gifts to the Xiongnu of silk, distilled beverages and
rice; equal status between the states; and the Great Wall
as mutual border.

The Han dynasty world order in AD 2.

Han Emperor Wu dispatched the explorer Zhang Qian

to explore the mysterious kingdoms to the west and to
form an alliance with the Yuezhi people in order to combat the Xiongnu. During this time Zhang married a
Xiongnu wife, who bore him a son, and gained the trust of
the Xiongnu leader.* [44]* [45]* [46]* [47]* [48]* [49]* [50]
While Zhang Qian did not succeed in this mission,* [51]
his reports of the west provided even greater incentive
to counter the Xiongnu hold on westward routes out of
China, and the Chinese prepared to mount a large scale
attack using the Northern Silk Road to move men and
material.

This rst treaty set the pattern for relations between

the Han and the Xiongnu for sixty years. Up to 135
BC, the treaty was renewed nine times, each time with
an increase in the gifts. In 192 BC, Modun even
asked for the hand of Emperor Gao's widow Empress L
Zhi. His son and successor, the energetic Jiyu, known
as the Laoshang Chanyu, continued his father's expansionist policies. Laoshang succeeded in negotiating with While Han China was making preparations for a military
Emperor Wen terms for the maintenance of a large scale confrontation from the reign of Emperor Wen, the break
government sponsored market system.
did not come until 133 BC, following an abortive trap to
While the Xiongnu beneted handsomely, from the Chi- ambush the chanyu at Mayi. By that point the empire
nese perspective marriage treaties were costly, humil- was consolidated politically, militarily and economically,
iating, and ineective. Laoshang showed that he did and was led by an adventurous pro-war faction at court.
not take the peace treaty seriously. On one occasion In that year, Emperor Wu reversed the decision he had
his scouts penetrated to a point near Chang'an. In 166 made the year before to renew the peace treaty.
BCE he personally led 140,000 cavalry to invade And- Full-scale war broke out in autumn 129 BC, when 40,000
ing, reaching as far as the imperial retreat at Yong. In Chinese cavalry made a surprise attack on the Xiongnu at

4
the border markets. In 127 BC, the Han general Wei Qing
retook the Ordos. In 121 BC, the Xiongnu suered another setback when Huo Qubing led a force of light cavalry westward out of Longxi and within six days fought
his way through ve Xiongnu kingdoms. The Xiongnu
Hunye king was forced to surrender with 40,000 men. In
119 BC both Huo and Wei, each leading 50,000 cavalrymen and 100,000 footsoldiers (in order to keep up with
the mobility of the Xiongnu, many of the non-cavalry Han
soldiers were mobile infantrymen who traveled on horseback but fought on foot), and advancing along dierent
routes, forced the chanyu and his court to ee north of the
Gobi Desert.* [52] Major logistical diculties limited the
duration and long-term continuation of these campaigns.
According to the analysis of Yan You (), the diculties were twofold. Firstly there was the problem of supplying food across long distances. Secondly, the weather
in the northern Xiongnu lands was dicult for Han soldiers, who could never carry enough fuel.* [lower-alpha 1]
According to ocial reports, the Xiongnu lost 80,000 to
90,000 men, and out of the 140,000 horses the Han forces
had brought into the desert, fewer than 30,000 returned
to China.
As a result of these battles, the Chinese controlled the
strategic region from the Ordos and Gansu corridor to
Lop Nor. They succeeded in separating the Xiongnu
from the Qiang peoples to the south, and also gained direct access to the Western Regions. Because of strong
Chinese control over the Xiongnu, the Xiongnu became
unstable and were no longer a threat to the Han Chinese.* [54]

HISTORY

quent dynasties were never again able to reach so far to

the west.* [55]

1.7 Xiongnu Civil War (6053 BC)

When a Chanyu died, power could pass to his younger
brother if his son was not of age. This system, which
can be compared to Gaelic tanistry, normally kept an
adult male on the throne, but could cause trouble in later
generations when there were several lineages that might
claim the throne. When the 12th Chanyu died in 60 BC,
power was taken by Woyanqudi, a grandson of the 12th
Chanyu's cousin. Being something of a usurper, he tried
to put his own men in power, which only increased the
number of his enemies. The 12th Chanyu's son ed east
and, in 58 BC, revolted. Few would support Woyanqudi and he was driven to suicide, leaving the rebel son,
Huhanye, as the 14th Chanyu. The Woyanqudi faction
then set up his brother, Tuqi, as Chanyu (58 BC). In 57
BC three more men declared themselves Chanyu. Two
dropped their claims in favor of the third who was defeated by Tuqi in that year and surrendered to Huhanye
the following year. In 56 BC Tuqi was defeated by
Huhanye and committed suicide, but two more claimants
appeared: Runzhen and Huhanye's elder brother Zhizhi
Chanyu. Runzhen was killed by Zhizhi in 54 BC, leaving
only Zhizhi and Huhanye. Zhizhi grew in power, and, in
53 BC, Huhanye moved south and submitted to the Chinese. Huhanye used Chinese support to weaken Zhizhi,
who gradually moved west. In 49 BC, a brother to Tuqi
set himself up as Chanyu and was killed by Zhizhi. In
36 BC, Zhizhi was killed by a Chinese army while trying to establish a new kingdom in the far west near Lake
Balkhash.

1.8 Tributary relations with the Han

Xiongnu among other people in Asia around 1 AD.

Ban Chao, Protector General (; Duhu) of the Han

dynasty, embarked with an army of 70,000 men in a campaign against the Xiongnu insurgents who were harassing the trade route we now know as the Silk Road. His
successful military campaign saw the subjugation of one
Xiongnu tribe after another. Ban Chao also sent an envoy
named Gan Ying to Daqin (Rome). Ban Chao was created the Marquess of Dingyuan (, i.e.,the Marquess who stabilized faraway places) for his services to
the Han Empire and returned to the capital Luoyang at
the age of 70 years and died there in the year 102. Following his death, the power of the Xiongnu in the Western Regions increased again, and the emperors of subse-

In 53 BC Huhanye () decided to enter into tributary relations with Han China.* [56] The original terms
insisted on by the Han court were that, rst, the chanyu
or his representatives should come to the capital to pay
homage; secondly, the chanyu should send a hostage
prince; and thirdly, the chanyu should present tribute to
the Han emperor. The political status of the Xiongnu
in the Chinese world order was reduced from that of a
brotherly stateto that of an outer vassal().
During this period, however, the Xiongnu maintained political sovereignty and full territorial integrity. The Great
Wall of China continued to serve as the line of demarcation between Han and Xiongnu.
Huhanye sent his son, the wise king of the rightShuloujutang, to the Han court as hostage. In 51 BC he personally visited Chang'an to pay homage to the emperor on
the Lunar New Year. In the same year, another envoy Qijushan () was received at the Sweet Spring Palace
in the north west of modern Shanxi.* [57] On the nan-

1.10

Southern Xiongnu

5
power, Huduershi even compared himself to his illustrious ancestor, Modu. Due to growing regionalism among
the Xiongnu, however, Huduershi was never able to establish unquestioned authority. When he designated his son
as heir apparent (in contravention of the principle of fraternal succession established by Huhanye), Bi, the Rizhu
king of the right, refused to attend the annual meeting at
the chanyu's court.
As the eldest son of the preceding chanyu, Bi (Pi) had a
legitimate claim to the succession. In A.D. 48, two years
after Huduershi's son Punu ascended the throne, eight
Xiongnu tribes in Bi's powerbase in the south, with a military force totalling 40,000 to 50,000 men, acclaimed Bi
as their own chanyu.

Throughout the Eastern Han period, these two groups

were called the kingdom of southern Xiongnu (confederates in Inner Mongolia) and the kingdom of northern
Xiongnu (the ancient Hunnic kingdom of the Orkhon in
Outer Mongolia), respectively. In A.D. 49, Tsi Yung, alBronze seal says To Han obedient, friendly and loyal chief of lied with the Wuhuan and Hsien Pei, attacked the northXiongnu of Han ()"Bronze seal conferred ern kingdom.* [58]
by the Eastern Han government on a Xiongnu chief.

cial side, Huhanye was amply rewarded in large quantities

of gold, cash, clothes, silk, horses and grain for his participation. Huhanye made two further homage trips, in
49 BC and 33 BC; with each one the imperial gifts were
increased. On the last trip, Huhanye took the opportunity to ask to be allowed to become an imperial son-inlaw. As a sign of the decline in the political status of
the Xiongnu, Emperor Yuan refused, giving him instead
ve ladies-in-waiting. One of them was Wang Zhaojun,
famed in Chinese folklore as one of the Four Beauties.
When Zhizhi learned of his brother's submission, he also
sent a son to the Han court as hostage in 53 BC. Then
twice, in 51 BC and 50 BC, he sent envoys to the Han
court with tribute. But having failed to pay homage personally, he was never admitted to the tributary system.
In 36 BC, a junior ocer named Chen Tang, with the
help of Gan Yanshou, protector-general of the Western
Regions, assembled an expeditionary force that defeated
him at the Battle of Zhizhi and sent his head as a trophy
to Chang'an.

Hard pressed by the northern Xiongnu and plagued by

natural calamities, Bi brought the southern Xiongnu into
tributary relations with Han China in 50. The tributary
system was considerably tightened to keep the southern
Xiongnu under Han supervision. The chanyu was ordered
to establish his court in the Meiji district of Xihe commandery. The southern Xiongnu were resettled in eight
frontier commanderies. At the same time, large numbers of Chinese were forced to migrate to these commanderies, where mixed settlements began to appear. The
northern Xiongnu were dispersed by the Xianbei in 85
and again in 89 by the Chinese during the Battle of Ikh
Bayan, in which the last Northern Chanyu was defeated
and ed over to the north west with his subjects.
Grousset states that around A.D. 155, the northern
Xiongnu werecrushed and subjugatedby the Xianbei.
Thus Mongol domination succeeded Turkic.* [59]

1.10 Southern Xiongnu

Tributary relations were discontinued during the reign of

Huduershi (18 AD48), corresponding to the political
upheavals of the Xin Dynasty in China. The Xiongnu
took the opportunity to regain control of the western
regions, as well as neighbouring peoples such as the
Wuhuan. In 24 AD, Hudershi even talked about reversing
the tributary system.

1.9

Northern Xiongnu

The Xiongnu's new power was met with a policy of ap- Southern and Northern Xiongnu in 200 AD, before the collapse
peasement by Emperor Guangwu. At the height of his of the Han Dynasty.

6
Economically, the southern Xiongnu relied almost totally
on Han assistance. Tensions were evident between the
settled Chinese and practitioners of the nomadic way of
life. Thus, in 94, Anguo Chanyu joined forces with newly
subjugated Xiongnu from the north and started a large
scale rebellion against the Han.
Towards the end of the Eastern Han, the southern
Xiongnu were drawn into the rebellions then plaguing the
Han court. In 188, the chanyu was murdered by some of
his own subjects for agreeing to send troops to help the
Han suppress a rebellion in Hebei many of the Xiongnu
feared that it would set a precedent for unending military service to the Han court. The murdered chanyu's son
Yufuluo, entitled Chizhisizhu (), succeeded
him, but was then overthrown by the same rebellious faction in 189. He travelled to Luoyang (the Han capital) to
seek aid from the Han court, but at this time the Han court
was in disorder from the clash between Grand General He
Jin and the eunuchs, and the intervention of the warlord
Dong Zhuo. The chanyu had no choice but to settle down
with his followers in Pingyang, a city in Shanxi. In 195,
he died and was succeeded by his brother Hucuquan.

HISTORY

1.11.2 Liu Yao's Former Zhao (318329)

In 318, after suppressing a coup by a powerful minister in the Xiongnu-Han court (in which the XiongnuHan emperor and a large proportion of the aristocracy
were massacred), the Xiongnu prince Liu Yao moved the
Xiongnu-Han capital from Pingyang to Chang'an and renamed the dynasty as Zhao (Liu Yuan had declared the
empire's name Han to create a linkage with Han Dynasty
to which he claimed he was a descendant, through a
princess, but Liu Yao felt that it was time to end the
linkage with Han and explicitly restore the linkage to the
great Xiongnu chanyu Maodun, and therefore decided to
change the name of the state. However, this was not a
break from Liu Yuan, as he continued to honor Liu Yuan
and Liu Cong posthumously.) (it is hence known to historians collectively as Han Zhao).

However, the eastern part of north China came under the

control of a rebel Xiongnu-Han general of Jie ancestry
named Shi Le. Liu Yao and Shi Le fought a long war until
329, when Liu Yao was captured in battle and executed.
Chang'an fell to Shi Le soon after, and the Xiongnu dyIn 216, the warlord-statesman Cao Cao detained Hu- nasty was wiped out. North China was ruled by Shi Le's
*
cuquan in the city of Ye, and divided his followers in Later Zhao dynasty for the next 20 years. [62]
Shanxi into ve divisions: left, right, south, north, and However, theLiuXiongnu remained active in the north
centre. This was aimed at preventing the exiled Xiongnu for at least another century.
in Shanxi from engaging in rebellion, and also allowed
Cao Cao to use the Xiongnu as auxiliaries in his cavalry.
Eventually, the Xiongnu aristocracy in Shanxi changed
their surname from Luanti to Liu for prestige reasons, 1.11.3 Tiefu and Xia (260431)
claiming that they were related to the Han imperial clan
The northern Tiefu branch of the Xiongnu gained control
through the old intermarriage policy.
of the Inner Mongolian region in the 10 years between
the conquest of the Tuoba Xianbei state of Dai by the
1.11 Post-Han Dynasty and the Sixteen Former Qin empire in 376, and its restoration in 386 as
the Northern Wei. After 386, the Tiefu were gradually
Kingdoms
destroyed by or surrendered to the Tuoba, with the submitting Tiefu becoming known as the Dugu. Liu Bobo,
After Hucuquan, in A.D. 215-216, the southern Xiongnu a surviving prince of the Tiefu ed to the Ordos Loop,
were partitioned into ve local tribes. Each local chief where he founded a state called the Xia (thus named bewas under thesurveillance of a chinese resident, while cause of the Xiongnu's supposed ancestry from the Xia
the shanyu was in semicaptivity at the imperial court. dynasty) and changed his surname to Helian (). The
*
[60]
Helian-Xia state was conquered by the Northern Wei in
42831, and the Xiongnu thenceforth eectively ceased
to play a major role in Chinese history, assimilating into
1.11.1 Liu Yuan's Northern Han (304318)
the Xianbei and Han ethnicities.
Huchuquan Chanyu assumed the patronymic Liu, reecting his imperial ancestry. In 304, Liu Yuan became
Chanyu of the Five Hordes. In 308, declared himself emperor and founded the Han Zhao Dynasty. In 311, his son
and successor Liu Cong captured Luoyang, and with it the
Emperor Huai of Jin China. In 316, the Emperor Min
of Jin China was captured in Chang'an. Both emperors
were humiliated as cupbearers in Linfen before being executed in 313 and 318. North China came under Xiongnu
rule while the remnants of the Jin dynasty survived in the
south at Jiankang.* [61]

Tongwancheng (meaning Unite All Nations) was

the capital of the Xia (Sixteen Kingdoms), whose rulers
claimed descent from Modu Chanyu.
The ruined city was discovered in 1996* [63] and the State
Council designated it as a cultural relic under top state
protection. The repair of the Yong'an Platform, where
Helian Bobo, emperor of the Da Xia regime, reviewed
parading troops, has been nished and restoration on the
31-meter-tall turret will begin soon.* [64]* [65] There are
hopes that Tongwancheng may achieve UNESCO World
Heritage status.* [66]

3.1

Theories on multi-ethnicity

1.11.4

Juqu and Northern Liang (401460)

The Juqu were a branch of the Xiongnu. Their leader

Juqu Mengxun took over the Northern Liang by overthrowing the former puppet ruler Duan Ye. By 439, the
Juqu power was destroyed by the Northern Wei. Their
remnants were then settled in the city of Gaochang before being destroyed by the Rouran.

Interpretation

Bareld* [67] attempted to interpret Xiongnu history as

well as narrate it. He made the following points: The
Xiongnu confederation was unusually long-lived for a
steppe empire. The purpose of raiding China was not
simply for goods, but to force the Chinese to pay regular
tribute. The power of the Xiongnu ruler was based on
his control of Chinese tribute which he used to reward
his supporters. The Han and Xiongnu empires rose at the
same time because the Xiongnu state depended on Chinese tribute. A major Xiongnu weakness was the custom
of lateral succession. If a dead ruler's son was not old
enough to take command, power passed to the late ruler's
brother. This worked in the rst generation but could
lead to civil war in the second generation. The rst time
this happened, in 60 BC, the weaker party adopted what
Bareld calls the 'inner frontier strategy.' They moved
south and submitted to China and then used Chinese resources to defeat the Northern Xiongnu and re-establish
the empire. The second time this happened, about 47
AD, the strategy failed. The southern ruler was unable
to defeat the northern ruler and the Xiongnu remained
divided.

Ethno-linguistics

7
The supposed Old Chinese sound of the rst character
() has a possible similarity with the name Hunin
European languages. The second character () appears
to have no parallel in Western terminology. Whether the
similarity is evidence of kinship or mere coincidence is
hard to tell. It could lend credence to the theory that the
Huns were in fact descendants of the Northern Xiongnu
who migrated westward, or that the Huns were using a
name borrowed from the Northern Xiongnu, or that these
Xiongnu made up part of the Hun confederation. As in
the case of the Rouran with the Avars, oversimplications have led to the Xiongnu often being identied with
the Huns, who populated the frontiers of Europe. The
connection started with the writings of the 18th-century
French historian Joseph de Guignes, who noticed that a
few of the barbarian tribes north of China associated with
the Xiongnu had been named Hunwith varying Chinese characters. This theory remains at the level of speculation and although it is accepted by some scholars, including Chinese ones, the majority of Anglophone scholars atly reject it. DNA testing of Hun remains has so far
proved inconclusive in determining their origin. E. de la
Vaissire has shown in the usage of the Ancient Sogdian
Letters * [69] that both Xiongnu and Huns were referred
to asxwnorHunindicating thatXiongnuand
Hunare synonymous.

3.1 Theories on multi-ethnicity

Since the early 19th century, a number of Western scholars have proposed a connection between various language
families or subfamilies and the language or languages
of the Xiongnu. Albert Terrien de Lacouperie considered them to be multi-component groups.* [16] Many
scholars believe the Xiongnu confederation was a mixture of dierent ethno-linguistic groups, and that their
main language (as represented in the Chinese sources)
and its relationships have not yet been satisfactorily determined.* [70] Kim rejects old racial theories or even
ethnic aliationsin favour of the historical reality
of these extensive, multiethnic, polyglot steppe empires
.* [71]

Chinese sources link the Tiele people and Ashina to the

Xiongnu, not all Turkic peoples. According to the Book
of Zhou and the History of the Northern Dynasties, the
Ashina clan was a component of the Xiongnu confederation,* [72]* [73] but this connection is disputed,* [74] and
according to the Book of Sui and the Tongdian, they were
mixed nomads( / , Pinyin: z h, Wade
Giles: tsa hu) from Pingliang.* [75]* [76] The Ashina and
Location of Xiongnu and other steppe nations in 300 AD.
Tiele may have been separate ethnic groups who mixed
The sound of the rst Chinese character () has been with the Xiongnu.* [77] Indeed, Chinese sources link
reconstructed as /qo/ in Old Chinese.* [68] The Chi- many nomadic peoples (hu; see Wu Hu) on their northnese name for the Xiongnu was a pejorative term in it- ern borders to the Xiongnu, just as Greco-Roman hisself, as the characters have the meaning oferce slave toriographers called Avars and Huns "Scythians". The
.* [31] The Chinese characters are pronounced as Xingn Greek cognate of Tourkia (Greek: ) was used
[n] in modern Mandarin Chinese.
by the Byzantine emperor and scholar Constantine VII

Porphyrogenitus in his book De Administrando Imperio,* [78]* [79] though in his use, Turksalways referred to Magyars.* [80] Such archaizing was a common
literary topos, and implied similar geographic origins
and nomadic lifestyle but not direct liation.* [81] Some
Uyghurs claimed descent from the Xiongnu (according to
Chinese history Weishu, the founder of the Uyghur Khaganate was descended from a Xiongnu ruler),* [82] but
many contemporary scholars do not consider the modern Uyghurs to be of direct linear descent from the old
Uyghur Khaganate because modern Uyghur language and
Old Uyghur languages are dierent.* [83] Rather, they
consider them to be descendants of a number of people,
one of them the ancient Uyghurs.* [84]* [85]* [86]

3.2

Iranian theories

See also: Iranian languages

Harold Walter Bailey proposed an Iranian origin of the
Xiongnu, recognizing all the earliest Xiongnu names of
the 2nd century BC as being of the Iranian type.* [6] This
theory is supported by turkologist Henryk Jankowski.* [7]
Central Asian scholar Christopher I. Beckwith notes that
the Xiongnu name could be a cognate of Scythian, Saka
and Sogdia, corresponding to a name for Northern Iranians.* [24]* [87] According to Beckwith the Xiongnu could
have contained a leading Iranian component when they
started out, but more likely they had earlier been subjects
of an Iranian people and learned from them the Iranian
nomadic model.* [24] In the UNESCO-published History
of Civilizations of Central Asia, its editor Jnos Harmatta
concludes that the royal tribes and kings of the Xiongnu
bore Iranian names, that all Xiongnu words noted by the
Chinese can be explained from a Scythian language, and
that it is therefore clear that the majority of Hsiung-nu
tribes spoke an Eastern Iranian language.* [5]

3.3

Mongolic theories

IDENTITY, ARCHAEOLOGY, AND GENETICS

that discovered by archaeologists is similar to Mongolian

Soyombo symbol.* [92]* [93]* [94]

3.4 Turkic theories

See also: Turkic languages
Proponents of a Turkic language theory include E.H.
Parker, Jean-Pierre Abel-Rmusat, Julius Klaproth, Kurakichi Shiratori, Gustaf John Ramstedt, Annemarie von
Gabain, and Omeljan Pritsak.* [12] Some sources say
the ruling class was proto-Turkic,* [11]* [95] while others suggest it was proto-Hun. Craig Benjamin sees the
Xiongnu as either proto-Turks or proto-Mongols who
possibly spoke a language related to the Dingling.* [96]
Both the 7th-century Chinese History of the Northern Dynasties* [97] and the Book of Zhou,* [98] an inscription in
the Sogdian language, report the Turks to be a subgroup
of the Huns.* [99]* [100]

3.5 Yeniseian theories

See also: Yeniseian languages
Lajos Ligeti was the rst to suggest that the Xiongnu
spoke a Yeniseian language. In the early 1960s Edwin
Pulleyblank was the rst to expand upon this idea with
credible evidence. In 2000, Alexander Vovin reanalyzed
Pulleyblank's argument and found further support for it
by utilizing the most recent reconstruction of Old Chinese
phonology by Starostin and Baxter and a single Chinese
transcription of a sentence in the language of the Jie people, a member tribe of the Xiongnu Confederacy. Previous Turkic interpretations of the aforementioned sentence do not match the Chinese translation as precisely
as using Yeniseian grammar.* [101] Pulleybank and D. N.
Keightley asserted that the Xiongnu titleswere originally
Siberian words but were later borrowed by the Turkic and
Mongolic peoples.* [102]

See also: Mongolic languages

3.6 Language isolate theories

Mongolian and other scholars have suggested that the
Xiongnu spoke a language related to the Mongolic languages.* [88]* [89] Mongolian archaeologists proposed
that the Slab Grave Culture people were the ancestors of the Xiongnu, and some scholars have suggested
that the Xiongnu may have been the ancestors of the
Mongols.* [10] According to the "Book of Song", (section
Joujan), Joujan's (Rouran Khaganate) alternative name
was "Tatar" orTartarand they were a Xiongnu tribe
. Nikita Bichurin considered Xiongnu and Xianbei to be
two subgroups (or dynasties) but the same ethnicity.* [90]
Genghis Khan refers to the time of Modu Chanyu as
the remote times of our Chanyuin his letter to Daoist
Qiu Chuji".* [91] Sun and moon symbol of Xiongnu

The Turkologist Gerhard Doerfer has denied any possibility of a relationship between the Xiongnu language and
any other known language and rejected in the strongest
terms any connection with Turkic or Mongolian.* [103]

4 Identity, archaeology, and genetics

The original geographic location of the Xiongnu is disputed among steppe archaeologists. Since the 1960s, the
geographic origin of the Xiongnu has attempted to be

4.1

Archaeology

9
with the Ashina clan hair-style.* [109] Well-preserved
bodies in Xiongnu and pre-Xiongnu tombs in the Mongolian Republic and southern Siberia show both Mongoloid and Caucasian features.* [110] Analysis of skeletal remains from sites attributed to the Xiongnu provides
an identication of dolichocephalic Mongoloid, ethnically distinct from neighboring populations in presentday Mongolia.* [111] Russian and Chinese anthropological and craniofacial studies show that the Xiongnu were
physically very heterogenous, with six dierent population clusters showing dierent degrees of Mongoloid and
Caucasoid physical traits. These clusters point to signicant cross-regional migrations (both east to west and west
to east) that likely started in the Neolithic period and continued to the medieval Mongolian period.* [10]

Bronze plaque of a man of the Ordos Plateau, long held by

the Xiongnu. 3-1st century BCE. British Museum. Otto J.
Maenchen-Helfen notes that the statuette displays clear Europoid
features.* [104]

traced through an analysis of Early Iron Age burial constructions. No region has been proven to have mortuary
practices that clearly match that of the Xiongnu.* [105]

4.1

Archaeology

Political center of the Xiongnu state was in Mongolia

and almost all of the Xiongnu kings buried in Mongolia.* [106]* [107]
In the 1920s, Pyotr Kozlov's excavations of the royal
tombs at the Noin-Ula burial site in northern Mongolia that date to around the rst century CE provided a
glimpse into the lost world of the Xiongnu. Other archaeological sites have been unearthed in Inner Mongolia and elsewhere; they represent the Neolithic and historical periods of the Xiongnu's history.* [108] Those included the Ordos culture, many of them had been identied as the Xiongnu cultures. The region was occupied predominantly by peoples showing Mongoloid features, known from their skeletal remains and artifacts.
Portraits found in the Noin-Ula excavations demonstrate
other cultural evidences and inuences, showing that Chinese and Xiongnu art have inuenced each other mutually. Some of these embroidered portraits in the NoinUla kurgans also depict the Xiongnu with long braided
hair with wide ribbons, which is seen to be identical

Xiongnu bow

Presently, there exist four fully excavated and well

Ivolga,* [112] Dyresdocumented cemeteries:
*
*
tui, [113] Burkhan Tolgoi, [114]* [115] and Daodunzi.* [116]* [117] Additionally thousands of tombs
have been recorded in Transbaikalia and Mongolia. In
addition to these, the Tamir 1 excavation site from a
2005 Silkroad Arkanghai Excavation Project is the only
Xiongnu cemetery in Mongolia to be fully mapped in
scale.* [118] Tamir 1 was located on Tamiryn Ulaan
Khoshuu, a prominent granitic outcrop near other
cemeteries of the Neolithic, Bronze Age, and Mongol
periods.* [119] Important nds at the site included a
lacquer bowl, glass beads, and three TLV mirrors. Archaeologists from this project believe that these artifacts

10

paired with the general richness and size of the graves

suggests that this cemetery was for more important or
wealthy Xiongnu individuals.* [119] The TLV mirrors
are of particular interest. Three mirrors were acquired
from three dierent graves at the site. The mirror found
at feature 160 is believed to be a low-quality, local
imitation of a Han mirror, while the whole mirror found
at feature 100 and fragments of a mirror found at feature
109 are believed to belong to the classical TLV mirrors
and date back to the Xin Dynasty or the early to middle
Eastern Han period.* [120] The archaeologists have chosen to, for the most part, refrain from positing anything
about Han-Xiongnu relations based on these particular
mirrors. However, they were willing to mention the
following: There is no clear indication of the ethnicity
of this tomb occupant, but in a similar brick-chambered
tomb of late Eastern Han period at the same cemetery,
archaeologists discovered a bronze seal with the ocial
title that the Han government bestowed upon the leader
of the Xiongnu. The excavators suggested that these
brick chamber tombs all belong to the Xiongnu (Qinghai
1993).* [120]
Classications of these burial sites make distinction between two prevailing type of burials: "(1). monumental ramped terrace tombs which are often anked by
smallersatelliteburials and (2) 'circular' or 'ring' burials.* [121] Some scholars consider this a division between elitegraves and commonergraves. Other
scholars, nd this division too simplistic and not evocative of a true distinction because it shows ignorance of
the nature of the mortuary investments and typically luxuriant burial assemblages [and does not account for] the
discovery of other lesser interments that do not qualify as
either of these types.* [122]

4.2

Genetics

A study based on mitochondrial DNA analysis of human

remains interred in the Eg River valley of Mongolia concluded that the Turkic peoples originated from the same
area and therefore are possibly related.* [123]
A majority (89%) of the Xiongnu mtDNA sequences
can be classied as belonging to Asian haplogroups, and
nearly 11% belong to European haplogroups. This nding indicates that contact between European and Asian
populations preceded the start of Xiongnu culture, and
conrms results reported for two samples from an early
3rd century BC Scytho-Siberian population (Clisson et al.
2002).
Another study* [124] from 2004 screened ancient samples from the Egyin Gol necropolis for the Y-DNA
haplogroup N-Tat. The Egyin Gol necropolis, located
in northern Mongolia, is ~2300 years old and belongs to
the Xiongnu culture. This Tat-polymorphism is a biallelic marker that denes the N1c (N3-Tat) Y-DNA haplogroup what has so far been observed only in pop-

IDENTITY, ARCHAEOLOGY, AND GENETICS

ulations from Asia and northern Europe. It reaches its

highest frequency in Yakuts and northern Uralic peoples, with signicant parts also in Buryats and northeastern Siberian populations. Opinions dier about
whether the geographic origin of the T-C mutation lies
in Asia or northern Eurasia. Zerjal et al. suggested
that this mutation rst arose in the populations of Central Asia; they proposed Mongolia as a candidate location for the origin of the T-C polymorphism. In contrast, for Lahermo et al. the wide distribution of the
mutation in north Eurasian populations suggests that it
arose in northern Eurasia. According to them, the estimated time of the C mutation is ~24004440 years
ago. (According to some more recent researches of the
Y-DNA Hg N the presence of N1c and N1b in modern Siberian and other Eurasian populations is considered to reect an ancient substratum, probably speaking
Uralic languages.)* [125]* [126]* [127]* [128] Concerning
the Xiongnu people, two of them from the oldest section harboured the mutation, conrming that the Tat polymorphism already existed in Mongolia 2300 years ago.
The next archaeogenetical occurrence of this N-Tat ancient DNA was found in Hungary among the so-called
Homeconqueror Hungarians.* [129] Also three Yakuts'
aDNA from the 15th century, and of two from the late
18th century were this haplogroup.* [130] Additionally
two mtDNA sequence matches revealed in this work suggest that the Xiongnu tribe under study may have been
composed of some of the ancestors of the present-day
Yakut population.
Another study of 2006,* [131] using genetic and archeological data from a Siberian grave of Pokrovsk recently
discovered near the Lena River and dated from 2,400
to 2,200 years B.P., as well as modern Buryats, Khanty,
Mansi, Evenk, and Yakuts, provided evidence for the existence of early contact between autochthonous hunters
of the Siberian taiga and nomadic horse breeders from
the Altai-Baikal area (Mongolia and Buryatia). The similarity of the mitochondrial haplotype of the Pokrovsk
subject with a woman of the Eg River necropolis of the
second or third century ( mtDNA D haplogroup) shows
that this contact would have occurred by the end of the
Xiongnu period, and possibly prior to the 3rd century BC.
This contact could have been through either the expansion
of the Xiongnu and other steppe peoples westwards to
new areas of Siberia, or northwards along riverways. The
Yenisei River in particular contributed to extensive eastwest gene ow. The combined evidence demonstrates the
close relationship between the Xiongnu and the Siberian
populations.
Another 2006 study observed genetic similarity among
Mongolian samples from dierent periods and geographic areas including 2,300-year-old Xiongnu population of the Egyin Gol Valley. This results supports the hypothesis that the succession over time of dierent Turkic
and Mongolian tribes in the current territory of Mongolia resulted in cultural rather than genetic changes. Fur-

11
thermore, it appears that the Yakuts probably did not nd class. Particularly interesting are in the cemetery Heigoutheir origin among the Xiongnu tribes as previously hy- liang, Xinjiang (Black Gouliang cemetery, also known
pothesised.* [132]
as the summer palace of Xiongnu king), east of Barkol
*
A research study of 2006 [133] focused on Y-DNAs basin, near the city of Hami. By typing results of DNA
of the Egyin Gol site, and besides the conrmation of samples during the excavation of one of the tombs it was
the above-mentioned two N3-Tats, it also identied a Q- determined that of the 12 men there were: Q1a*(xQM242 haplogroup from the middle period and a C-M130 M120, xQ-M25, xQ-M3) - 6, Q1b (M378) - 4 (two sephaplogroup from the later (2nd century AD). The Q- arate tombs), Q*(xQ1a, xQ1b)2 (unable to determine
subclade).
M242 is one of the haplogroups of the indigenous peoples
of the Americas (though this is not this subclade), and All Y-haplogroup Q1b-M378 represent hosts of the
minor across Eurasia. Only two groups in the Old World tombs, while half of Y-DNA Q1a* represents hosts and
are high majority Q-M242 groups. These are the Selkups half sacricial victims. They date from the time of
(however, only one study was made) and the Ket people. early (Western) Han (2nd-1st Century BC). In another
They live in western and middle Siberia, together with study, 3 in this place were identied as Q-M3. Sumthe Khanty people. The Kets originally lived in south- marizing the data from available evidences, it is conern Siberia. According to Uralistic literature* [134] the cluded that the tombs belongs to the representatives of the
swift migration and disjunction of the Samoyedic peo- Xiongnu/Hunnu nobility/conquerors.* [139]* [140]* [141]
ples might be connected to a heavy warring in the region,
probably due to the dissolution of the Xiongnu Empire in
the period of the Battle of the Altai Mountains.
5 Material culture
The mutation dening haplogroup C-M130, is restrained
in North and East Asia and in America (Bergen et al.
1998. 1999.) (Lell et al. 2002.). The highest frequencies
of Haplogroup C3 are found among the populations of
Mongolia and the Russian Far East, where it is generally
the modal haplogroup. Haplogroup C3 is the only variety of Haplogroup C-M130 to be found among Native
Americans, among whom it reaches its highest frequency
in Na-Den populations.
A research project of 2007 (Yi Chuan, 2007* [135]) was
aimed at the genetic anities between Tuoba Xianbei
and Xiongnu populations. Some mtDNA sequences from
Tuoba Xianbei remains in Dong Han period were analyzed. Comparing with the published data of Xiongnu,
the results indicated that the Tuoba Xianbei presented
some close anities to the Xiongnu, which implied
that there was a gene ow between Tuoba Xianbei and
Xiongnu during the two southward migrations.
A recent examination* [136] in a Xiongnu elite cemetery
in Duurlig Nars revealed a Western Eurasian male with
maternal U2e1 and paternal R1a1 haplogroups and two
other DNAs: a female with mtDNA haplogroup D4 and Gold stag with eagle's head, and ten further heads in the antlers.
a male with Y-haplogroup C3 and mtDNA haplogroup From a Xiongnu tomb on the frontier, 4th-3rd century BC
D4.
A study of 2010 * [137] analysed six human remains of a
nomadic group, excavated from Pengyang County. From
the mtDNA, six haplotypes were identied as three haplogroups: C, D4 and M10. The analyses revealed that
these individuals were closely associated with the ancient
Xiongnu and modern northern Asians. The analysis of
Y chromosomes from four male samples that were typed
as haplogroup Q-M242(all Q1a1-M120)* [138] indicated
that these people had originated in Siberia.

5.1 Artistic distinctions

Within the Xiongnu culture more variety is visible from

site to site than fromeratoera,in terms of the Chinese chronology, yet all form a whole that is distinct from
that of the Han and other peoples of the non-Chinese
north.* [142] In some instances iconography can not be
used as the main cultural identier because art depicting
Over the past decade, Chinese archaeologists have pub- animal predation is common among the steppe peoples.
lished several reviews regarding the results of excavations An example of animal predation associated with Xiongnu
in Xinjiang. They imply the Xiongnu's supreme ruling culture is a tiger carrying dead prey.* [142] We see a sim-

12

ilar image in work from Maoqinggou, a site which is presumed to have been under Xiongnu political control but
is still clearly non-Xiongnu. From Maoqinggou, we see
the prey replaced by an extension of the tiger's foot. The
work also depicts a lower level of execution; Maoqinggou
work was executed in a rounder, less detailed style.* [142]
In its broadest sense, Xiongnu iconography of animal predation include examples such as the gold headdress from
Aluchaideng and gold earrings with a turquoise and jade
inlay discovered in Xigouban, Inner Mongolia.* [142] The
gold headdress can be viewed, along with some other examples of Xiongnu art, from the external links at the bottom of this article.
Xiongnu art is harder to distinguish from Saka or Scythian
art. There was a similarity present in stylistic execution,
but Xiongnu art and Saka art did often dier in terms
of iconography. Saka art does not appear to have included predation scenes, especially with dead prey, or
same-animal combat. Additionally, Saka art included elements not common to Xiongnu iconography, such as a
winged, horned horse.* [142] The two cultures also used
two dierent bird heads. Xiongnu depictions of birds
have a tendency to have a moderate eye and beak and
have ears, while Saka birds have a pronounced eye and
beak and no ears.* [142]* :102103 Some scholars claim
these dierences are indicative of cultural dierences.
Scholar Sophia-Karin Psarras claims that Xiongnu images of animal predation, specically tiger plus prey, is
spiritual, representative of death and rebirth, and sameanimal combat is representative of the acquisition of or
maintenance of power.* [142]* :102103

5.2

Rock art and writing

The rock art of the Yin and Helan Mountains is dated

from the 9th millennium BC to the 19th century AD. It
consists mainly of engraved signs (petroglyphs) and only
minimally of painted images.* [143]
Excavations conducted between 1924 and 1925 in the
Noin-Ula kurgans produced objects with over twenty
carved characters, which were either identical or very
similar to that of to the runic letters of the Old Turkic
alphabet discovered in the Orkhon Valley. From this a
some scholars hold that the Xiongnu had a script similar
to Eurasian runiform and this alphabet itself served as the
basis for the ancient Turkic writing.* [144]
The Records of the Grand Historian (vol. 110) state that
when the Xiongnu noted down something or transmitted
a message, they made cuts on a piece of wood; they also
mention a Hu script.

REFERENCES

92-3-102846-4
2nd century BCE 2nd century CE, characters of
Hun-Xianbei script (Mongolia and Inner Mongolia),
N. Ishjamts,Nomads In Eastern Central Asia, in
the History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume
2, Fig 5, p. 166, UNESCO Publishing, 1996, ISBN
92-3-102846-4

6 See also
List of Xiongnu rulers (Chanyus)
Rulers family tree
List of Mongol states
Nomadic empire
Ethnic groups in Chinese history
History of the Han Dynasty
Ban Yong

7 Notes
[1] This view was put forward to Wang Mang in AD 14* [53].

8 References
[1] Zheng Zhang (Chinese: ), Shang-fang (Chinese:
). " - - - ". . Rearranged by BYVoid.
[2] Zheng Zhang (Chinese: ), Shang-fang (Chinese:
). " - - - ". . Rearranged by BYVoid.
[3] Xiongnu People. britannica.com. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 25 July 2015.
[4] di Cosmo 2004: 186
[5] Harmatta 1994, p. 488: Their royal tribes and kings
(shan-yii) bore Iranian names and all the Hsiung-nu words
noted by the Chinese can be explained from an Iranian
language of Saka type. It is therefore clear that the majority of Hsiung-nu tribes spoke an Eastern Iranian language.
[6] Bailey 1985, pp. 2145

2nd century BCE 2nd century CE characters of

Hun-Xianbei script (Mongolia and Inner Mongolia),
N. Ishjamts,Nomads In Eastern Central Asia, in
the History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume
2, Fig 5, p. 166, UNESCO Publishing, 1996, ISBN

[7] Jankowski 2006, pp. 2627

[8] The Huns, Hyun Jin Kim, pg. 7. Quote: There was
doubtlessly also a large population of Turkic and Iranian
language speakers among the Xiongnu.

13

[9] Nomadism in Iran: From Antiquity to the Modern Era,

Daniel T. Potts, pg. 124. Quote: For the possibility
that the Xiongnu were Iranian speakers, see H. W. bailey,
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[11] Hucker 1975: 136
[12] Pritsak 1959
[13] Di Cosmo, 2004, pg 166
[14] Adas 2001: 88
[15] Beckwith 2009, pp. 5152, 404405
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[26] Bently, Jerry H., Old World Encounters, 1993, pg. 38

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[53] Han Shu (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju ed) 94B, p. 3824.

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19
Houle, J. and L.G. Broderick 2011 Settlement
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External links
Downloadable article: Evidence that a West-East
admixed population lived in the Tarim Basin as early
as the early Bronze AgeLi et al. BMC Biology 2010,
8:15.
Material Culture presented by University of Washington
Encyclopedic Archive on Xiongnu
The Xiongnu Empire
The Silk Road Volume 4 Number 1
The Silk Road Volume 9
Gold Headdress from Aluchaideng
Belt buckle, Xiongnu type, 3rd2nd century B.C.
Videodocumentation: Xiongnu the burial site of
the Hun prince (Mongolia)
The National Museum of Mongolian History ::
Xiongnu

20

10

10
10.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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Xiongnu Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiongnu?oldid=718102734 Contributors: Mav, Andre Engels, Youssefsan, Enchanter,

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Rich Farmbrough, Kdammers, Florian Blaschke, YUL89YYZ, Dbachmann, Bender235, ESkog, Kelvinc, CanisRufus, Oniows, TG~enwiki,
Kwamikagami, Marcok, Bastique, Guangyiwang~enwiki, Nk, Ogress, Ricky81682, Oldman~enwiki, Lectonar, Ciceronl, Yeu Ninje, Abstrakt, Mikenassau, Drbreznjev, Ghirlandajo, Instantnood, HenryLi, Bobrayner, Woohookitty, Briangotts, Gakuro, John Hill, Umofomia, Gniw, BD2412, Qwertyus, Kbdank71, Rjwilmsi, Bruce1ee, MarnetteD, Vuong Ngan Ha, FlaBot, Skyler, Talessman, Nihiltres,
GnniX, Sborsody, RasputinAXP, Codex Sinaiticus, KASchmidt, Lemuel Gulliver, Chobot, EamonnPKeane, Daduzi, YurikBot, Wavelength, Hairy Dude, RussBot, Chris Capoccia, Gaius Cornelius, Ksyrie, K.C. Tang, Lao Wai, Xunash, Welsh, Irishguy, Sumple, Kortoso,
Rob117, Nlu, Tonymec, Sandstein, Khakhan, Zzuuzz, Curpsbot-unicodify, Chris1219, Tajik, SmackBot, Bjelleklang, Unyoyega, WilyD,
Geo.powers, Kintetsubualo, Hmains, Chris the speller, Kleinzach, Hibernian, Jerome Charles Potts, TheLeopard, DHN-bot~enwiki,
Colonies Chris, Scray, AaronPaige, JesseRafe, Ed4linda, Khoikhoi, TheLateDentarthurdent, WonRyong, Underbar dk, Dreadstar, Nepaheshgar, Paul S, Latebird, Risker, Andrew Dalby, Lambiam, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Phalanxia, Ergative rlt, DaveRusin, JohnI, Mr Stephen,
Intranetusa, Alessandro57, Joseph Solis in Australia, Shoeofdeath, HongQiGong, Guss2, Berox, Dycedarg, Eiorgiomugini, Aherunar, Alex
Shih, Godardesque, Richard Keatinge, Verdi1, Cydebot, Ntsimp, B0Rn2bL8, Countchoc, Doug Weller, DumbBOT, DBaba, Hoghee,
CenkX, JamesAM, , PierceG, RevolverOcelotX, Sobreira, CharlotteWebb, Northumbrian, Baville, Blue Tie, G Purevdorj, TuvicBot,
Barefact, Hurmata, Magioladitis, Bongwarrior, Hullaballoo Wolfowitz, Karl432, RebekahThorn, Yunfeng, Nposs, E104421, Chris G,
Philg88, Edward321, Baristarim, Ebizur, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, Wixardy, Johnbod, Bbayartsengel, Balthazarduju,
Cavszabo, Kansas Bear, DorganBot, Mike V, S (usurped also), Idioma-bot, Funandtrvl, 1812ahill, Orphic, Nik Sage, Messir, TXiKiBoT, Dzsoker, Rei-bot, .Raven, Yaan, Brokenwit, Billinghurst, Synthebot, Master of the Orchalcos, Kapalama, PericlesofAthens, Lylefor,
SieBot, Son of Temuujin, Phe-bot, Jingiby, Hzh, Aramgar, Fratrep, Slovenski Volk, Dcattell, Anchor Link Bot, Varanwal, Gantuya eng,
Martarius, Dohe, Bob1960evens, JonnybrotherJr, Wikievil666, Cygnis insignis, Sevilledade, Bookcats, Shfujb8952512718, Shfujb89525,
Niceguyedc, Kevinyfg, Ubold, Dimitrakopulos, Auntof6, Nostradamus1, Kanguole, Winston365, Enerelt, M.O.X, LeinSora, Takabeg,
Muro Bot, Mary*wu, Orkh, Polysynaptic, Arthur chos, Dthomsen8, MarmadukePercy, MystBot, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Douglas the
Comeback Kid, Benjamin Trovato, BabelStone, Download, Weaseal, Chzz, LinkFA-Bot, Blaylockjam10, 5 albert square, Numbo3-bot,
Yastanovog, Lightbot, Zorrobot, Jarble, The Mummy, Legobot, Yobot, Kjaer, Luoboni, , Againme, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, , LlywelynII, Ulric1313, Materialscientist, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, Teeninvestor, Maxis ftw, Sbonur, LilHelpa,
Xqbot, PanzerFreak, Orkhan ankara, Xiaogoudelaohu, Timmyshin, 3family6, , J04n, GrouchoBot, RibotBOT, Nedim Ardoa,
Brutaldeluxe, White whirlwind, Huckelbarry, Finn Diesel, Boyusha, Citation bot 1, Trueshow111, DrilBot, Bejinhan, Akocsg, MastiBot,
Arosenfe, FoxBot, Mono, Pitcroft, Zanhe, ZhBot, Luvenno, Diannaa, 564dude, Persia2099, Misconceptions2, Hisacw, EmausBot, John of
Reading, Look2See1, Dewritech, Jllatimer, Ethdhelwen, Pahlavannariman, Kmoksy, Homunculus, Nozdref, John Cline, Iranica2010, Monteps, Takahashiai, KazekageTR, Shrigley, Boldbdd, Embiko, ClueBot NG, Boris51, Mustlovefootball, Shmaria, , Iritakamas, Navops47,
Lauren68, Helpful Pixie Bot, Lowercase sigmabot, Mnmjnm, BG19bot, Ymblanter, MongolWiki, Chinyin, Cold Season, Mark Arsten,
Goodj111, Lichengtai, Uhwo151, Erlik.khan, Lieutenant of Melkor, BattyBot, EMr KnG, Cyberbot II, ChrisGualtieri, Khazar2, QarapayimQazaq, Dexbot, Makecat-bot, Nix1129, Qatarihistorian, Rpundurs, Wyspiaski, Krakkos, ARIusalan, Zyma, Fulviian, Rajmaan,
Droppastie, Nickuesugi, FallingGravity, OsmPawsum, Henephon7, Zmavius, Pi3.124, Crovata, Ancientsteppe, GChatzoudis, Noyster,
1206mn, Erim Turukku, Marvmike13, Wisechinaman123, Monkbot, Khiruge, Filedelinkerbot, Theodor Churchwood, Tsoros, Hadaan,
Dveerna, Khartakhan, Ztrk, Spoesy, Cnbt, Osgoem, Toghuchar, Svlade, Hhhddddgfhh, 1sasdasd, Antondimak, Iyouwetheyhesheit, Uniquark9, Iraquirs, Daduxing, Badarchiinayurzana, CamPanthers28, Cartakes, Izkala, Khorichar, Iadhar, Zgrzgen, Teghudir, LoudLizard,
Nusdlog1, Evecurid, Alicewond, KasparBot, Bamsi2929, Ulu hun ogur oghuz, TrkOfsteppes, Ljika, The Spartan 003, Zhenya Romanov, Ergune, ConspiracyThinkerPeople, Tndezs, Al Hanvar, Yakbul, H.dryad, Boomer Vial, Stardragon888, Dengesizz, Mikeben4420,
Defenderofthruth and Anonymous: 354

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