B1: Characteristics of a living organism

Movement:

An action by an organism or part of an organism causing a change of position or place.

Respiration:

Chemical reactions that break down the nutrient molecules in living cells to release
energy.

Sensitivity:

The ability to detect or sense changes in the environment (Stimuli) and make responses.

Growth:

Permanent increase in size and dry mass by an increase in cell number, or cell size or
both.

Reproduction: The processes that make more of the same kind of organism.
Excretion:

The removal of an organisms toxic materials, the waste products of the metabolism
(chemical reactions in cells including respiration) and substances in excess requirements.

Nutrition:

The taking in of nutrients which are organic substances and mineral ions, containing raw
materials or energy for growth and tissue repair, absorbing and assimilating them,

B2: Cells
2.1: Cell structure:
All living organisms are made of cells
Cell membrane: Controls substances entering and
leaving the cell (P&A).
Cytoplasm: Where chemical reactions take place
within the cell (P&A).
Nucleus: Controls the cells activity and contains
chromosomes and DNA (P&A).
Chloroplasts: Where photosynthesis takes place
within the cell (P).
Cell wall: Supports the cell and maintains shape (P).

Vacuole: Storage of water within the cell (P).

Red blood cells: Red blood cells have the important job of carrying oxygen. These cells, which float in
your blood, begin their journey in the lungs, where they pick up oxygen from the air you breathe. Then
they travel to the heart, which pumps out the blood, delivering oxygen to all parts of your body.
Root hair cells: Collect water and mineral nutrients present in the soil and take this solution up through
the roots to the rest of the plant. As root hair cells do not carry out photosynthesis they do not contain
chloroplasts.

Magnification: Measured size divided by actual size

2.2: Movement in and out of cells
Diffusion: The net movement of molecules from a
region of their higher concentration to a region of
their lower concentration down a concentration
gradient, as a result of their random movement.
Osmosis: The diffusion of water molecules from a
region of their higher concentration (dilute solution)
to a region of their lower concentration
(concentrated solution), through a partially
permeable membrane.

The importance of diffusion of gases and solutes and of water as a solvent.

Gases
Necessary for gas exchange in all living organisms
Necessary for obtaining Carbon Dioxide and releasing oxygen during photosynthesis.

Solutes (liquids)
Dissolved salts dissolve through root hair cell.
Absorption of dissolved food material in many organisms, like amoeba, bacteria and fungi is
carried out through diffusion.
Some digested food material is absorbed by diffusion.

Water as a solvent
Plants cannot obtain minerals unless they are dissolved in water
Enzymes and hormones cannot be secreted unless they are dissolved in water
Excretory products cannot be excreted unless they are dissolved in water.

The importance of osmosis

Plants gain water through osmosis in their roots from the soil. Without a water potential gradient, water
will be loss from the roots . Plant cells contain vacuoles, which, if not full with water, will cause the cell to
become flaccid. If all the cells in a leaf become flaccid, the whole leaf will become flaccid, hence causing
the plant to wilt. Plant cells therefore need water to remain turgid and keep firm.If an animal cell
surrounded with a high water potential, osmosis will take place, and if the water is not expelled some way
or another, the cell will burst. This is because an animal cell doesnt have a cell wall to keep it strong. If an
animal cell is surrounded with low water potential, the water in the cytoplasm will diffuse outwards,
causing the cell to shrink.

The importance of a water potential gradient in the uptake of water by plants.

The water potential determines whether the plant cell would be turgid or plasmolysed. Since title says
uptake, it means the plant cell taking in water. If the surroundings has a higher water potential than the
plant cell, water molecules moves into the plant cell via osmosis. When the plant cell has sufficient water,
it becomes turgid. The cell wall prevents the cell from bursting. Turgor pressure is exerted when the plant
cell is swollen. This keeps the plant upright.

B3: Enzymes

Enzymes: Proteins that function as biological catalysts.

The effect of changes in temperature and pH of enzyme activity:
Temperature: As the temperature increases, so does the rate of reaction. But very high temperatures
denature enzymes.
pH: Changes in pH also alter an enzymes shape. Different enzymes work best at different pH values.
The optimum pH for an enzyme depends on where it normally works. For example, intestinal enzymes
have an optimum pH of about 7.5.

Most proteins, and therefore enzymes, are active only within a narrow pH range usually between 5 and 9.
Several factors are influenced directly by the pH in which the reaction takes place.
the binding of substrate to the enzyme
the ionization states of the amino acid residues involved in the catalytic activity of the
enzyme.
the ionization of the substrate
variation in the protein structure at extreme pH.

4.1: Nutrients

The chemical elements that make up

Carbohydrates: Hydrogen, Oxygen and Carbon.
Fats: Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen
Proteins: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulfur and Selenium.

The structure of large molecules made from smaller basic units, ie

Simple sugars to starch and glycogen
Glucose contains Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen. Two molecules of simple sugars like glucose are
joined by chemical bonds to form a complex sugar. They have enzymes that catalyse the reactions that
join glucose together into long chains.
Amino acids to proteins
Contains Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Selenium, Nitrogen and Sulfur. Proteins are long-chain
molecules made up of smaller molecules called amino acid. It is the sequence of the different amino
acids which determines the type of protein. Proteins are vital for growth and repair.

Fatty acids and glycerol to fats and oils

Made up of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen. Each fat molecule is made up of glycerol and attached to
this are three fatty acids. Different types of fatty acid and these can form different fats with different
proteins.

The tests for

Starch: Iodine solution - solution is used to test for starch ( Positive result - turn dark-blue )
(Negative result - stay brown/ yellow) (iodine solution colour)

Reducing Sugars: Benedict's solution - solution is used to test for reducing sugar (Positive result - turn
brick red/ orange) (Negative result - stay bright blue) (Benedict's solution colour)
One thing you must do in order to test for reducing sugar apart from Benedict's solution - Hot water

Protein: What colour is the biuret solution? - light blue Biuret solution - solution is used to test for protein
(Positive result - turn purple/lilac) (Negative result - stay light blue) (biuret solution colour)
What does biuret solution contain of? - NaOH and CuSO4

Fats: Add some ethanol, then add some distilled water and shake Ethanol - used to test for fats because
fats dissolve in ethanol (Positive result - turn cloudy/milky) (Negative result - stay same)

What are different nutrients needed for?

Carbohydrates: Provide a ready source of energy that is easily respired. Sources: sugars
Fats: Important as a long-term energy store. Sources: butter, cheese, fat in meats and fish,
nuts
Proteins: Needed for your body to grow, develop and repair. Sources: meat, milk and nuts
Vitamin C: Needed for tissue repair, resistance to disease. Sources: lemons, other citrus
fruits
Vitamin D: It strengthens bones and teeth. Sources: fish oil, butter (also made by skin in
the sun)
Calcium: Strengthening of bones and teeth. Sources: milk, fish, green vegetables
Iron: Used in formation of haemoglobin in red blood cells for transport of oxygen. Sources:
meat

Fibre (roughage): Helps the movement of food in the alimentary canal by peristalsis and
prevent constipation. Also absorbs poisonous wastes from bacteria in our gut. Sources: bran
cereals, cabbage, sweet corn and celery

Water:
-Needed for chemical reactions to take place in solution.
-The blood transports substances dissolved in water.
- Waste chemicals are passed out of bodies in solution in the urine, water in sweat cools us
down.
- It is important that your intake of water each day equals your loss of water.

The use of microorganisms in the manufacture of yoghurt:

Yoghurt production relies on the respiration of bacteria and the end product (lactic acid) causes a change
to the milk so that it becomes semi-solid and good to eat.

Deficiency symptoms of Vitamin C: Bleeding gums, Scurvy

Deficiency symptoms of Vitamin D: Soft bones, Rickets (legs bow inwards)
Deficiency symptoms of the mineral salt, iron: Tiredness, lack of energy (anemia)
Deficiency symptoms of the mineral salt, calcium: Weak brittle bones and teeth (rickets) muscle
weakness and cramps.

4.2: Plant Nutrition

Photosynthesis: The fundamental process by which plants manufacture carbohydrates from raw
materials using energy from light.

What is the role of chlorophyll?: chlorophyll traps light energy and converts it into chemical energy for
the formation of carbohydrates and their subsequent storage.
The word equation for the production of simple sugars and oxygen:
Carbon dioxide + Water =(Light)=> Sugar + Oxygen
Balanced Equation for Photosynthesis (in symbols):
6CO2 + 6H2O -light-> C6H12O6 + 6O2

(666)

Carbon Dioxide + Water = Glucose (sugar) + Oxygen

Why are Chlorophyll, Light and Carbon Dioxide necessary for photosynthesis?
Chlorophyll is required because it help absorbs the "light" required.
Carbon Dioxide is important because it is converted into the sugars such as glucose we
need.
Light is important because it acts as the "fuel" or energy to drive the reaction.
Appropriate Controls: Temperature, Oxygen Levels.

The effect of varying light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis:

Light is a limiting factor when the light intensity is too low to allow the light-dependent reaction to proceed
at its maximum rate. Very high light intensities may slow the rate of photosynthesis due to bleaching of
chlorophyll. However, plants exposed to such conditions usually have protective features to include thick,
waxy cuticles and hairy leaves. The amount of oxygen released will also increase and as the light
intensity decreases, the amount of oxygen released will decrease. I think this because light is one of the
limiting factors crucial in the photosynthesis process, and less light will result in less reaction taking place
inside the plant cells - therefore less oxygen will be produced as a by-product.

The intake of water by plants:

-Water first enters the plant through roots
-Plants absorb water into roots by osmosis.
-The absorbed water is transported through the roots to the rest of the plant where it's used
for different purposes, such as for photosynthesis.
-Water is then transported up the "Xylem Tube", which is a dead hollow tube

The intake of Carbon Dioxide by plants:

Leaves are adapted for photosynthesis by having a large surface area, and contain stomata (openings) to
allow carbon dioxide into the leaf.

The significance of the features of a leaf in

terms of functions: Distribution of
chloroplasts
The palisade mesophyll is a layer of elongated
cells containing chloroplasts found just under the
upper epidermis. The majority of photosynthesis
takes place within this area. These cells are long
and thin like the slats on a picket fence. The
chloroplasts rotate in these cells like a Ferris
wheel. This allows them to be exposed to the
maximum amount of light during the day.
Maximum= maximum photosynthesis.
The significance of the features of a leaf in terms of functions: Stomata and mesophyll cells
(gas exchange)
Leaves are adapted for photosynthesis by having a large surface area, and contain stomata (openings) to
allow carbon dioxide into the leaf. These design features can result in the leaf losing a lot of water. The
cells inside the leaf have water on their surface. Some of this water evaporates, and the water vapour can
then escape from inside the leaf by diffusion. As for mesophyll cells, they have air spaces which allows
gases to go in and out.

The significance of the features of a leaf in terms of functions: Vascular bundles (xylem and
phloem)
Vascular bundles (xylem and phloem) -transport and support.
Xylem= water and soluble, dissolved ions
Phloem= Products of photosynthesis, i.e. sugar
The xylem provides a passage for water and dissolved ions from the root system to the leaves.
The xylem also strengthens and supports the stem.
The phloem transports synthesized organic food from the leaves to other parts of the plant.

The importance of Nitrate ions for protein synthesis:

Nitrate ions are the source of nitrogen for amino acids.

The importance of Magnesium ions for chlorophyll synthesis:

The Chlorophyll molecule has a central magnesium ion, hence magnesium ions are essential for
Chlorophyll synthesis.
The effects of nitrate ion deficiency on plant growth:
Nitrogen is a mobile element in the plant and deficiency symptoms will develop first on lower leaves as
the nitrogen is removed for use in new developing leaves. The older leaves become chlorotic (turn yellow)
and eventually die. Nitrogen deficiency can have a considerable effect on final yield if it occurs for
prolonged periods during critical stages of growth .
The effects of magnesium ion deficiency on plant growth:
Magnesium is an essential constituent of chlorophyll and is required for activation of many enzymes
involved in the energy transfer processes. A deficiency of magnesium will seriously affect plant growth
and development as photosynthesis is directly affected. Changes yellow.

The uses, and the dangers of overuse, of nitrogen-containing fertilisers:

Uses: Increases yield as it provides the plant with more minerals, amino acids, stuff needed for growth,
repair.
Overuse: Eutrophication
Nitrogen rich fertilizers can leak into lakes and rivers. Algae and other plants living in the water would
have all the nutrients they need to grow and so there is a rapid growth of algae and plant life. When these
plants die, the plant matter starts to decompose by bacteria. This decomposition process uses oxygen
and with lots of algae in the river, most of the oxygen is used up. With less oxygen other creatures cannot
live such as fish and so the pond becomes stagnant (no life).
4.3: Animal Nutrition
Balanced Diet:
A balanced diet is when all seven components of food are obtained in the right proportions to provide
sufficient energy and nutrients for someone. This varies with age, gender, occupation and the amount of
exercise.
Ingestion: Taking substances (e.g. food, drink) into the body through the mouth.
Egestion: Passing out of food that has not been digested, as faeces, through the anus.
Malnutrition: Any form of unbalanced diet where the proportions of each food component obtained are
not correct or a lack of a specific nutrient.
Effects of malnutrition:

Starvation - Starvation is the most extreme form of malnutrition where there is a severe deficiency in all
nutrients caloric energy and vitamin intake. Starvation can be due to poverty, famine or mental disorders.
Constipation - Constipation is caused by the lack of soluble and insoluble dietary fibre in ones diet. As
the gel like texture given from the soluble fibre and the bulk added by the insoluble fibre prevent hard dry
stools that are hard to pass.
Obesity - Obesity is the accumulation of excess body fat due to excess food intake and lack of physical
activity and fibre. Obesity increases the likelihood of type 2 diabetes and coronary heart disease. This can
be treated by dieting, increasing physical exercise, eating less high energy food and eating more fibre rich
food.
Coronary Heart Disease - Coronary heart disease is caused by a process called atherosclerosis.
Atherosclerosis is the narrowing and eventually the blockage of arteries due to the deposition of
cholesterol in the blood onto the walls of the blood vessel. This narrows the blood vessel and increases
the likelihood of a blood clot forming and therefore blocking the artery (called a thrombosis.)The
narrowing decreases the rate at which oxygen is delivered to the heart, consequently the person suffers
from chest pains called angina. A thrombosis that occurs in a coronary heart artery deprives the heart
from oxygen and you get an ischemic heart attack.

The Alimentary Canal :

The alimentary canal is a long tube which
runs from the mouth to the anus. It is part
of the digestive system. The digestive
system also includes the liver and the
pancreas.
Main regions of the alimentary canal and
associated organs are:
Mouth, salivary glands
Oesophagus

Stomach
Pancreas, liver, gall bladder
Small intestine (duodenum
+ ileum)
Large intestine (colon
+rectum)

Anus

Digestion: The breakdown of large,

insoluble food molecules into small,watersoluble molecules using mechanical and chemical processes.

Types of human teeth: There are four types of teeth in human

(incisors, canines, premolars and molars), each specialised for

different functions.

Causes of dental decay

Bacteria are present on the surface of our teeth. Food deposits and bacteria form a layer
called plaque. Bacteria on the plaque feed on sugars, producing acid. This acid dissolves enamel,
forming a hole.
Dentine underneath the enamel is softer it dissolves more rapidly.
If the hole reaches the pulp cavity, bacterial infection can get to the nerve. This results in
toothache and possibly, an abscess (an infection in the jaw).

Preventing tooth decay:

Avoid sugary food, especially between meals, so bacteria cannot make

acid.

tooth enamel).

Clean teeth regularly to remove plaque (a fluoride toothpaste hardens

Use dental floss or a toothpick to remove pieces of food and plaque

trapped between teeth.

Visit a dentist regularly so any tooth decay is treated early and any

stubborn plaque is removed.

The significance of chemical digestion in the alimentary canal in producing small, soluble molecules
that can be absorbed.

Chemical digestion involves breaking down large, insoluble molecules

into small, soluble ones.

Enzymes speed up the process.

Enzymes work efficiently at body temperature (370C) and at a suitable
pH

Small, water soluble molecules of food is easily absorbed into the blood

capillaries in the intestine.

The role of bile in emulsifying fats, to increase the surface area for the action of enzymes:

Bile is made in the liver, stored in gall bladder and then flows along bile

duct into duodenum.

Bile does not contain any enzymes
Bile helps to digest fat by breaking the large drops of fat into very small
ones.

This makes it easier for lipase to digest them.

This is called emulsification (a kind of mechanical digestion) and is done

by bile salts.

Where in the alimentary canal are amylase, protease and lipase enzymes secreted?:
Amylase: Salivary glands and the pancreas
Protease: Stomach
Lipase: Primarily found in pancreas, but also found in mouth and stomach.

The functions of a typical Amylase, Protease and Lipase + Substrate and End products:
Enzyme

Site of action

Special conditions

Substrate

End products

Amylase

Mouth, duodenum

Slightly alkaline

Starch

Maltose, glucose

Protease

Stomach,

Acid in stomach,

Protein

Amino acids

duodenum

alkaline in duodenum

Lipase

Duodenum

alkaline

fat

Fatty acids and

glycerol

Absorption: The movement of digested food molecules through the wall of the intestine into the blood.

The significance of villi in increasing the internal surface area of the small intestine.

Villi are finger-like projections that increase the surface area for

absorption of small molecules.

The larger the surface area, the faster nutrients can be absorbed.
Small Intestine: The region for the absorption of digested food.

The Structure of villus + features and functions:

FEATURE

FUNCTION

Each villus is covered with cells which

This gives inner surface of the small intestine a very large surface

have even smaller projections on

area nutrients can be absorbed even faster.

them called microvilli

Villi have walls only one cell thick

Nutrients can diffuse across the wall to reach the blood capillaries
and lacteals faster.

Villi contain blood capillaries

Absorbs small molecules such as amino acids and glucose

Villi contain lacteals, which are part of

Absorbs fatty acids and glycerol

the lymphatic system

The role of liver in the metabolism of glucose:

If there is more glucose than necessary in the blood, the liver will convert some of it to the polysaccharide
called glycogen and store it.

The role of fat as an energy storage substance:

Fat may be used in respiration as a source of energy, or stored.

Fatty acids & glycerol are absorbed by the lacteal in the villi.
They are carried in the bloodstream to body cells.
Here the fat molecules are reformed.
Fat is a good storage compound as when respired, it releases twice as

much energy as carbohydrates.

5.1: Transport in plants

Xylem Vessels: Dead remains of cells which have joined together in long chains and lost their end walls.
They are often stiffened with rings of a substance called lignin which helps to stop them collapsing. They
carry water and dissolved minerals up from the roots through the stem to the leaves. They also provide
support.

Phloem Vessels: Living cells which carry dissolved food materials, mainly sucrose but also amino acids
and other soluble organic compounds, from the leaves to other parts of the plant, for example growing
roots or shoots or storage areas such as fruit. This movement of food materials is called Translocation.

Position of Vessels:
In a leaf cross-section: Both located in the middle of the leaf's cross section
In a stem cross-section: Both located around the centre of the stem
In a root cross-section: Both located separately
in the centre of the roots
Root Hair Cells:
Increase the surface area for
absorption, which in turn increases uptake
efficiency of water and mineral ions.
Water enters by osmosis (requires
no energy input).

Pathway taken by water:

Water in Soil Root Hair Cells Epidermis Root Cortex Cells Passage Cells Xylem Vessel

Transpiration: Evaporation of water at the surfaces of mesophyll cells followed by loss of water vapour
from plant cleaves, through stomata. The more quickly water evaporates from the large surface area in
the leaf the more quickly water is drawn up the plant

Rate of transpiration: Transpiration happens faster in conditions that encourage evaporation: Warm,
windy, dry, very sunny weather.

The elongated section of the root hair provides a large surface area for the absorption of water and
inorganic ions. Additionally, the membrane of the root hair cell is semi-permeable. That means that only
minerals and water can go through the membrane, but not necessarily go back out.

How water vapour loss is related to cell surfaces, air spaces and stomata:

Transpiration is the loss of water vapour from the leaf.

Water in the mesophyll cells form a thin layer on their surfaces.
The water evaporates into the air spaces in the spongy mesophyll.
This creates a high concentration of water molecules in the air spaces.
Water vapour diffuses out of the leaf into the surrounding air, through the stomata, by
diffusion.

The mechanism of water uptake and movement:

Water transport up the plant requires something that will allow it to work against gravity. Visualize the
xylem tube. The water is flowing upwards, from the soil to the xylem tube. In order to work against
gravity, water travels via this process called Capillary Action, which allows liquids to flow liquids to
flow through narrow spaces such as the xylem tube without the assistance of gravity. Capillary action
works because of inter-molecular attractive forces between the liquid and solid surrounding surfaces.
If the diameter of the tube is sufficiently small, then the combination of surface tension (which is
caused by cohesion within the liquid) and adhesive forces between the liquid and container act to lift
the liquid.

Translocation: The movement of sucrose and amino acids from regions of production to regions of
storage OR to regions of utilisation in respiration or growth. Sugars move from the 'source' to a 'sink'
(from regions of production to regions of storage) eg. A photosynthesising leaf to Growing tips in shoots
and roots.

5.2 Transport in Humans:

Circulatory System: A system of tubes with a pump and
valves to ensure one-way flow of blood.
Double Circulation:
Blood passes through the heart twice for

each

complete circulation of the body.

The right side of the heart collects
deoxygenated blood from the body and pumps it

to the

lungs.
Thus there is a low pressure circulation in

the

lungs.
The left side collects oxygenated blood from

the

lungs and pumps it to the body.

Thus there is a high pressure circulation to the body tissues.
The double circulatory system helps to maintain blood pressure, making circulation efficient.

Heart Structure:
The heart is a pump, made of
muscle, which moves blood around the
body.
The muscle is constantly active and
coronary arteries to provide it with oxygen
and glucose.
The left and right side of the heart is
completely separated from each other by a
septum.
RIGHT side receives deoxygenated
blood from the body and pumps it to the
lungs for oxygenation

LEFT side receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it to the body.
There are four chambers - two atria and two ventricles.
The right atrium (RA) receives blood from vena cava and the left atrium (LA) from
pulmonary vein.
Both atria then squeeze the blood into the ventricles.
The tricuspid valve allow blood to flow from RA to right ventricle and the bicuspid valve allow
blood to flow from LA to left ventricle preventing backflow.
The right and left ventricles then squeeze the blood into arteries.
Right ventricle (RV) pumps blood into the pulmonary artery & the left ventricle (LV) into the
aorta.
The semilunar valves allow blood to move into the arteries and prevent backflow.
The wall of the LV is much thicker than the RV because it needs to build up enough
pressure to send the blood to all the main organs (not just to the lungs).
Thus the blood in the aorta has a much higher pressure than in the pulmonary artery.

Coronary Heart Disease:

Coronary arteries supply blood (nutrients and oxygen) to the heart muscles.
If a coronary artery gets blocked (e.g. by a blood clot), the cardiac muscle runs short of
oxygen.
Blockage of the coronary arteries is called coronary artery disease.
The cardiac muscle cannot respire, so it cannot obtain energy to contract.
The heart therefore stops beating; this is called a heart attack or cardiac arrest.

Cause

Explanation

Preventive measures

Poor diet with too

Cholesterol builds up in the arteries

Cholesterol-free diet

much saturated fat

this can block it eventually

Smoking

Nicotine damages the heart and blood

Stop smoking

vessels
Stress

Increase blood pressure - this can result

Find ways of relaxing, identify the

in fatty materials collecting in the arteries

causes of stress & avoid them

Function of the heart:

Heart beats as the cardiac muscles in its walls contract and relax.
When they contract, heart becomes smaller, squeezing blood out. This is called systole.

 When they relax, the heart becomes larger, allowing blood to flow into the atria and
ventricles. This is called diastole.
The rate at which heart beats is controlled by a patch of muscle in the right atrium called
pacemaker.
The pacemaker sends electrical signals through the walls of the heart, which make the
muscle contract.
Between atria and ventricles are atrio-ventricular valves (bicuspid on left & tricuspid on right)
When the ventricles contract, these valves stop blood flowing back into atria.
As the ventricles contract, the blood pushes the semilunar valves upwards.
The tendons attached to them stop them from going up too far.

The effect of physical activity on pulse rate:

Increases pulse so that oxygen can be more quickly supplied to the body of organs. Test: pulse rate
analysis = getting someone to do varying levels of exercise and then testing their pulse rate with a
monitor, and blood pressure. Another test would be to see how long each level of exercise takes to return
the heart to resting beat rate.
Heart beats about 70 times a minute, more if you are younger.
The rate becomes lower the fitter you are.
During exercise the heart rate increases to supply the muscles with more oxygen and
glucose.
These are needed to allow the muscles to respire aerobically, so they have sufficient energy
to contract.
Regular exercise is needed to keep the heart muscle in good tone.
This results in the heart being more efficient in maintaining blood pressure and reduces the
risk of coronary heart disease.

The main blood vessels to and from the heart, lungs, liver and kidney:
Organ

To

From

Heart

Vena Cava and Pulmonary vein

Pulmonary artery and Aorta

Lungs

Pulmonary artery

Pulmonary vein

Liver

Hepatic portal vein & Hepatic

artery

Hepatic vein

Kidney

Renal artery

Renal vein

Structure and functions of arteries, capillaries and veins:

How structure is related to function:
Arteries:
Thick walls to
withstand and maintain
blood pressure
(prevents bursting).
Narrow lumen
maintains high blood
pressure.
High pressure
prevents backflow of
blood.

Capillaries:
One cell thick
wall allows diffusion of
materials between capillary and surrounding tissues.
Pores in the wall allow white blood cells to exit.
Narrow lumen allows blood cells to pass through slowly and increases oxygen diffusion
from red blood cell.

Veins:
Thin walls allow muscles to exert pressure on the veins.
Wide lumen allows great volume of blood to pass or reduces resistance to blood flow.
Valves prevent backflow of blood.

Blood cells:
The components of blood:
Red blood Cells: Red due to
haemoglobin which carries oxygen and
transports it to the tissues.
White Blood Cells: Fights infection by
phagocytosis and antibody production.
Plasma: Transports blood cells, ions,
soluble nutrients, hormones and carbon
dioxide.
Platelets: Causes blood to clot.

The Immune System:

The immune system is the bodys defence against disease and foreign bodies. There are
two main types of white blood cells lymphocytes and phagocytes:
Antibody production:
All cells have proteins on their surface called antigens.
Lymphocytes recognize foreign antigens from foreign cells (such as bacteria) and make
antibodies to them.
A different antibody is produced for each antigen.
Antibodies make bacteria clump together in preparation for action by phagocytes or
neutralize the toxins produced by the bacteria;

Tissue rejection:
Transplants involve replacing a damaged organ with a donor organ.
However lymphocytes detect the foreign antigens of the donor organ and make antibodies
to it.
The donor organ is rejected as antibodies fight the foreign tissue.
To prevent this happening:
(i) The donor organ needs to be a similar tissue type to the patient e.g. from a close relative;
(ii) Immunosuppressive drugs are used, which switch off the bodys immune response;
However the drawback of this drug is that the patient needs to be kept in isolation as they
are at the risk of dying from any disease they are exposed to.

Phagocytosis:
Phagocytes have the ability to move out of capillaries to the site of infection.
They then engulf (ingest) the infecting pathogen and kill them by digesting them. A process
called phagocytosis.

6.1 Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration:

Respiration: The chemical reactions that break down nutrient molecules in living cells to release energy.
Uses of energy in the body:
Muscle contraction.
Protein synthesis.
Cell division.

Growth.
The passage of nerve impulses and the maintenance of a constant body temperature.
The word equation for aerobic respiration: glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water (+
energy)
C6H12O6 + 6O2
6CO2
+ 6H2O
Aerobic Respiration: The release of a relatively large amount of energy in cells by the breakdown of
food substances in the presence of oxygen.
Anaerobic Respiration: The release of a relatively small amount of energy by the breakdown of food
substances in the absence of oxygen.
The word equation for anaerobic respiration in muscles during hard exercise:
in muscles: glucose lactic acid (+ energy released)

in microorganism yeast: glucose ethanol + carbon dioxide (+ energy released)

The effect of lactic acid in muscles during exercise:

When exercising vigorously, the blood cannot supply enough oxygen to the muscles for
aerobic respiration.
Therefore the muscles respire anaerobically.
Lactic acid builds up in the muscles and causes cramp.
The liver breaks down lactic acid with oxygen.
When you stop exercising, you go on breathing hard to get oxygen to break down the lactic
acid.
This is called an oxygen debt because during vigorous exercise you borrowed some extra
energy, without paying for it with oxygen.
When all the lactic acid has been broken down, your breathing rate & rate of heartbeat
return to normal.

The role of anaerobic respiration in yeast during brewing and bread-making.

Brewing
To make beer, yeast is dissolved in a warm liquid containing the sugar maltose.
The yeast respires anaerobically by a process called fermentation.
This process produces ethyl alcohol (ethanol) making the drink alcoholic.
and carbon dioxide which makes the drink fizzy.
Bread making
Yeast is mixed with water and sugar to activate it.
The mixture is added to flour to make dough, and left in a warm place.
The dough rises as the yeast respires and releases carbon dioxide, which gets trapped in
the dough.
When the dough is cooked, the high temperature kills the yeast and evaporates any alcohol
formed.
Air spaces are left where the carbon dioxide was trapped, which gives the bread a light
texture.

Comparing aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration (relative amounts of energy released):
Aerobic respiration

Anaerobic respiration

Uses oxygen

Does not use oxygen

No alcohol or lactic acid made

Alcohol (in yeast and plants) or lactic acid (in animals) is

made

Large amount of energy released from

each molecule of glucose

Much less energy released from each molecule of glucose

Carbon dioxide made

Carbon dioxide is made by yeast and plants, but not by

animals

6.2 Gas Exchange:

The features of gas exchange surfaces in animals:
Wall of the alveolus is thin (a single layer of cells) to
allow gases to diffuse across them quickly.
They are moist to prevent the cells from drying and to
allow gases to dissolve.
They have a large surface area , so that a lot of gas
can diffuse across at the same time.
They have a high concentration gradient - maintained
by the movement of air & blood.

The role of mucus and cilia in protecting the gas exchange system
from pathogens and particles:
The lining contains two kinds of cells: Goblet cells
and ciliated cells.
Goblet cells make sticky, slimy mucus.
Many of the bacteria in the air and dust particles get
trapped in the mucus.
Ciliated cells have tiny, microscopic hair on them
called cilia.

The cilia beat in unison, and sweep the mucus upwards, towards the back of the throat.

The effects of tobacco smoke and its major toxic components:

Chemical

Effects on gas exchange system

Carbon monoxide

A poisonous gas; combines with hemoglobin in RBC, preventing them from

transporting oxygen

Nicotine

Addictive; increases heart rate & blood pressure

Smoke particles

Irritate the air passages, causing inflammation & increased mucus production,
resulting in chronic bronchitis; coughing and the presence of particles in the alveoli
can lead to emphysema (breaking the walls of the alveoli)

Tar

A carcinogen - increases the risk of lung cancer; lines the air passages, increasing
mucus production and paralyzing and damaging cilia, causing bronchitis.

The differences in composition between inspired and expired air:

Gas

Inspir
ed air
%

Expir
ed air
%

Explanation

Nitrogen

79

79

Not used or produced by body processes

Oxygen

21

16

Used up in the process of respiration

Carbon dioxide

0.04

Produced in the process of respiration

Water vapour

Varia
ble

Satur
ated

Produced in the process of respiration, moisture

evaporates from the surface of the alveoli

The effects of physical activity on the rate and depth of breathing:.

The volume of air breathed in and out during normal, relaxed breathing is about 0.5 litres
(the tidal volume).
The breathing rate is about 12 breaths per minute.
During exercise, the volume inhaled (depth) increases to about 5 litres ( depending on the
age, sex, size and fitness of the person).
The maximum amount of air breathed in and out in one breath is the vital capacity.

The breathing rate can increase to over 20 breaths per minute.

The total lung volume is greater than the vital capacity because some air always remains in
the lungs (otherwise the lungs would collapse and the alveoli walls would stick together).
Breathing rate and depth increase to absorb more oxygen for the muscles as exercising
muscles need to respire more to get more energy.
7.1 Nervous Control in Humans:
The Human Nervous System:

The human nervous system is made of two parts-central nervous system (CNS)
and peripheral nervous system (PNS).
CNS - brain and spinal cord, which have the role of coordination.
PNS - nerves, which connect all parts of the body to the CNS.
Sense organs are linked to the PNS; they contain groups of receptor cells.
When exposed to a stimulus they generate an electrical impulse, which passes
along peripheral nerves to the CNS, triggering a response.
Peripheral nerves contain sensory and motor neurons.
Sensory neurons transmit nerve impulses from sense organs to the central nervous
system.
Motor neurons transmit nerve impulses from the CNS to effectors (muscles or
glands).
Neurons are covered with a myelin sheath, which insulates them to make
transmission of the impulse more efficient.
Relay neurons pick up messages from other neurons and pass them on to other
neurons.
The cytoplasm (mainly axon and dendron) is elongated to transmit the impulse for
long distances.

Structure
1.Cell body

Sensory neuron

Motor neuron

Near end of the neuron, just outside the

At start of neuron, inside the spinal cord
spinal cord

2.Dendrites

Present at the end of neuron

Attached to cell body and inside the

spinal cord

3. Axon (takes impulses away

from cell body)

Very short stretch into spinal cord

Very long, stretches from spinal cord

into a muscle

4. Dendron

Very long stretches to a receptor

None

A reflex arc describes the pathway of an electrical impulse in response to a

stimulus.
In diagram above, the stimulus is a pin sticking in the finger.
The response is the withdrawal of the arm due to contraction of the biceps.
Relay neurons are found in the spinal cord, connecting sensory neurons to
motor neurons.
Neurons do not connect directly with each other: there is a gap called a
synapse.
The sequence of events is
Stimulus (sharp pin in finger) ------- Receptor (pain receptors in skin) ------- Coordinator (spinal cord) ------Effector (biceps muscle) ------- Response (biceps muscle contracts, hand is withdrawn from pin

Accommodation:

To focus on a distant object

To focus on a nearby object

Slightly diverging rays of light enter the eye

Greatly diverging rays enter the eye

Ciliary muscles relax

Ciliary muscles contract

Suspensory ligaments are pulled tight

Suspensory ligaments slacken (loosen)

Lens becomes thin

Lens get fatter

The thin lens bends the light rays slightly

The thick lens bends the light rays

greatly

The Eye:

Part of the eye

Function

Fovea

An area of the retina containing a high concentration of cones, where light is

usually focused and colours are detected

Blind spot

Part of the retina in front of the optic nerve that lacks rods or cones

Optic nerve

Transmits electrical impulses from the retina to the brain

Conjunctiva

A transparent, sensitive layer on the surface of the cornea

Sclera

A tough, white layer that protects the eyeball

Choroid

Produces a black pigment to prevent reflection of light inside the eye

Retina

A light sensitive layer made of rods and cones

Ciliary body

A ring of muscle that controls the shape of the lens to allow focusing

Suspensory
ligament

Attaches the lens to the ciliary body, so the lens is held in place

Cornea

A transparent layer at the front of the eye that refracts the light entering to help
to focus it

Iris

A coloured ring of circular and radial muscle that controls the size of the pupil

Lens

A transparent, convex, flexible, jelly-like structure that refracts light to focus it

Pupil

A hole in the centre of the iris that controls the amount of light reaching the
retina

Rods

Sensitive to dim light, do not respond to colour

Cones

Function when the light is bright, able to distinguish between different colours
of light

PUPIL (or iris) REFLEX (an e.g. of reflex action)

This reflex action changes the size of the pupil to control the amount of light entering the eye
In bright light:
a. Retina detects the brightness of light entering the eye;
b. An impulse passes to the brain along sensory neurons and travels back to the muscles of
the iris along motor neurons, triggering a response:
c. Circular muscles contract; radial muscles relax; so iris gets bigger
d. Pupil constricts (gets smaller) so less light falls on the retina (to prevent damage).
In dim light:
a. Retina detects the brightness of light entering the eye;
b. An impulse passes to the brain along sensory neurons and travels back to the muscles of
the iris along motor neurons, triggering a response:
c. Radial muscles contract; circular muscles relax; so iris gets smaller
d. Pupil size is increased (dilated) to allow as much light as possible to enter the eye;

7.2 Hormones:
Hormone: A chemical substance, produced by a gland, carried by the blood, which alters the activity of
one or more specific target organs and is then destroyed by the liver.
The role of the hormone adrenaline in the chemical control of metabolic activity, including
increasing the blood glucose concentration and pulse rate:
Adrenaline is secreted by adrenal glands located one above each kidney.
Adrenaline helps us to cope with danger by increasing the heart rate.
Thus supplying oxygen to brain and muscles more quickly, this increase the rate of
metabolic activity and gives more energy for fighting or running away.
The blood vessels in skin and digestive system contract so that they carry very little blood,
as a result we get butterflies in our stomach, and more blood goes to brain and muscles.
Adrenaline also causes the liver to release glucose into the blood.

This provides extra glucose to the muscles, thus more respiration and more energy is
released for contraction.
Examples of situations in which adrenaline secretion increases:
Examination.
Visit to a dentist.

Comparison of the nervous and hormonal control system:

Feature

Nervous

Hormonal (endocrine)

What are they made of

Neurons

Secretory cells

Form of transmission

Electrical impulses

Chemical (hormones)

Transmission pathway

Nerves

Blood vessels

Speed of transmission

Fast

Slow

Duration of effect

Short term

Long term

Response

Localized

Widespread (although there may be a specific

target organ)

7.3 Tropic Responses:

Phototropism - A response in which a plant grows towards or away from the direction from which light is
coming.
Geotropism - A response in which a plant grows towards or away from gravity.
The chemical control of plant growth by Auxins:
Auxins are growth hormones.
They are produced by the shoot and root tips of growing plants.
An accumulation of auxin in a shoot stimulates cell growth by the absorption of water.

However, auxins have the opposite effect in

roots,
when
they
build
up,
they
slow
down
cell

growth.

When a shoot is exposed to light from one side, auxins produced from the shoot tip towards
the shaded side of the shoot.
Cells on shaded side stimulated to absorb more water than those on the light side.
Thus unequal growth causes the stem to bend towards light.
This is called positive phototropism.
If a root is exposed to light in the absence of gravity, auxins produced by the root tip moves
towards the shaded side of the root.
Cells on the shaded side are stimulated to absorb less water than those on the light side.
Thus unequal growth causes the root to bend away from the light.
This is called negative phototropism.
Geotropism
Shoot and roots also respond to gravity.
If a shoot is placed horizontally in the absence of light, auxins accumulate on the lower side
of the shoot, due to gravity.
This makes the cells on the lower side grow more quickly than on the upper side, so the
shoot bends upwards - negative geotropism.
If a root is placed horizontally in the absence of light, auxins accumulate on the lower side of
the root, due to gravity.
Thus the cells on the lower side grow more slowly than those on the upper side, so the root
bends downwards - positive phototropism.

7.4 Homeostasis:

Homeostasis: The maintenance of a constant

internal environment.
The maintenance of a constant body
temperature in humans:
Humans maintain a body
temperature of 37oC.
A part of the brain called the
hypothalamus keeps internal
temperature constant by acting like a
thermostat.
If the temperature is above or below
o
37 C, the hypothalamus receives
information from thermo receptors in our
skin and sends electrical impulses, along
nerves, to the parts of the body which
have the function of regulating our body temperature.
When cold, the body produces and saves heat in
the following ways:
a. Shivering: Muscles in some parts of the body
contract and relax very quickly. This produces heat
and is called shivering.
b. Metabolism may increase.
c. Hair stands up: This produces goose flesh and
traps a thicker layer of warm air next to the skin,
acting as an insulator.
d. Vasoconstriction: The arterioles that supply the skin
blood capillaries becomes narrower, thus less blood
flows in them and thus less heat is lost to the air by radiation.
When hot, the body loses more heat in the following ways:
a.
Hair lies flat: No insulation
b. Vasodilation: The arterioles that supply the skin blood
capillaries gets dilated, thus more blood flows through
them and thus heat is readily lost from the blood into the
air by radiation;
c. Sweating: Sweat gland secretes sweat on the surface
of skin, which evaporates, taking heat from the skin with
it, thus cooling the body;
d. Metabolism slows down.

The concept of control by negative feedback:

A change from normal, for instance an increase in blood glucose levels , triggers a sensor,
which stimulates a response in an effector.
However, the response in this case is the secretion of insulin hormone, which would
eventually result in glucose levels dropping below normal.

As glucose levels drop, the sensor detects the drop and instructs the effector (pancreas) to
stop secreting insulin (negative effect).
This is negative feedback- the change is fed back to the effector

The control of the glucose content of the blood by the liver, and by insulin and glucagon from the
pancreas:
Liver is a homeostatic organ, it controls the levels of glucose.
Two hormones insulin and glucagon control blood glucose levels.
Both hormones are secreted by pancreas and are transported to the liver in the
bloodstream.

Role of insulin in controlling blood glucose levels:

When blood glucose levels are high, then insulin is secreted by pancreas.
Insulin passes in the bloodstream and then to the liver.
Insulin stimulates the liver to absorb glucose.
Insulin converts glucose to glycogen.
Insulin also increases the rate of respiration; so more blood glucose is absorbed by cells
and used up, to reduce blood glucose levels.

Role of glucagon in controlling blood glucose levels:

When blood glucose levels drop below normal, glucagon is secreted by the pancreas.
Glucagon passes in the bloodstream and then to the liver.
Glucagon converts glycogen to glucose in the liver.
Glucose is then released into the bloodstream.

8.1 Asexual and Sexual Reproduction:

Asexual Reproduction: The process resulting in the production of genetically identical offspring from
one parent
Advantages
The process is quick.
Only one parent is needed.
No gametes are needed.
All the good characteristics of the parent are passed on to the offspring.
They usually store large amounts of food that allow rapid growth when conditions are
suitable.
Disadvantages

There is little variation created, so adaptation to a changing environment (evolution) is

unlikely.
If the parent has no resistance to a particular disease, none of the offspring will have
resistance.
Lack of dispersal (e.g. potato tubers) can lead to competition for nutrients, water and light.

Sexual Reproduction: The process involving the fusion of haploid nuclei to form a diploid zygote and the
production of genetically different offspring.
Advantages
There is variation in the offspring so adaptation to a changing or new environment is likely,
enabling survival of the species.
New varieties may be created which may have resistance to disease.
In plants, seeds are produced, which allow dispersal away from the parent plant, reducing
competition.
Disadvantages
Two parents are usually needed (although not always- some plants can self-pollinate).
Growth of a new plant to maturity from a seed is slow.
8.2 Sexual Reproduction in Plants:

insect pollinated, dicot. flower and pollen grains,

A = Bract.
B = Feathery Stigma.
C = Anther loosely
attached to the filament.

D = Ovary

The functions of the sepals, petals, anthers, stigmas and ovaries:

Part

Function

Petal

Often large and coloured, to attract insects

Sepal

Protects the flower while in bud

Petiole (stalk)

Supports the flower to make it easily seen by insects, and to be able to withstand
wind

Stamen

The male reproductive part of the flower, made of anther and filament

Anther

Contains pollen sacs, in which pollen grains are formed. Pollen contains male sex
cells

Filament

Supports the anther

Carpel

The female reproductive part of the flower, made of stigma, style and ovary

Stigma

A sticky surface that receives pollen during pollination

Style

Links the stigma to the ovary, through which pollen tubes grow

Ovary

Contains ovules, which develop into seeds when fertilised

Pollination: Transfer of pollen grains from the male part of the plant (anther) to the female part (stigma).
The agents of pollination: Wind, Animals (including insects), Water.

The different structural adaptations of insect-pollinated and wind-pollinated flowers:

Feature

Insect-pollinated

Wind-pollinated

Petals

Present- often large, coloured and

scented

Absent or small and inconspicuous

Nectar

Produced by nectaries to attract

insects

Absent, or small and green

Stamen

Present inside the flower

Long filaments, allowing the anthers to

hang freely outside the flower so the pollen
is exposed to the wind

Stigmas
Pollen

Small surface area, inside the flower

Large and feathery, hanging outside the

flower to catch pollen

Smaller amounts- grains are often Larger amounts of smooth and light pollen
round and sticky, or covered in spikes grains, which are easily carried by the wind
to attach to the furry bodies of insects

Bracts (modified
leaves)

Absent

Sometimes present

The structure of a non-endospermic seed:

After fertilization, the ovule becomes a zygote.
The zygote divides by mitosis to form an
embryo plant.
The ovule is now called a seed.
The ovary becomes the fruit.

Part of the seed

Structure

Function

Testa

Tough protective covering

Stop embryo from being damaged, prevents

bacteria and fungi from entering the seed

Cotyledons

Food store

Contains starch, protein and enzymes

Radicle

Part of embryo

Grow into root

Plumule

Part of embryo

Grow into shoot

Micropyle

Tiny hole in testa

Water and oxygen enters the seed through

this hole

Hilum

A scar near the micropyle

Where the seed was joined to the pod

(ovary)

Environmental conditions affecting germination:

Environmental condition

Explanation

Water

Absorbed through micropyle, needed to activate enzymes which

convert insoluble food stores into soluble foods needed for growth
and energy production.

Oxygen

Needed for respiration, to release energy for growth and chemical

changes for mobilization of food reserves

Suitable temperature

For enzymes to work as enzymes work best at optimum

temperature

Light

Not usually a requirement for germination but some seeds need a

period of exposure to light before they germinate

Seed and fruit dispersed by wind and by animals provides a means of colonizing new areas:
Dispersal of seeds is important, because it prevents too many plants growing close together.
If this happens, they compete for light, water and nutrients, so that none can grow properly.
Dispersal also allows the plant to colonise new areas.
seed and fruit dispersed by wind and by animals.

Wind dispersed fruit

Dandelion
Dandelion fruit has a group of
fine hairs called a pappus.
Pappus acts as a parachute and
catches wind.
The fruit counterbalances the
pappus.

Sycamore
Sycamore has a wing with a
large surface area.
When fruit drops of the tree it
spins, slowly down its descent.
If caught by wind the seed will
be carried away from the parent plant,
reducing competition for nutrients,
water and light.

Animal dispersed fruit

Succulent fruits e.g. blackberry
They are coloured, juicy and
nutritious and hence attracted by
animals.
When eaten seeds pass
through the gut without getting
digested and deposited with animal
faeces far away from the parent
plant.

Hooked fruits e.g. bur

Catch on to animals fur as it
brushes past the parent plant.
Eventually the seed drop off
and gets dispersed far away from
the parent plant.

8.3 Sexual Reproduction in Humans:

The male reproductive system:

The female reproductive system:

Male:

Part

Function

Epididymis

A mass of tubes in which sperm are stored

Penis

Can become firm, to insert into the vagina of the female during
sexual intercourse, to transfer sperm

Prostate gland

Adds fluid and nutrients to sperm, to form semen

Scrotum

A sac that holds the testes outside the body, keeping them cooler
than body temperature

Seminal vesicle

Adds fluid and nutrients to sperm, to form semen

Sperm duct

Muscular tube which links the testis to the urethra to allow the
passage of semen containing sperm

Testis (pl. testes)

Male gonads that produce sperm

Urethra

To pass semen containing sperm through the penis, also carries

urine from the bladder at different times

Female:

Part

Function

Cervix

A ring of muscle that separates the vagina from the uterus

Funnel of oviduct

Directs an ovum (egg) from the ovary into the oviduct

Ovary

Contains follicles in which ova (eggs) are produced

Oviduct

Carries an ovum to the uterus, with propulsion provided by tiny cilia in

the wall; also the site of fertilization

Urethra

Carries urine from the bladder

Uterus

Where the fetus develops

Vagina

Receives the male penis during sexual intercourse; sperm are

deposited here

Male and female gametes:

Types of gamete

Structure
1. Is large in size 0.1mm because it
has all cell components that is needed for
the cell to grow and multiply; has yolk to
nourish the embryo.
2. During ovulation, only one egg is
released every month.
3. Ovum is immobile as the sperm
moves towards it to fertilise it.

Egg

Sperm

The menstrual cycle:

1. Size is very small 0.05mm.

2. During ejaculation millions of sperms
are produced into the womens vagina.
3. Sperms are highly mobile and can
swim towards the oviduct with the help of
its tail.

Fertilisation:
During sexual intercourse, erect penis is inserted into the vagina.
Semen is ejaculated into the neck of the vagina.
Many sperms cluster around ovum, however only one penetrates.
A fertilisation membrane is secreted around the egg once one sperm enters.
the sperm nucleus fuses with egg nucleus to form zygote.

Early development of the zygote:

The functions of the amniotic sac and amniotic fluid:

Structure

Function

Amniotic sac

A thin membrane, formed from cells of embryo, contains the amniotic fluid;
It encloses the fetus and prevents entry of bacteria.

Amniotic fluid

Supports the fetus, protecting it from physical damage;

It absorbs excretory materials (urine) released by the fetus.

The
placenta
and
umbilical
cord:

The placenta brings the blood supply of the fetus close to that of the mother, but prevents
mixing.
This is important because the fetus and mother may have different blood groups and any
mixing can result in blood clotting.
Also the mothers blood pressure is higher compared to the fetus which might damage the
fetal organs.
Blood from fetus passes through the umbilical cord in the umbilical artery to the placenta.
Substances that diffuse across the placenta are as follows:
Type of
substance

To fetus from mother

To mother from
fetus

Respiratory
gases

Oxygen

Carbon dioxide

Soluble nutrients

Amino acids, glucose,

fatty acids, glycerol,

vitamins, minerals,
water
Diseasepreventing
substances

Antibodies, antibiotics

Nitrogenous
excretory
substances
Potentially
harmful
substances

Urea

Alcohol, nicotine and

other drugs, viruses,
bacteria

The Advantages and Disadvantages of breastfeeding:

Advantages of breastfeeding over bottle-feeding:
There are antibodies present in the breast milk, giving the baby protection against infection.
Foodstuffs are present in breast milk in the correct proportions.
There are no additives and preservatives in breast milk.
Breastfeeding builds a bond between mother and baby.
Breast milk does not require sterilization as there are no bacteria present that could cause
intestinal disease.
Breastfeeding triggers a reduction in the size of the mothers uterus.
Formula milk is much more expensive than breast milk, which is free.

Advantages of bottle-feeding over breast-feeding:

Someone else can feed the mothers baby.
This can also help the father to bond with the baby, if he is involved in feeding.

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV):

Methods of transmission

Ways of preventing its spread

Unprotected sexual intercourse with an

infected person

Use of condom for sexual intercourse

Drug use involving sharing a needle used by

an infected person

Abstinence from sexual intercourse

Transfusions of unscreened blood

Screening of blood used for transfusions

Infected mother to fetus

Use of sterilized needles for drug injections

Feeding a baby with milk from an infected

mother

Feeding a baby with bottled milk when the

mother has HIV

Use of unsterilized surgical instruments

Use of sterilized surgical instruments

The effects of HIV on the human body:

HIV virus attacks some types of lymphocyte (white blood cells) in the bloodstream.
Lymphocytes produce antibodies, which attack the antigens present on invading microbes.
So HIV stops this happening - thus the person develops symptoms of AIDS.
So they become vulnerable to infections (like pneumonia, tuberculosis and cancer).
A person with AIDS usually dies of a collection of several illnesses.

9.1 Chromosomes and Genes:

Inheritance: The transmission of genetic information from generation to generation.
Chromosome: A thread of DNA, made up of a string of genes.
Gene: A length of DNA that is the unit of heredity and codes for a specific protein. A gene may be copied
and passed on to the next generation.
Allele: Any of two or more alternative forms of a gene.
Haploid nucleus: A nucleus containing a single set of unpaired chromosomes (e.g. sperm and egg).
Diploid nucleus: A nucleus containing two sets of chromosomes (e.g. in body cells).
The inheritance of sex in humans (XX and XY chromosomes):
Of the 23 pairs of chromosomes present in each human cell, one pair is the sex
chromosome.
These determine the sex of the individual.
Males have XY, and females have XX.

9.2 Cell Division:

Mitosis : As nuclear division giving rise to genetically identical cells in which the chromosome number is
maintained by the exact duplication of chromosomes.
The role of mitosis:
Helps in growth.
Repairs damaged tissues.
Replaces worn out cells.
Asexual reproduction.
Meiosis: As a reduction in which the chromosome number is halved from diploid to haploid.
* Gametes are the result of meiosis, which on fertilization helps to retain the chromosome number specific
for a species.*

Meiosis results
in genetic
variation

Sex cells are formed in the gonads (ovaries and testes) by meiosis.
The gametes (sex cells) produced are haploid, but they are formed from diploid cells.
Thus meiosis involves halving the normal chromosome number.
At the end of the process, cells produced are not all identical, thus meiosis results in
variation.

9.3 Monohybrid Inheritance:

Genotype: The genetic makeup of an organism in terms of the alleles present (Tt or GG).
Phenotype: The physical or other features of the organism due to both its genotype and its environment
(e.g. tall plant or green seed).
Homozygous: Having two identical alleles of a particular gene (TT or gg). Two identical homozygous
individuals that breed together will be pure-breeding.
Heterozygous: Having two different alleles of a particular gene (e.g. Tt or Gg), not pure- breeding.
Dominant: An allele that is expressed if it is present (e.g. T or G).
Recessive: An allele that is only expressed if homozygous and dominant is not present (e.g. t or g).

9.4 Variation and Selection:

Continuous variation is influenced by genes and environment, resulting in a range of phenotypes between
two extremes e.g. height in humans...
Continuous variation is caused both
genes and by environment.
Environmental influences for plants
may be competition for nutrients, light,
water and exposure to disease.
For animals, it may be availability of
food and exposure to disease.
Examples of continuous variation
include height, body mass and intelligence.

by

Discontinuous variations caused by genes

alone and results in a limited number of
distinct phenotypes with no intermediates e.g.
A, B, AB, and O blood groups in humans...
Discontinuous variation is seen
where there are obvious, distinct
categories for a feature.
There are no intermediates
between categories, and the feature
cannot usually change during life.
It is caused by a single gene or a small group of genes, with no environmental influence.
Examples include blood group, ability to tongue-roll and earlobe shape.

Mutation: As a change in a gene or chromosome.

The effects of ionizing radiation on the rate of mutation.
Exposure to radiation and some chemicals, such as tar in tobacco smoke, increases the
rate of mutation.
Exposure can cause uncontrolled cell division, leading to the formation of tumours (cancer).
Exposure of gonads (testes and ovaries) to radiation can lead to sterility or damage to
genes in sex cells that can be passed on to children.
The role of artificial selection in the production of varieties of animals and plants with increased
economic importance.
Artificial selection is used by humans to produce varieties of animals and plants that have
an increased economic importance.
Process involves
(a) Breeder selects two varieties of a species which have characteristics of interest.
(b) Then they breed them together.
(c) Then they select their offspring which shows characteristics of interest and breed them.

(d) The process of breeding is continued over many generations until the entire population shows the
characteristics of interest.
Examples:
(i) A variety of cattle may have a higher than average milk yield. Another variety may have a very high milk
yield. If the two varieties are crossbred, a new breed could be artificially produced that has the benefits of
both parental varieties (high milk production in females; high meat yield in males).
(ii) Wild varieties of plants sometimes have increased resistance to fungal diseases, but have poor fruit yield.
Cross Breeding wheat plants can result in the formation of varieties that have both high resistance to
disease and high seed yield.
Variation:

Variation describes differences in a population.

Some variation is inherited (passed on from parents) and some is acquired (developed
during life).
Animals and plants produced by sexual reproduction will show variation from their parents,
e.g. in the size of muscles in the legs of lion.
Some slight variations may better adapt some organisms to their environment than others.

Natural Selection:
Natural Selection: As the greater chance of passing on of genes by the best-adapted organisms.
The process of natural selection follows a sequence, listed below:
Overproduction: Most organisms produce more young than will survive to adulthood.
Struggle for existence: When new organisms are produced, not all of them are likely to
survive because of competition for resources such as food, water and shelter.
Survival of the fittest: The individuals with the most favourable characteristics are most likely
to survive.
Advantageous characteristics passed on to offspring: Only the well adapted organisms will
be able to reproduce successfully and pass on their advantageous genes to their offspring.
The importance of natural selection as a possible mechanism for evolution:
The theory of natural selection suggests that the best-adapted organisms are selected to
pass on their characteristics to the next generation.
In this way, over a period of time, the population will lose all the poorly adapted individuals.
Thus the population will gradually become better adapted to the environment.
This gradual change in the species through natural selection over time, in response to
changes in the environment, is a possible mechanism for evolution.

The development of strains of antibiotic resistant bacteria as an example of natural selection.

Bacteria reproduce rapidly- a new generation can be produced every 20 minutes.

Antibiotics (is a chemical that kills bacteria by preventing bacterial cell wall formation) are
used to treat bacterial infections.
Mutations occur during reproduction, which produce some variation in the population of
bacteria.
Individual bacteria with the most favourable features are most likely to survive and
reproduce.
A mutation may occur that enables a bacterium to resist being killed by antibiotic treatment,
while the rest of the population is killed when treated.
This bacterium would survive the treatment and breed, passing on the antibiotic-resistant
gene to its offspring.
Future treatment of this population of bacteria using the antibiotic would be ineffective.

B10: Energy flow in ecosystems:

The Sun is the principal source of energy input to biological systems

The Earth receives two main types of energy from the sun: light (solar)

and heat.
Photosynthetic plants and some bacteria can trap light energy and
convert it into chemical energy.
Heterotrophic organisms obtain their energy by eating plants or animals
that have eaten plants.
So all organisms, directly or indirectly, get their energy from the sun.
This energy is passed from one organism to another in a food chain.
This energy does not return in a cycle but is lost to the environment.

Food Chain: A chart showing the flow of energy (food) from one organism to the next beginning
with a producer.
E.g. Mahogany tree

Caterpillar

Songbird

Hawk

Food Web: A network of interconnected food chains showing the energy flow through part of an
ecosystem.
Producer: An organism that makes its own organic nutrients, usually using energy from sunlight,
through photosynthesis.
Consumer: An organism that gets its energy by feeding on other organisms.
Herbivore: An animal that gets its energy by eating plants.
Carnivore: An animal that gets its energy by eating other animals.
Energy losses between trophic levels:
Energy is lost at each level in the food
Energy is lost through the process of
respiration (as heat).

chain.

Energy used up for movement.

Warm-blooded animals lose heat energy in faeces and urine.
Some of the material in the organism being eaten is not used by the consumer e.g. a locust
(insect) does not eat the roots of the maize, and some of the parts eaten are not digestible.
Decomposer: An organism that gets its energy from dead or waste organic matter.
Ecosystem: A unit containing all of the organisms and their environment, interacting together, in
a given area e.g. decomposing log or a lake.
Trophic level: The position of an organism in a food chain or food web.

Why food chains usually have fewer than five trophic levels:
As energy is passed along the chain, each organism uses some of it in.
On an average, about 90% of the energy is lost at each level in a food chain.
So the further along the chain you go, the less energy there is.
There is plenty of energy available for producers, so there are usually a lot of them.
There is less energy for primary consumers, and least in secondary consumers.
Thus towards the end of food chain the organisms get fewer in number.
The loss of energy along the food chain thus limits the length of it.

The Carbon Cycle:

Carbon moves into and out of the

atmosphere mainly in the form of carbon
dioxide.
Plants take carbon dioxide out of the air
by photosynthesis.
Plants convert carbon dioxide into
organic materials (carbohydrates, fats and
proteins).
Herbivores obtain carbon compounds by
eating plants.
Carnivores gain carbon compounds by
eating other animals.
Animals and plants release carbon dioxide back into the air through respiration.
When organisms die they usually rot (decompose).
Decomposers breakdown the organic molecules through the process of respiration
to release energy. Thus decomposers also release carbon dioxide.
If a dead organism does not decompose, the carbon compounds are trapped in its
body. Over a long period this can form fossil fuels.
Combustion of fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide back into the air.

The effects of the combustion of fossil fuels and the cutting down of forests on the oxygen and
carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere:
Photosynthesis takes carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere and replaces it with oxygen.
Respiration and combustion use up oxygen from the atmosphere and replace it with carbon
dioxide.
When fossil fuels are burnt, the carbon in them combines with oxygen from the air, and
forms carbon dioxide. This process is called combustion.
Combustion of fossil fuels is thought to be having an effect on the balance of carbon
dioxide.
The extra carbon dioxide may be causing the percentage of carbon dioxide in the air to
increase.
The loss of the trees may reduce the amount of photosynthesis taking place.
As a result the concentration of carbon dioxide increases and oxygen decreases in the
atmosphere.
The rise in the levels of carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere could be dangerous as it
may cause global warming.

B11: Human Influences on the Ecosystem:

The undesirable effects of deforestation:

a. Species extinction through habitat loss:

Reduction of habitats or food sources for animals can result in their

Loss of forest habitat also reduces plant & animal diversity & disrupts the

extinction.
food chains.
b.

Loss of soil by soil erosion:

Removal of trees means there are no roots to hold soil, thus the thin top
layer of soil is washed away during rain.
This causes soil erosion and leaching of minerals.
Desertification can eventually result.

c.

Flooding;
Soil from erosion is washed into rivers, silting it and causing flooding.
When forest is removed there are no plant roots to take up rainwater,
which instead flows into streams and rivers, causing further flooding.

d.

Carbon dioxide build up:

Forests have high rates of photosynthesis so absorb large amounts of
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
Removal of forests therefore contributes to increases in atmospheric
carbon dioxide.

The undesirable effects of overuse of fertilisers:

 To increase crop yields farmers use excess of fertilisers.

A high concentration of fertilizer around plant roots can cause the roots
to lose water by osmosis resulting in the wilting and death of plants.
Another effect is eutrophication of rivers and lakes as follows:
a.

Fertilisers (very soluble) are easily leached out of the soil and washed into rivers and
lakes;
b. Algae absorb fertilizer and grow rapidly (algal bloom);
c. Algae form a blanket on the surface of water, blocking sunlight from algae below;
d. Algae and other plants below the surface die without light;
e. Bacteria decompose the dead algae and plants, using up oxygen in the water for
respiration;
f.
Animals in water die due to lack of oxygen.

The undesirable effects of pollution:

a.

Effects of water pollution:

(i)
(ii)

b.

Pollution by chemical waste

Pollution by sewage:
Sewage (urine and faeces) contains high levels of nutrients such as
phosphates, organic matter and bacteria.
Phosphates act as fertilisers for algae, thus resulting in algal bloom.
Sewage contains organic matter which bacteria break down, causing
them to multiply and deoxygenate the water through aerobic respiration.
Furthermore sewage may contain disease-causing bacteria, which could
get into drinking water supplies, causing cholera and typhoid.

Effects of air pollution:

Carbon dioxide is produced by burning of fossil fuels.
Methane is produced from the decay of organic matter and as a waste
gas from digestive processes in cattle.
Carbon dioxide and methane are greenhouse gases.
They are called greenhouse gases as they trap heat in the earths
atmosphere in the same way a greenhouse traps heat.
As the concentration of these gases increase in the atmosphere more
heat is trapped, making the atmosphere warmer. This is called enhanced greenhouse
effect.
It is causing global warming Earths average temperature is rising;

The causes and effects on the environment of acid rain:

Causes

Main
sources

Effects

Possible solutions

Sulphur
dioxide,
Oxides of
nitrogen

Burning of
fossil fuels
Combustion
of petrol in
car
engines.

1. Damage to leaves, killing

plants;
2. Acidification of lakes, killing
animals;
3. Increased risk of asthma
attacks and bronchitis in
humans;
4. Corrosion of stonework on
buildings;
5. Release of aluminium from
the soil into lakes that are toxic
to fish.

1. Changing the power

stations from coal and oil to
renewable energy sources.
2. Using scrubbers in
power station chimneys
sulphur dioxide.
3. Using catalytic converters
in car exhausts to convert
oxides of nitrogen to
harmless nitrogen.

Explaining how increases in greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide and methane) are thought to cause
global warming:
Global warming is causing the following problems:
a. Melt polar ice caps, causing flooding of low-lying land;
b. Change weather conditions in some countries by increasing flooding or reducing
rainfall;
c. Cause the extinction of some species that cannot survive at higher temperatures.

The need for conservation of species and their habitats, natural resources:
Reasons for conserving species include the following:
Many species are in the danger of extinction due to habitat destruction,
introduction of other species, international trade and pollution.
Loss of species also means that its genes are lost, these may be
important in future for genetic engineering.
The presence of rare species can be an important source of money for
poor communities, through tourism.
The species may play an important role in a food chain and thus its loss
could endanger other species.

A habitat can be conserved by:

Using laws to protect the habitat.
Using wardens to protect the habitat.
Reducing or controlling public access to the habitat.
Controlling factors, such as water drainage and grazing, that may
otherwise contribute to destruction of the habitat.

Conservation of natural resources:

Natural resources are nonrenewable and therefore need to be conserved
in the following ways;
a. By increasing the use of renewable energy (wind energy, solar energy, hydroelectric
power).
b. By improving the efficiency of energy use (better insulation, smaller car engines,
more public transport).
c. Trees can be grown for fuel, then replanted as they are cut down., in this way the
greenhouse effect is not increased and habitats can be maintained.