Bottom Structure

KEEL

is located at the center line of the bottom structure and are the backbone of the ship.
Contributes substantially to the longitudinal strength and distributes local loading
caused by docking.
Commonest form is flat plate keel which is fitted in ocean-going vessels.
Bar keel is used in small vessels (e.g. trawlers, tugs).
When double is fitted, flat plate type is always used.
Duck keel is provided in some double bottoms of some vessel. It carries the doublebottom piping.

Single Bottom Structure

the vertical plate open floors are fitted at every frame space and are stiffened at their
upper edge.
A centerline girder is fitted and one side girder is fitted each of the center line when
beam is less than 10m.
When the beam is between 10 and 17 m, two side girders may be fitted and additional
continuous or intercostal stiffeners are fitted if the aspect ratio w/l of bottom shell panel
is greater than 4
A wood ceiling may be fitted across the floors but this does not constitute an inner
bottom offering any protection if the outer bottom is damaged.

Double Bottom
composed of outer and inner watertight bottom plating to provide complete watertight
integrity
The double bottom space is utilized to carry oil fuel and fresh water as well as
providing the required ballast capacity.
The minimum depth of the double bottom depends on the size of the vessel and is
determined by the rule requirements of classification societies.
The increase in the inner bottom height is always made by a gradual taper in the
longitudinal direction to avoid sudden discontinuity in the structure
One or two side girders, (continuous or intercostal), are fitted depending on the width
The side girders, and plate floors have lightening holes to reduce the structural weight,
and manholes to provide access.
Double bottom in the way of machinery spaces that are adjacent to the aft peak are
required to be transversely framed.
Inner bottom plating
Inner bottom plating may be sloped at the side to form a bilge for drainage
The middle strake of the inner bottom is the upper flange of the center-line docking
girder and thus heavier than other strakes.
If grabs are used for discharging cargoes, the plate thickness is further increased or a
double ceiling is used.
Floors
Floors at the ends of the bottom tank spaces are made watertight or oil tight by closing
any holes or welding collars around any members that pass through the floors.
Solids plate floors are fitted to strength the bottom transversely and support the inner
bottom
They run transversely from the continuous center girder to the bilge.

 The spacing of the solid plate floor varies according to the loads supported and local
stresses.
Manholes are provided for access through tanks and lightening holes are cut in each
solid plate floor.
Transversely framed double bottom
Transverse solid plate floors, and bracketed floors with transverse frames, provides
the principle support for the inner bottom and bottom shell plating.
Solid plate floors are fitted at every frame space in the engine room and in the
pounding region
One intercostal side girder is provided port and starboard where 10<B<20 m
Two are fitted if B is greater.

Longitudinally framed double bottom

Solids plate floors are fitted at every frame space under the main engines and at
alternate frames outboard of the engine seating.
They are fitted under boiler seats, transverse bulkheads and the toes of stiffener
brackets on deep tank bulkheads
One intercostal side girder is fitted port and starboard if B>14m
Two are fitted if B>14m
The side girders extend as far forward and aft as possible.

Write down the names of Ship Structural components in ship bottom. OR bottom structure
1. Keel
1) Flat plate keel
2) Bar keel
3) Duct keel
2. Single bottom structure
1. Open floor

4. Intercostal side girder or side

keelsons

2. Garboard strake

5. Center girder

3. Transverse plate floors

3. Double bottom structure(transversely or longitudinally)

1. Center girder

5. Bottom longitudinals

2. Intercostal side girder

6. Bracket floors

3. Solid floor

7. Flat plate keel

4. Tank top or inner bottom

8. Margin plate

4. Bilge keel

Fore end Structure

Major components are
1. Stem

4. Hawse pipes

2. Bulbous bow

5. Bow steering Arrangement

3. Chain locker

6. Bow thruster

On many ships, soft nose stem, which is a solid

round bar is fitted from keel to the waterline region.
In the event of collision, it will buckle under load
keeping the impact damage to a minimum.

2.Bulbous bows

Vessel operating at higher speeds and those with

high CB are fitted with bulbous bow to reduce the
vessels resistance.
It involves a greater degree of plate curvature
Floors are fitted at every frame space and a center
bulkhead is fitted if the bulb is large.
Shell plating has an increased thickness to cover any
area likely to damage by the anchors and chains.

3.Chain locker
Chain locker, whose dimensions are determined in relation to the length and size of
cable, is arranged fwd of collision bulkhead.
A false bottom may be formed by perforated plates on bearers arranged at a height
above the floor of the locker.
It will help to clean up the mud.

4.Hawse pipe
It provides an easy lead for the cable from the
windlass to the anchors.
Tubular hawse pipes are fabricated and castings
are welded at the shell and deck to prevent chafing.

5.Bow steering units

Double-ended ferries are provided with a rudder at either end that is locked in position
when it is at the fore end of the vessel under way.

6.Bow thrusters
For maneuvering in confined waters at low speeds and/or when very accurate
positioning is required, lateral bow thrusters are provided.
They consist of controllable pitch impeller fitted in an athwartship watertight tunnel.
To reduce the increased hull resistance because of the tunnel, flush-mounted, butterfly
action, hydraulically operated doors are fitted.

Deck, hatches and superstructures

Decks
Decks at difference levels in ship serve various functions
Watertight decks are fitted to maintain the integrity of the main watertight hull
Freeboard deck is the uppermost deck
Strength deck forms the upper flange of the main hull girder
Weather deck are cambered to facilitate the drainage of the water
Deck plating
As the greatest longitudinal bending stresses will occur over the amidships, the
greatest deck plate thickness is maintained over 40% of the length amidships and it tapers to
a minimum thickness permitted at the ends of the ships.
All large openings are well-rounded to avoid stress, with inserted plates fitted, unless
the corners are parabolic or elliptical with the major axis fore and aft, local stress
concentrations being reduced if the latter is type of corner is cut.

Deck may be framed transversely or longitudinally

Within the fwd 7.5% of the LOA ,the forecastle and weather deck transverses are
closely spaced and the longitudinal scantlings increased.

Hatches
The construction and means of closing hatches in
watertight decks are contained within the Conditions of
Assignment of Freeboard of the Load Line Convention

Folding hatch cover

Single pull hatch cover
Direct pull hatch cover
Rolling hatch cover
Piggy-back hatch cover

Hatch coaming
Heights of coamings and cover closing arrangements depend on the hatch position
Position 1: On the exposed freeboard deck, raised quarter deck or superstructure
decks within 25% of the ships length form fwd
Hatches at position 1have coaming at least 600mm high
Position 2: On exposed superstructure decks abaft the fwd 25% of LOA
Hatches at position 2 have at least 450 mm high coamings.
Coamings of 600mm or more are stiffened by a horizontal bulb flat at the upper edge
Coaming s of less than 600 mm are stiffened by a cope at the upper edge

Bulwarks
Bulwarks fitted on weather decks are provided as protection for
personnel
They are of light scantlings.
Free ports are cut in bulwarks forming wells on decks to drain water
It should be at least 1m high on the exposed freeboard and
superstructure decks

Superstructure
Superstructures may be defined as those erections above the freeboard deck that
extend to the ships side or almost to the side. Deckhouses are those erections on deck that
are well within the line of the ships side.
These structures are non-continuous. At these is continuities large stresses may arise
and additional strengthening will be required.
Long superstructures exceeding 15% of the ships length and extending within 50% of
the vessels length amidships receive special consideration as they contribute to the
longitudinal strength of the ship

Aft-end Structure
Major components in aft-end are
1. Stern frame

4. Stern tube

2. Rudder

5. Shaft bossing or A bracket

3. Steering gear

6. Propellers

1.Stern
Basically three kinds of stern types exist
a. elliptical or elevated stern
b. cruiser stern
c. transom stern
Elliptical stern is found in ancient ships
Cruiser stern presents more pleasant profile and is
hydrodynamically efficient but the transom stern offers a greater deck
area aft

Construction
Cruiser stern: it subjected to large slamming forces. Solid floors are
fitted in every frame and a heavy center-line girder is fitted right aft.
Stern plating is stiffened by cant frames or webs and/or horizontal
stringers.

2.Stern frame

Cruiser stern: Cant frame is not required. Deep floors and a center-line
girder is fitted at the lower region of the stern

o The form of stern frame is influenced by the stern profile and rudder type.
o The stern frame may be cast, forged or fabricated from steel plate and sections.
o To prevent serious vibration at the after end there must be adequate clearances between the
propeller and stern frame.
o Stern post is of a streamline form.

3.Rudders
o Rudders on present-day ships are semi-balanced.
o Balanced rudders with large area fwd of axis (25-30%)and unbalanced rudders with the full
area aft of the axis are also fitted.
o The object of balance is to achieve a reduction in torque but the fully balanced rudder will at
low angles tend to drive the gear.

Construction:
o Modern rudders are of streamlined form.
o One side plate is prepared and the vertical and horizontal webs are welded and the other plate
called the closing plate, is the welded to the internal framing.
o A drain hole with a plug and a lifting hole is provided
o Interior surfaces are suitably coated.

4. Rudder pintles: Pintles in the gudgeons have a taper on the radius and its bearing length
exceeds the diameter.

5. Rudder stocks
It may be of cast or forged steel and its meter is determined in accordance with the torque
and any bearing moment it is to withstand.

6.Rudder bearing: carries the rudder weight

7.Rudder trunk: rudder stocks are carried in rudder trunk and its lower end is not watertight
8.Steering gear: Steering gear are usually electro-hydraulic type.
9.Stern tube
Two forms exist: water-lubricated bearings with the after end open to the sea and metal
bearing surfaces lubricated by oil with both ends closed.

10.Shaft bossing and A brackets

Multi-screw vessels have propellers shafts that leave the line of shell at some distance fwd
of the stern.
They support the shaft overhang.
A brackets fitted in lieu of bossing to reduce the resistance.

11.Propellers
The bore of the propeller boss is tapered to fit the tail shaft and the propeller may be keyed
onto this shaft.
The blades of CPP are mounted separated on the boss in which the pitch can be changed.
Shrouded propellers are enclosed in a fixed nozzle to increase the thrust. The nozzle has a
reducing diameter aft.
Electric podded propellers are fitted in large container and passenger ships to reduce noise
and vibration and improve maneuverability.

Bulkheads
Vertical partition in a ship arranged transversely or fore and aft are referred to as
bulkheads.
They are subjected to hose tested

Functions
1. The bulkheads divide the ship into a number of watertight compartments and support the
external and structural transverse loading.

2. They serve as a hull strength member and support deck, and bottom girders, and
longitudinals
3. They resist any tendency for transverse deformation of the ship.
4. The main hull bulkheads are watertight to contain any flooding if a compartment is
breached.
5. Bulkheads are effective for containing fires.
6. The strength of the watertight bulkhead is maintained to the strength deck.

Spacing(location) of watertight bulkheads

The minimum number of transverse bulkheads is three when the ship has an aft
engine room and four when the engine room is not at the aft end.
For collision bulkhead, a heavy bulkhead is specified and located so that it is not so far
forward as to be damaged on impact. (minimum distance is 10m from fore end)
The aft peak bulkhead encloses the stern tubes in a watertight compartment, preventing
any emergency leakage.
It is located well aft so that the peak when flooded would not cause excessive trim by the
stern.
Machinery bulkheads provide a self-contained compartment for boiler and engines,
preventing damage to these vital components of the ship from flooding.
Each of the main bulkhead may extend to the uppermost continuous deck.
For Bulk carriers, reduced freeboard necessitates further consideration into the spacing of
the watertight bulkheads.
For a passenger ship, the spacing of the watertight bulkheads must comply with SOALS.

Construction of bulkhead
Two types exist: plain and corrugated
Plain type: the plating of a flat transverse bulkhead is generally welded in horizontal strakes
with the thickness increases with depth.
Vertical stiffening is provided in the form of welded inverted angle bars or offset bulb plates.
Vertical stiffeners may be supported by horizontal stringers to reduce the scantling
The boundaries are double continuously filled welded directly to the shell ,decks ,and tank
top.

Corrugated type

They are designed to provide sufficient rigidity to the plate bulkhead in order that
conventional stiffeners may be dispensed with
These bulkheads are normally fitted with top and bottom spool.

If possible the passage of piping and ventilation trunks through watertight bulkheads is
avoided.
If pipes pass through, pipes are flanged
If a ventilation trunk passes through, a watertight shutter is provided.

Water tight door

To provide access between compartments on either side of a watertight bulkhead,
watertight doors are fitted.

 The opening is framed and reinforced if the vertical stiffeners are cut in way of the opening.
The watertight doors are either of the vertical or horizontal sliding type.
They are subjected hose test.

Deep tanks
They were fitted adjacent to the machinery spaces amidships to provide ballast capacity,
improving the draft with little trim when the ship was light.
They were also used for carrying general cargoes and also utilized to carry specialist liquid
cargoes.
Most ships now are fitted with deep tanks forward to improve the trim in the light condition

Construction
Bulkheads that form the boundaries of a deep tank differ from hold bulkheads in that they
are regularly subjected to pressure from a head of liquid.
The greater plating thickness of the tank boundary bulkheads increases with tank depth,
and with increasing stiffener spacing.
To provide the greater rigidity the vertical stiffeners are of heavier scantlings and more
closely spaced.
Vertical stiffener sizes may be reduced by fitting horizontal girders
Cofferdams are fitted between deep tanks especially when different liquid cargos are
carried
To reduce the free surface effect, a center-line bulkhead, which may be intact or perforated,
may be fitted where the tanks extend from side to side of the ship
Both swedged and corrugated plating may be used in the construction of deep tanks

Topside tanks
They are used for water ballast or sometimes for the carriage of light grains.
They are stiffened internally by longitudinal framing supported by transverses.

Shaft tunnel
They are used to enclosed the propellers shafts in a watertight tunnel between the aft end
of the machinery space and the aft peak bulkhead

Construction
The thickness of the tunnel plating is determined in the same manner as that for the
watertight bulkhead.
The top of the tunnel may be flat or well rounded.
Stools are built to support the shaft bearings

 A walkway is installed on one side of the shaft to permit inspection

On completion the shaft tunnel is subjected to hose test.

Pillars

Functions
The primary function is to carry the load of the decks and weights upon the decks vertically
down to the ships bottom structure where these loads are supported by the upward
buoyant forces. Pillars in cargo holds fulfill the function and are in compression without
bracket connections at their ends.
The second one is to tie together the structure in a vertical direction. Pillars in the
machinery spaces serve this function and are heavily bracketed at their ends to permit
tensile loadings.
Hold pillars may be used as main structural elements to reduce the scantling of the deck
transverses and deck girders by reducing the effective spans of these heavy structural
members.

Spacing of the pillars

Since pillars in holds will interfere with the stowage arrangements, widely spaced pillars of
large section are used.
Common arrangement is two-row system, with pillars at the hatch corners mid-length of
hatch supporting deck girders adjacent to the hatch sides.
As the deck girder size is to some extent dependent on the supported span, where only a
mid-hatch length pillar is fitted the girder scantlings will greater than that where two hatch
corner pillars are fitted.
Pillars can be eliminated if a clear space is to be provided, but the deck girder will be larger
and may be supported by webs at the bulkhead.

Construction
Hold pillars are primarily subjected to compression
Ideal section is the tubular. Hollow rectangular and octagonal sections are also used.
Pillars have a bearing fit and it is important that the loads at the head and heel of the pillar
should be well distributed.

 Machinery space pillars are fabricated from angles, channels, or rolled steel joists and are
heavily bracketed.

Ship Building Quality Steel

The following steels are predominantly used in shipbuilding
1. Rolled plain steel (for plates and profiles, foundation, etc.)
2. Rolled special steel (high-tensile steel, low-temperature steel for LNG tanker,
corrosion resistance for product tanker, non-magnetic steel for compass area)
3. Cast steel (rudder, stern, stem)
4. Forged steel (for anchors, chains, etc.)
IACS graded the steels into five different qualities (Grade A, B, C, D, E) with Grade A being
an ordinary mild steel to LR requirement. Grade B is better quality and used when thicker plates
are required in the more critical regions. Grade C, D, E possess increasing notch-tough
characteristics, with Grade C being ABS requirements.
Grades A,B,D,DS,CS, and E are most extensively used.

The Composition
The microstructure of shipbuilding steels consists of iron-carbide(cementite) dispersed in a
matrix of ferrite.
Steel for hull structure is mild steel(0.15%-.23%C) with high Mn content.
Both S and P are kept to a minimum (<0. 05%).Higher concentrations of both are
detrimental to the welding properties of the steel.

Steels
Rimmed
Steels

Production
Produced without deoxidizers

Semi-killed
Steels
Killed Steels

Partially oxidized
Produced with strong deoxidizing
agents

Weldability
Poor quality
Not used as hull steels in thickness
over 13mm
Better quality
Used as hull steels
Best quality

Special Shipbuilding steels

1.High Tensile Steel
They are employed in the more highly stressed regions of larger tankers, container ships
and bulk carriers. They allow reductions in thickness but lead to larger deflections.
They contain Al, Nb and V as additives.

2. Corrosion-resistance Steel
Used in cargo tanks containing highly corrosive cargoes.

3.Abrasion-resistance Steel
Used in cargo holds of bulk carriers

4.Steels for low temperature

Used where extraordinary cooling effects exist (e.g. in refrigeration ships and LNG carriers)

Heat Treatment of Carbon Steel

1. Annealing
Steel is heated slowly to 850-950.C and then cooled at a very slow rate.
This will relieve any internal stresses, soften the steel and bring the steel to a condition
suitable for another heat treatment.

2. Normalizing
Steel is heated as in case of annealing but cooled in air.
Because of faster cooling, a harder stronger steel (than annealing produces) with refined
grain size is obtained.

3. Quenching (or Hardening)

Steel is heated as in case of annealing and normalizing but cooled in water or oil.
This produces a very hard structure with a higher tensile strength.

4. Tempering
Quenched steel is further heated up to 680 .C and cooled fairly rapidly. This will relieve the
severe internal stresses produced by the original hardening process and to make the material
less brittle but retain the higher tensile stress.

5. Stress relieving
To relieve internal stress, steel is heated that no structural changes are occurred and slowly
cooled.

Aluminum Alloy
The advantages of Al alloy over the steel are
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Low density
High strength-to-weight ratio
Corrosion resistance in certain environment
Retention of toughness at low temperature
Non-magnetic (useful for naval ships)
A major disadvantage is higher initial cost and fabrication costs.

The alloys have relatively low melting points and tend to lose strength rapidly upon
exposure to elevated temperature. (must use appropriate insulation)
Al alloys are frequently used in superstructure, and for entire hull structure of some ferries
and small boats.Non-heat-treatable Al-Mg alloys of 5XXX series are widely used for marine
structures.
AL alloys are anodic to steel and could lead to aluminum sacrificing. It is difficult to join two
metals avoiding corrosion. Either bolted connections with washers or an explosively bonded
steel/aluminum transition piece can be used.

Al Alloy Tests
Al alloy plate and sections are subjected to tensile tests and bar Al are subjected- to a
tensile test and dump test.
Dump test requires compression of the bar until its diameter is increased to 1.6 times of the
original without cracks.

Classes, Rules and Regulations and IACS

International Association of Classification Societies is held by twelve leading classification
societies.
1
2
3
4
9
11

DNV GL
BV
LR
CCS
NK
PRS

5
6
7
8
10
12

ABS
KR
RINA
RS
CRS
IRS

IACS is the only non-governmental organization with the observer status at IMO able to
develop rules. {It endeavors to ensure that IMO technical or procedural requirements are easily
applicable and less ambiguous.}
The government body of IACS is the council, which considers and adopts unified
requirement (URs) and unified interpretations (UIs) of international codes and conventions.
Typical examples of UR are
Minimum longitudinal strength standard
Fire protection of machinery spaces
Use of steel grades for various hull members

Rules and regulations of the Classes

The classification society(CS) is responsible to assure that the ships and marine structures
presented to it comply with Rules and Regulations that it has established for design, construction
and periodic surveys.
Classification itself does not judge the economic viability of a vessel, neither is the society in
a position to judge whether a vessel is ultimately employed according to the stated intended
service for which it was created.
Classification controls strength and quality of materials and workmanship in connection
with the ship, when built under Class.
The Certificate of Class is issued upon completion of construction
The CS each publish rules and regulations concerning
1. strength and structural integrity of the ship
2. provision of the adequate equipment
3. reliability of the machinery
Ships are built in accordance with Rules and Regulations of a CS in a procedure involving:
1. Technical plan review
2. Surveys during construction
3. Acceptance by the Classification Committee
4. Subsequent periodic surveys for maintenance of class

Periodic surveys

To maintain the assigned class, the vessel has to be examined by the society
surveyors at regular periods. At annual surveys, the general conditions of the vessel (e.g. the
freeboard mark, closing appliances, watertight doors, structural fire protections, etc.) are
assessed.
In-water survey may be acceptable in lieu of docking if high-resistance paint has been
applied. Special surveys are due at five-yearly intervals with the amount of inspections
increasing as the vessel ages.

Testing of Material
Strength=ability to resist deformation
Hardness=ability to resist abrasion
Toughness=ability to absorb energy
Ductility=ability to be deformed before it fails
Ship structures are designed to work within the
elastic range and much lower than the ultimate
tensile strength to allow for safety factor

Stress and strain curve of mild steel

CS Tests for hull materials

1. Tensile Test
A specimen is subjected to an axial pull and a minimum yield stress, ultimate tensile stress
and elongation are obtained.
A standard gauge length equal to 5.65 times the square root of the cross-sectional area, which
is equivalent of a gauge length of 5 times the diameter is adopted by the CS.

2. Impact Test
Charpy-V or Charpy-U notch test is specified at a specific test temperature to determine the
toughness: ability to withstand fracture under shock loading.
The specimen is placed on an anvil and the pendulum is allowed to swing so that the striker
hits the specimen opposite the notch and fractures it.Energy absorbed in fracturing the specimen
is automatically recorded by the machine.

3. Hardness test
It is carried out by indenting the surface with an indenter having a specific geometry under a
specified load and resulting impression is examined. Softer material will indent more.
4. Fatigue test
S-N curve is obtained by rotating-bending test. For steel fatigue limits range from 35% to 60%
of the tensile strength.
5. Al Alloy Tests
Al alloy plate and sections are subjected to tensile tests and bar Al is subjected to a tensile test
and dump test. Dump test requires compression of the bar until its diameter is increased to 1.6
times of the original without cracks.

Stress On a Ship
The stresses a ship experienced are
1. Still water bending stresses

Hogging and sagging

2. Wave-induced bending stresses

3. Racking stresses
4. Torsion stresses

Transverse stresses

5. Panting stresses
6. Pounding stresses
7. Buckling stresses
8. Other local stresses

Local stresses

1.Still water bending stresses

Even though total buoyancy and weight are in balanced, but they are non-uniform, which
results in vertical shear forces.
A vessel with excess weight amidships will sag (deck in compression and bottom shell in
tension).
A vessel bending in the reverse manner is said to be hog.
Bending stress is

M
y
I

The greater the second moment of area[I], the lesser the bending stress will be. varies as
the depth squared and so a small increase in depth of section will reduce the bending stress.

Z
y

where Z is the section modulus. section modulus is the quantity through which the designer can
control the maximum hull girder stress and safety factor.
Bending stress are greater over the middle portion of the length and maximum scantlings
must be provided over 40% of the length amidships

2.Wave-induced Bending stress

As a wave passes by a vessel, the worst hogging moment
will occur when the midship is on the crest of a wave and the
bow and stern are in the troughs. The worst sagging moment
will happen when the bow and stern are on two crests, with
the midship in the trough between.
Whether for sagging or hogging, the worst condition will
occur when the wavelength is close to the vessel length.

3.Racking Stress
When a ship is rolling, the deck tends to move laterally relative to the
bottom structure and the shell on one side to move vertically relative
to the other side.
Transverse bulkheads resist racking

4.Torsion

.
A ship heading obliquely (45 ) to a wave will be
subjected to righting moments of opposite
direction at its ends, twisting the hull and putting
it in torsion.
A heavy torsion box girder structure including the
upper deck resist the torsion

5.Panting stress
It is caused by the fluctuating pressures on the hull
at the ends and causes the shell plating to work in
and out.
It is severe when the vessel is running into waves
and pitching heavily.

6.Pounding
Pitching occurs in the bottom of the foreship as a result of heaving pitching of the ship,
which can be reduced by increasing the bottom-plating thickness.It is most severe in a lightly
ballasted condition.

7.Buckling stresses
Buckling may occurs in structure under compression at a stress level a lot lower than the
yield stress. The load at which buckling will occurs is a function of the structures geometry and
the materials E.

8.other local stresses

At the discontinuity of the hull girder at the end of deck house structures, at hatch and other
opening corners and when there are sudden breaks in bulwarks, highly stressed occurs.

Weldability
Ordinary strength shipbuilding steels are readily weldable.
Stainless steels are readily weldable by GMAW, GTAW, FCAW or SMAW using filler wires
of compatible composition.
Al alloys used in marine can be welded with GMAW or GTAW or FSW but GMAW is used
more b/o higher speed. When joining the common metals such as stainless steel to carbon and Al
to carbon steel, galvanic corrosion must be considered.
Al is not weldable to steel by conventional methods. An intermediate composite plate
material (l consisting of Al and steel), which is manufactured by explosion bonding techniques.

Welding Advantages
For the shipbuilder
1. Welding lends itself to the adoption of prefabrication techniques.
2. Easier to obtain water tightness and oil tightness.
3. Joints are produced quickly
4. Less skilled labor is required.
For the ship-owners
1. Reduced hull steel weight ( More Deadweight)
2. Less maintenance
3. Smooth hull which results in reduction of skin friction resistance

Welding Processes used in Shipbuilding

Welding Processes generally used in Shipbuilding

Arc
welding

1. Gas Welding
2. Shield metal arc welding(SMAW)
Slag-shielded welding
3. Gas Metal arc welding(GMAW)
4. Submerged arc welding(SAW)
5. Flux Core Arc welding(FCAW)
6. Stud welding(SW)
7. Tungsten inert gas welding(TIG) or(GTAW)
Gas-shielded arc welding
8. Metal inert gas welding(MIG)
9. Plasma welding
10. Electro-slag welding(ES)
11. Electro-gas welding(EW)
12. Laser welding
13. Thermit welding
14. Fusion-stir welding(FSW)

1. Gas welding
Gas welding normally use oxyacetylene flame (3000.C).
It is slower than other fusion welding processes b/c process
temperature is lower than metal melting temperature.
The welding is obsolete nowadays in ship building.

2. SMAW
It is a process where heat is produced by an electric arc between a covered metal electrode and the work.

3. GMAW
It is an automatic or semi-auto process in which a welding arc is formed between the work and bare
electrode, which is continuously feed from the spool.
GMAW is the most important welding technology in shipbuilding.
4. SAW
It is semi-auto or auto process where an arc is maintained between a continuous fed spool and a work area.
The welding zone is completely buried and shielded under a flux from a feed tube.
5. SW
An arc is kept between stud and the work and heated for a time.
The stud is brought to the work by spring pressure.
It is used to attach studs, clips and hangers and insulation pins to structural members.
6. TIG or GTAW or TAGS
The arc is drawn between a water-cooled non-consumable tungsten electrode and the plate and shielded
by inert gas.
7. MIG or MAGS
Similar to TIG, but electrode is consumable metal wire.
8. Plasma Welding
Similar to TIG, but the tungsten electrode is within the body of the torch and the plasma arc is forced
through a fine-bore copper nozzle. Three modes can be achieved
Micro plasma
Medium current
Keyhole plasma
9. ES and EW
Are high-deposition rate process
Cause a greater degree of grain growth in HAZ and require local normalizing treatment afterwards.
ES
Used for heavy casting structure components such as stern frame.
Current passes into the weld pool through the wire.
Welding is achieved by resistance path heating through the flux.
EW
It is arc welding with features of gas-shield welding and ES.
Used for welding thick plates with square or vee edge preparations.
10. Laser Welding
1. Two type of laser sources: 1.CO2 and 2. Nd: YAG crystals
The laser beam focuses via mirrors on the surface of the work piece. After reaching the vaporization
temperature, a steam capillary is formed in the work. This allows deep, narrow welds with practically
parallel sides with small thermic loads and small brittle Heat Affected Zone.
Used for sandwich panel structures.
11. Thermit welding
Used to join large steel sections such stern frame.
It is a fusion process heated by a mixture of powdered Al and iron oxide.
12. Friction stir welding
It is a solid state process that relies on the friction between two parts to generate heat to soften the metal
and provide a joint.
Currently used only for welding Al alloy plates for high-speed crafts and honeycomb panels.

Welding practice
Edge preparation (2015)

For plate thickness larger than 5-6 mm, multi-pass welds are needed to achieve a full
penetration weld.
Unless a permanent backing bar or one sided welding is used, a back run is required after
chopping or gouging.
Tack welds are light run of weld metal used to hold pates and section in place prior to
completion of the fillet of full butt weld.
These are short light runs of weld metal which may be welded over or cut out during the
final welding of the joint.

Fillet welds may be continuous or intermittent in a chain or staggered fashion.

Welding thicker plates necessitate beveling the edges, which is done by gas or plasma
cutting or mechanical methods.
Plates of varying thickness may be butt welded as shown in the following figure.

Welding Distortion (14,12)

Distortions arises form expansion of the metal when heated and contracts upon cooling.
The causes of distortion are complex and involve any residual stresses in the steel plate.
To contain the in-plane distortion such as shrinkage, the plates are cut over-sized so that
the effect of shrinkage is to bring them to the correct shape.
High deposition electrodes, automatic welding, and high welding currents reduce distortion.
The least amount of weld metal, deposited with few passes, is desirable.
On Double-V joints, weld alternately on both sides of the plate.
Joints that may have the greatest contraction on cooling should be welded first.

Distortion Control
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Avoid over-welding
Edge preparation & fit up
Intermittent welding
Minimum no: of pass
Welding near neutral axis
Balancing weld around neutral axis

7. Backstep Welding
8. Pre-bending
9. Back to back welding
10. Weld sequence (Joint)
11. Sequence weld (Scatter fillet welds)

Welding Faults
Various faults may be observed in butt and fillet welds. These may be due to a number of
factors: bad design, incorrect welding procedure, use of wrong materials, and bad workmanship.

Welding Sequences

At T intersections it is necessary to weld the

butt first fully, then gouge out the ends to renew
the seam edge preparation before welding the
seam.
General practice when welding shell panels
is to start by welding the central butts and then
adjacent seams, working outwards both
transversely and longitudinally.
The lower side plating seams should not be
welded before the upper seams.

Non-destructive testing
1. Dye penetrant
2. Magnetic particle
3. Visual examination
4. Radiographic
5. Ultrasonic
6. Gauging
Dye penetrant

Rarely used nowadays

7. Sound or percussion test

8. Pressure testing
9. Penetrate fluorescent test
10. Sonic test
11. Eddy current test
12. Thermography

It will show a surface flaw after the casting has been washed after applying the dye.
It is often luminous and is revealed under an ultraviolent light.

Magnetic particle
It is carried out by magnetizing the casting and spreading a fluid of magnetic particles on the
surface. Any discontinuity such as a surface crack will show as the particles concentrate where
there is an alteration in the magnetic field.
Visual examination
Except subsurface and internal defects, incorrect bead shape, high spatter, undercutting,
bad stop and start points, incorrect alignment, and surface cracks are all faults that may be
observed by visual inspections.
It is a routine procedure and its cost is low.

Radiographic
It is done by recording changes in radiation density emitted from one side of a subject when
its another side is exposed to radiation.
It is used to record the consistency of the weld metal. (a void will show up darker shadow
on the radiograph.) It poses potential hazards to the operator and inspector.

Ultrasonic
Ultrasonic energy is safer and useful for locating fine cracks missed by radiography.
An ultrasonic impulse from a crystal passes through the material and reflected back to the
crystal.
Any discontinuity will determine the proportion of impulse reflected back to the crystal.
The pattern of reflection is revealed on a cathode ray tube and an experienced operator
recognizes flaw from the display.

Classification society weld tests: destructive test

CS specify destructive tests are intended to be used for initial electrode and weld material
approval. Tests are made for conventional electrodes, deep penetration electrodes, wire-gas and
wire-flux combinations, consumables for electro-slag and electro-gas welding, and consumables
for one-sided welding with temporary backing. Tensile, bend and impact tests are carried out on
the deposited weld metal and welded plate specimens.

Shell plating system

The bottom and side shell plating consists of a series of flat and curve steel plates generally
of greater length than breadth butt welded together.

Bottom shell plating

Throughout the length of the ship the width and thickness of the keel plate remain constant
where a flat plate keel is fitted. Its thickness is never less than that of the adjoining bottom plating.
Strakes of bottom plating to the bilges have their greatest thickness over the 40% of the
LOA amidships. The bottom plating then tapers to a lesser thickness at the ends of the ship.

Side shell plating

The greater thickness of the side shell plating is maintained within 40% of the vessels
midship length and then tapers to the rule thickness at the ends.
The thickness may be
increased in regions where high vertical shear stresses occur.
The upper strake of the plating adjacent to the strength deck is called shear strake.
It is dressed smooth and the welding of bulwarks to the edge of the sheer strake is not
permitted within the amidships.
All openings in the side shell have rounded corners, and openings for sea inlet etc. are kept
clear out of the bilge. When this is not possible, the openings are made elliptical.

Transvers framing system

It will consist of main and hold frames with brackets top and bottom, and lighter tween deck
with brackets at the tops only. Scantlings of the main transverse frames are primarily dependent
on their position, spacing and depth, and on the rigidity of the end connections.
Web frames, i.e. built-up frames consisting of plate web and face flat, where the web is
considerably deeper than the conventional transverse frame, are often introduced along the side
shell.
Web frames is intended to increase the rigidity of the transverse ship section.
Web frame is required not more than five fame spaces apart at
1. Machinery spaces
2. Fwd of the collision BHD
3. In any deep tank
4. In tween decks above deep tanks
Web frame is required at every fourth frame apart in the tween deck above the aft peak tank.

Longitudinal framing system

If the side shell is longitudinally framed offset bulb sections will often be employed with the
greater section scantlings at the lower side shell. Direct continuity of strength is to be maintained.
Transverse webs which are spaced not more than 3.8 m apart, in ships of 100 m length or less
are fitted to support the side longitudinals. Larger ships required to have a double hull are
longitudinally framed at the sides with transverse webs arranged in line with the floors in the
double bottom to ensure continuity of transverse strength.

Bilge keel
Its functions are
1. to help dump the rolling motion of the vessel
2. to protect the bilge on grounding.
3. To increase longitudinal strength at the bilge
The ground bar thickness is at least that of the
bilge plate or 14 mm, and the material grade is the
same as that of the bilge plate.
Connection of the ground bar to the shell is by
continuous fillet welds and the bilge keel is
connected to the ground bar by light continuous or
staggered intermittent weld.
Bilge keels are gradually tapered and finish in
way of an internal stiffening member.

1 is for the flat or horizontal(pipe rolled) position.

2 is for the horizontal or vertical(pipe) position.
3 is for vertical position
4 is for overhead position
5 is for a pipe in fixed horizontal position
6 is for a pipe in 45
R is for restricted position

Throat thickness is leg length * cos(45) or .7 leg length

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F is for fillet
G is for groove weld