01 Digital Elevation Models (DEM)

INTRODUCTION

A DEM is a raster
representation of the Altitude provide basic,
quantitative
information about
theEarths
surface. The accuracy of this data is determined
primarily
by
the resolution (the
distance
between sample points). Other factors affecting
accuracy are data type (integer or floating
point) and the actual sampling of the surface
when creating the original DEM.
Most data providers and professional users use
the term DEM for both the digital terrain
model (DTM)
and digital
surface
model(DSM). A DTM usually
refers
to
the physical surface of the Earth (elevations of
the bare ground surface) without objects such
as
vegetation
or
buildings,
while
a DSM describes the upper surface of the
landscape, includes the height of vegetation,
man-made
structures
and
other
surface
features, and only gives elevations of the
terrain in areas where there is little or no
ground cover (Maune, 2007).
Elevation data sets, from which DEMs are
generated, are obtained by a broad range of

measurement
techniques,
such
as ground
survey (GPS, total station, terrestrial, and laser
scanner), airborne
photogrammetric imagery, airborne
laser
scanning (LiDAR), radar
altimetry and interferometric synthetic aperture
radar (InSAR).

TERMINOLOGY
Digital Elevation Model (DEM): generic term
for altitude grid.
Digital Terrain Model (DTM): ground
elevation model.
Digital Surface Model (DSM): ground + cover
elevation model.
Digital Height Model (DHM): cover
elevation model.

The digital elevation model corresponds to

a regular grid of elevation. Each node of the
grid shows an altitude value.
The resolution of the grid corresponds to
the distance between to neighbor nodes.

DEM Scales Vs Sources

Global Scale

The GTOPO30 DEM

was
created based on heterogeneous topographical
maps. The quality of
the
elevation
data varies consequently over space.
The SRTM30 DEM was acquired through space
shuttle radar interferometry. This new source of
elevation
data overcome the
major
quality problems of the GTOPO30.
They
both
present
a resolution of 30
arc
seconds (~900 m) and are freely available for
the Earth surface.

Regional Scale

The SRTM
90 & 30
m DEM were acquired through space shuttle
radar interferometry.
They present a resolution of 3 arc seconds (~90
m) respectively 1
arcseconds (~30
m) and
are available for the Earth surface.
The SRTM 90 m is freely available. The SRTM 30
m costs being of 0.5 $ per square kilometer.

Local Scale (LASER DEM)

technology allows

the

This new acquisition

capture of very high

resolution
DEM
(~1
m). Both terrain
(ground) andsurface (objects) are captured in
the same time. Such detailed digital elevation
model offers good potential for local relief
analysis in applications such as hydrology,
hazard mapping. The cost of acquisition are
relatively high (150-300$ per square kilometer).

(LASER DEM)

The ASTER GDEM is provided at a one arcsecond

resolution (approximately 30m).
The absolute vertical accuracy of ASTER GDEM
is20 m at 95% confidence level.
(ASTER GDEM2) was introduced to improve the
spatial resolution, and increase the accuracy of
water body coverage.

The Global Multi-resolution Terrain Elevation

Data 2010 (GMTED2010) was generated at three
separate
resolutions of 30 arc-seconds,15 arcseconds, and 7.5 arc-seconds (approximately 1
km, 500 m and 250 m, respectively).
Examples of the topography detail displayed by
the selected digital elevation models.

Usage of DEM
(1) Hydrological modelling including flood
simulation,
delineation
and
analysis
of
watersheds and drainage networks,
(2) Soil erosion and sediment transport
modelling,
(3) Delineation and study of physiographic
units,
(4) Soil and ecological studies,
(5) Geomorphological evaluation of landforms,
(6) Civil engineering and military applications
such as site and route selection, landslide
hazard assessment, visibility analysis (viewshed
analysis), and
(7) Remotely sensed image enhancement for 3D
analysis. Groundwater and climatic models also
use digital topographic data as essential
components. Digital elevation models provide
an opportunity to characterize quantitatively

land surface in terms of slope gradient and

curvature and yield digital terrain information
not blurred by land cover features which is
often a problem in stereo-aerial photograph
interpretation and remotely sensed image
analysis.

Displaying Digital Elevation Model (DEM)/

(DTM)

Analyzing Surfaces Terrain / DEM analysis

tools
Some of these tools are primarily designed
for the analysis of raster terrain surfaces.
These include Slope, Aspect, Hillshade,
and Curvature tools.
1. Calculating Slope
It affects where structures or trails can be built,
crops can be planted or harvested, the speed of
flowing water and consequent erosion, landslide
potential, and the list just goes on and on.
The Slope tool calculates the maximum rate of
change from a cell to its neighbors, which is
typically used to indicate the steepness of
terrain. (0-90) degree.

2. Calculating Aspect
Aspect identifies the slope direction in compass
degrees from 0 (due north) to 360.
The aspect of a surface typically affects the
amount of sunlight it receives (as does the
slope); in northern latitudes places with a
southerly aspect tends to be warmer and drier

than places that have a northerly aspect. Aspect

is an important contributor tovegetation and
habitat type, as north-facing slopes often have
very different conditions and temperatures than
south-facing slopes.

3. Hillshade
Hillshade
allows
us
to determine
the
illumination of a surface (the DEM in the
case) given a direction and angle of a light
source (i.e. the sun). The resultant grid contains
values ranging from 0-255 with 0 representing
complete darkness.
Hillshading is an extremely useful way to depict
the topographic relief of a landscape. Few
methods are as intuitive and easy to understand
as a hillshade. A good hillshade lets you
understand immediately what areas are ravines,
ridges, peaks or valleys.

4. Curvature
Calculates the slope of the slope (the second
derivative of the surface), that is, whether a
given part of a surface is convex or concave.
Convex parts of surfaces, like ridges, are
generally exposed
and
drain
to
other
areas. Concave
parts
of
surfaces,
like
channels, are generally more sheltered and
accept
drainage
from
other
areas. The
Curvature tool has a couple of optional variants,
Plan and Profile Curvature. These are used
primarily to interpret the effect of terrain on
water flow and erosion. The profile curvature
affects the acceleration and deceleration of
flow, which influence erosion and deposition.
The planiform curvature influences convergence
and divergence of flow.

Note
From an applied viewpoint, the output of the
Curvature tool can be used to describe the
physical characteristics of a drainage basin in
an effort to understand erosion and runoff
processes. The slope affects the overall rate of
movement down-slope. Aspect defines the
direction of flow. The profile curvature affects
the acceleration and deceleration of flow and,
therefore, influences erosion and deposition.
The plan form curvature influences convergence
and divergence of flow.
Displaying contours over a raster may help with
understanding
and
interpreting
the
data
resulting from the execution of the Curvature
tool. An example of the process follows >>
1.
Use Contour to create contours of the
raster.
2.
Create a slope raster.
3.
Contours of the slope.
4.
Add the curvature raster as a layer in
ArcMap. Overlay the two contour coverage just
created, and apply different color symbology for
each.

Sources
A
book

of

"DTM

Principles

Methodology"
Arc GIS online Courses
http://miningeology.blogspot.com.ar/2015/07/digital-elevation-modelsdem.html#.VaACs-B_dfY.linkedin

and