Aircraft Disassembly, Inspection, Repair Techniques

PIATRAININGCENTRE(PTC)
Module 7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

Sub Module 7.18 - Aircraft disassembly, inspection, repair and assembly techniques
Category B2
MODULE 7
Sub Module 7.18
DISASSEMBLY, INSPECTION, REPAIR AND ASSEMBLY

TECHNIQUES
ISO9001:2008Certified
PTC/CM/B2 Basic/M7/03
7.18
ForTrainingPurposeOnly
Rev. 00
Mar 2014
PIATRAININGCENTRE(PTC) Module 7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

Category B2
Contents
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................... 1
TYPES OF DEFECTS ............................................................... 1
VISUAL INSPECTION TECHNIQUES ..................................... 10
CORROSION REMOVAL, ASSESSMENT AND
REPROTECTION .................................................................... 14
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING/INSPECTION (NDT/NDI)
TECHNIQUES ......................................................................... 21
REMOTE VIEWING INSTRUMENTS ...................................... 23
PENETRANT FLAW DETECTION (PFD) ................................ 27
ULTRASONIC FLAW DETECTION (UFD) .............................. 28
EDDY CURRENT FLAW DETECTION (ECFD)....................... 35
RADIOGRAPHIC FLAW DETECTION (RFD) .......................... 38
DISASSEMBLY AND RE-ASSEMBLY TECHNIQUES ............ 40
7.18 - i
Rev. 00
Mar 2014

Category B2
INTRODUCTION
TYPES OF DEFECTS
Preventative maintenance is concerned with the early detection
of defects (using whatever inspection techniques are specified
by the aircraft or component manufacturers) and the repair or
modification of the defective parts.
The inspection techniques may call for the disassembly of
components (before or after cleaning) so that more detailed
inspections can be done.
Assessment, of the effect of the defect on the continued
integrity of the part, will also be required and, following the
repair, modification or rejection of the part, re-assembly
techniques will be used to restore the aircraft to the appropriate
level of serviceability.
Troubleshooting techniques are used in the process of
identifying the cause of a fault, eliminating the fault and
returning the aircraft to service.
7.18 - 1
An operational aircraft can suffer from many defects and these

can be defined as any event or occurrence, which reduces the
serviceability of the aircraft below 100%.
The manufacturer should specify the inspection areas and the
faults, which are expected to be found. In most instances the
inspector is looking for indications of abnormality in the item
being inspected. Typical examples are:
Metal Parts: as applicable to all metal parts, bodies or casings
of units in systems and in electrical, instrument and radio
installations, metal pipes, ducting, tubes, rods and levers. These
would be inspected for:
Cleanliness and external evidence of damage
Leaks and discharge
Overheating
Fluid ingress
Obstruction of drainage or vent holes or overflow pipe
orifices
Correct seating of panels and fairings and serviceability
of fasteners
Distortion, dents, scores, and chafing
Pulled or missing fasteners, rivets, bolts or screws
Evidence of cracks or wear
Separation of adhesive bonding
Failures of welds or spot welds
Deterioration of protective treatment and corrosion
Rev. 00
Mar 2014

Category B2
Security of attachments, fasteners, connections, locking

and bonding.
Rubber, Fabric, Glass Fibre and Plastic Parts: such as

coverings, ducting, flexible mountings, seals, insulation
of electrical cables, windows. These parts would,
typically, be inspected for:
Cleanliness
Cracks, cuts, chafing, kinking, twisting,
crushing, contraction sufficient free length
Deterioration, crazing, loss of flexibility
Overheating
Fluid soakage
Security of attachment, correct connections
and locking.
Electrical Components: actuators, alternators and

generators, motors, relays, solenoids and contactors.
Such items would be inspected for:
Cleanliness, obvious damage
Evidence of overheating
Corrosion and security of attachments and
connections
Cleanliness, scoring and worn brushes,
adequate spring tension after removal of
protective covers
Overheating and fluid ingress
Cleanliness, burning and pitting of contacts
Evidence of overheating and security of
contacts after removal of protective covers
External Damage
Control System Components: cables, chains, pulleys, rods

and tubes would be inspected for:
Correct alignment no fouling

Free movement, distortion, evidence of
bowing
Scores, chafing, fraying, kinking
Evidence of wear, flattening
Cracks, loose rivets, deterioration of
protective treatment and corrosion
Electrical bonding correctly positioned,
undamaged and secure
Attachments, end connections and locking
secure.
7.18 - 2
Damage to the outside of the airframe can occur by interference

between moving parts such as flying controls and flaps,
although this is quite rare. The most common reasons for
airframe damage is by being struck by ground equipment or
severe hail in flight.
During ground servicing many vehicles need to be manoeuvred
close to the airframe and some have to be in light contact with it
to work properly. Contact with the airframe by any of these
vehicles can cause dents or puncturing of the pressure hull,
resulting in a time-consuming repair.
Rev. 00
Mar 2014

Category B2
Inlets and Exhausts

Any inlet or exhaust can be a potential nest site for wildlife. The
damage done by these birds, rodents and insects can be very
expensive to rectify. Other items that have been known to block
access holes include branches, leaves and polythene bags.
External leaks of oil and fuel systems are normally easy to

locate. The rectification of an external leak is usually achieved
by simply replacing the component, seal or pipe work at fault,
and completing any tests required by the AMM.
A careful check of all inlets and exhausts, during inspections,

must be made, to ensure that there is nothing blocking them. A
blocked duct can result in the overheating of equipment, or
major damage to the internal working parts of the engine.
If the leak is internal, then a much more thorough inspection of

the component must be made, as the problem is more difficult
to find. The symptoms are usually signalled by a slower
movement of the services or by the erratic operation of services,
due to the return line being pressurised.
Liquid Systems
Liquid systems usually have gauges to ascertain the quantity in
that particular system. A physical quantity check is often done in
addition to using the gauges, as the gauges are not always
reliable.
Some hydraulic oils, especially the phosphate ester based

fluids, are very toxic and require personnel protection when
working on and replenishing their systems. Some oils used are
slightly toxic so care must be taken if there is a large leak.
These systems usually include oil tanks for the engine, APU
and Integrated Drive Generators (IDG), and also the hydraulics,
fuel and potable water tanks.
Potable water tanks are often permanently pressurised, so that

a leak that starts somewhere between the tank and the services
will continue, even if the aircraft is not flying. Once the pressure
is removed, the leak can be investigated, cured and the tank refilled.
The cause of a lower-than-expected level should be

immediately investigated, bearing in mind, that some systems
consume specific amounts of fluids during normal operation.
The consumption rate must be calculated before instigating any
trouble-shooting. A low hydraulic system should not be
replenished without first investigating the cause of the leak.
The physical signs of water inside the aircraft or dripping from

the hull should be the signs of a leak that requires investigation.
The unpredictable passenger consumption of water means that
the tank level is no indication of a leak in the system.
7.18 - 3
Rev. 00
Mar 2014

Category B2
Windscreen de-icers are usually in the form of a pressurised

container, which supplies fluid on demand to the spray nozzles.
If the fluid leaks onto the flight deck it will give off a distinctive
odour in the enclosed space. As the containers are replaced
when low, it is more likely that the pipe work will be the likely
cause of the leak.
Gaseous Systems
These include gases such as oxygen, nitrogen and air. If the
gas is to be used from a system during flight, a leak will be very
hard to confirm unless a physical check is carried out using a
leak detector such as Snoop or Sherlock.
A leak from an oxygen system is extremely dangerous, due to
the chances of an explosion, if it comes into contact with oil or
grease. Once the leak has been cured, the system can be recharged and leak tested.
Nitrogen, used in hydraulic accumulators, can leak into the
liquid part of the hydraulic system. This will make the hydraulic
system feel spongy and reduce the response of the operating
actuators.
Pneumatic systems contain high-pressure air of a stated

pressure, and should have the same pressure at the end of the
flight as at the start. If the pressure is low at the end of the flight,
then the compressor could be suspected.
If the pressure falls between flights, it is probably due to a slow
leak in the storage system, and this can be investigated using
leak-detecting fluids.
Dimensions
There are a number of places where checking the measurement
of a component can establish its serviceability. Landing gear
oleo shock struts can be checked for correct inflation, by
measuring their extension. If the dimension is less than quoted
in the manual, then it may be low on pressure and further
checks will be required. These checks are usually only done
during line maintenance, with checking of the pressure being
required for trouble shooting or hangar maintenance.
Combined hydraulic and spring dampers, fitted to some landing
gears, often have one or more engraved lines on the sliding
portion of the unit. This can indicate whether the hydraulic precharge is correct or requires replenishment.
If the gas leaks into the atmosphere, the system will not function
correctly and the efficiency of the system may be reduced. The
main cause of accumulators leaking externally is due to faulty
seals or gauges.
Accumulators assist the hydraulic system as an emergency
backup, which only works correctly if it is charged to the correct
pressure.
7.18 - 4
Rev. 00
Mar 2014

Category B2
Tyres
Tyres have their serviceability indicated by the depth of the
groove in the tyre tread. The AMM gives information of what
constitutes a worn or damaged tyre.
Apart from normal wear, other defects, that can affect a tyre, are
cuts, blisters, creep and low pressure.
Tyre-inflation devices usually consist of high-pressure bottles

fitted with a pressure-reducing valve or a simple air compressor.
The pressure a tyre should be inflated to depends on various
factors such as the weight of the aircraft.
Most tyres can be re-treaded a number of times after they have

reached their wear limits, but the retread can only be completed
if the complete tyre has not been damaged badly.
The correct pressure for a specific aircraft is given in the

relevant AMM for the aircraft in question. It is possible for a tyre
to lose a small amount of pressure overnight. A pressure drop
of less than 10% of the recommended pressure is not unusual,
but the exact figures are given in the AMM.
Creep is the movement of a cover around the rim, in very small

movements, due to heavy braking action. This movement is
dangerous if the tyre is fitted with a tube, as the movement can
tear the charging valve out of the tube, causing a rapid loss of
pressure.
If a tyre is completely deflated with the weight of the aircraft on

it, or is one of a pair on a single landing gear leg, which has run
without pressure, all the tyres concerned must be replaced due
to the possible, unseen damage within the cover. Again the
AMM will dictate the conditions.
To provide an indicator, small white marks are painted across

the wheel rim and the tyre side wall cover so, if creep takes
place, the marks will split in half and indicate clearly that the tyre
cover has moved in relation to the wheel rim.
Wheels
The installation of tubeless covers has reduced the problem of

creep, as the valve is permanently fitted to the wheel. It is still
possible for tyres to creep a small amount, but the air remains in
the tyre as the seal remains secure.
7.18 - 5
Defects to aircraft wheels are usually due to impact damage

from heavy landings or from items on the runway hitting the
wheel rim. Other problems can arise from corrosion starting as
a result of the impact damage and the shearing of wheel bolts,
which hold the two halves of a split wheel together. Wheels are
usually inspected thoroughly during tyre replacement and it is
very unusual for serious defects to be found during normal
inspections of a wheel.
Rev. 00
Mar 2014

Category B2
Brakes
Landing Gear Locks
Brake units are normally attached onto the axle of an

undercarriage leg, and located inside the well of the main
wheels. During braking operation they absorb large amounts of
energy as heat. This results in the brake rotors and stators
wearing away and, if they become too hot, the stator material
may break up.
These items are normally fitted to the aircrafts undercarriage as

a safety device to prevent them inadvertently collapsing. They
are usually fitted when the aircraft is to stay on the ground for
some time, and removed before the next flight. The most likely
defects will be damage to the locking pin ball bearing device or
the loss of the high visibility warning flags. These flags will,
hopefully, attract attention to themselves to ensure that they are
not left in position when the aircraft next goes flying.
Inspection of brake units between flights is essential, to check

for signs of excessive heating and to ensure that they have not
worn beyond their limits.
Wear results in the total thickness of the brake pack being
reduced, which means that by measuring either the thickness of
the pack, the amount of wear can be monitored. Once the
amount of wear reaches a set figure, the brake pack will be
overhauled.
If the pads are breaking up there will be signs of debris,
excessive amounts of powder and, in extreme cases, scoring of
the discs. This will require immediate replacement of the
complete brake unit.
Indicators
The most common type of indicator is the blow-out disc used in
fire extinguishing and oxygen systems. This shows that a highpressure gas bottle has discharged its contents overboard,
blowing the disc from its flush housing in the aircrafts skin.
The reason for the ruptured disc (refer Fig. 1) could be due to a
fire extinguisher having been operated or the extinguishant
having been discharged due to an excessive pressure being
reached.
A rejected take-off at maximum weight will produce the

maximum possible amount of heat and wear. It is usual to
replace all brake units and main wheels after this has
happened, but again the AMM will give the required information
on what must be changed and when.
7.18 - 6
Rev. 00
Mar 2014

Category B2
Gas Bottle and Pressure

Relief Valve
Retaining Ring
Frangible Disc
Gas Bottle Bursting Disc

Fig. 1
7.18 - 7
Rev. 00
Mar 2014

Category B2
External Probes
There are several different types of probe, projecting into the
airflow, to send information to the flight deck. These can include
the pitot/static probes and the angle-of attack (AOA) probes.
To prevent these from freezing they have electrical heating
elements built into them and, occasionally, they can become
overheated. Usually this is when they are left switched on on
the ground with a faulty weigh-on-wheels (WOW) switch.
Most fasteners have a positive form of closing or locking, whilst

the more important installations use an indication system (such
as painted lines and flush fitting catches) to ensure correct
closure. These must be regularly checked and, when found
worn; they should be repaired or replaced. Losing a panel in
flight is dangerous enough, but may be more so if it is drawn
into one of the engines, and causes its destruction.
Panels and Doors
This switch is designed to reduce or remove power to the

probes when on the ground, and to increase or restore it in
flight. On smaller aircraft there is no WOW switch and it is up to
the pilot to turn them off after landing. If the elements overheat
they can burn out and the probes will show this by discoloration.
Probes are designed to project out from the aircraft skin, and
this makes them vulnerable to physical damage. Probes need to
be regularly inspected for signs of physical damage or
discoloration.
These items can be of any size and can be faulty for several
reasons. They can be damaged by excessive use and their
frames can become damaged where items have to be passed
through them (such as with baggage hold doors).
If the latches are poorly designed or badly adjusted, they may
have been operated with incorrect tools during service and may
have been damaged.
Handles and Latches

Handles and latches usually wear through constant use. The
handles and latches of cargo bays and baggage holds, which
are operated every time the aircraft lands are particularly prone
to wear. Technicians have to be aware that all panel fasteners
will wear slowly and these panels must be secured in flight.
7.18 - 8
Rev. 00
Mar 2014

Category B2
Emergency System Indication
Light Bulbs
Some systems use protective covers, to prevent inadvertent

operation of a switch. These covers are usually held closed by
some form of frangible device that will indicate the system has
been operated when it is broken. Thin copper wire is,
sometimes, used to hold the protective cover closed on fire
extinguisher switches. A broken wire will indicate that the cover
has been lifted and the system may have been operated. Any
indication like this must be thoroughly investigated.
These have to be checked regularly, to ensure they remain

serviceable at all times. Most bulbs with important functions like
fire warning lights and undercarriage indication will be
duplicated. This can be achieved either by using two separate
bulbs or by a single, twin-filament type. The bulb covers can
also be damaged, leading to broken glass or plastic on the flight
deck, with its subsequent foreign object damage (FOD) hazard.
Lifed Items
Permitted Defects
There are a number of items on the aircraft that have a specific

length of time in service (known as a life). They would be major
airframe and engine components with finite fatigue lives. The
company technical department monitors these and they will be
replaced during major servicing.
All aircraft have a list of permitted defects that do not have to be

immediately corrected. These defects can be left outstanding by
the operator until a more convenient time can be found to rectify
them.
The components which can become unserviceable due to life

expiry may include, engine fire bottles, cabin fire extinguishers,
first aid kits, portable oxygen bottles and emergency oxygen
generators.
7.18 - 9
Rev. 00
Mar 2014

Category B2
VISUAL INSPECTION TECHNIQUES

Often the first stage in the examination of a component is visual
inspection. Examination by naked eye will only reveal relatively
large defects, which break the surface, but the effectiveness of
visual inspection for external surfaces can be improved
considerably through use of a hand lens or stereoscopic
microscope. Generally, high magnifications are not necessary
for this type of inspection. Optical inspection probes, both rigid
and flexible, which can be inserted into cavities, ducts and
pipes, have been developed for the inspection of internal
surfaces. An optical inspection probe comprises an objective
lens system at the working end and a viewing eyepiece at the
other end, with a fibre optic coherent image guide linking the
two.
Illuminating light is conveyed to the working end of the probe
through an (Figure A) optical fiber light guide, and both the
optical and illumination systems are contained within either a
stainless steel tube, for rigid probes, or a flexible plastic or
braided metal sheathing in the case of flexible probes.
Inspection probes are made in many sizes with, for rigid probes,
diameters ranging from about 2 mm up to about 20 mm. The
minimum diameter for flexible probes is about 4 mm. Probe
lengths may vary considerably also, and the maximum working
length for a 2 mm probe is about 150 mm. The maximum
permissible working length increases as probe diameter
increases and may be up to 5 m for a 20 mm diameter probe.
Inspection probes can be designed to give either direct viewing
ahead of the probe end, or to give a view at some angle to the
line of the probe. It is possible to mount a miniature TV camera
in place of the normal eyepiece lens system and display an
image on a monitor screen.
7.18 - 10
Figure A
Rev. 00
Mar 2014

Category B2
Locations of corrosion in aircraft
Engine Intakes and Cooling Air Vents
Certain locations in aircraft are more prone to corrosion than

others. The rate of deterioration varies widely with aircraft
design, build, operational use and environment. External
surfaces are open to inspection and are usually protected by
paint. Magnesium and aluminium alloy surfaces are particularly
susceptible to corrosion along rivet lines, lap joints, fasteners,
faying surfaces and where protective coatings have been
damaged or neglected.
The protective finish, on engine frontal areas, is abraded by

dust and eroded by rain. Heat-exchanger cores and cooling fins
may also be vulnerable to corrosion.
Special attention should be given, particularly in a corrosive
environment, to obstructions and crevices in the path of cooling
air. These must be treated, as soon as is practical.
Landing Gear
Exhaust Areas
Fairings, located in the path of the exhaust gases of gas turbine
and piston engines, are subject to highly corrosive influences.
This is particularly so where exhaust deposits may be trapped in
fissures, crevices, seams or hinges. Such deposits are difficult
to remove by ordinary cleaning methods.
Landing gear bays are exposed to flying debris, such as water

and gravel, and require frequent cleaning and touching-up.
Careful inspection should be made of crevices, ribs and lowerskin surfaces, where debris can lodge. Landing gear assemblies
should be examined, paying particular attention to magnesium
alloy wheels, paint-work, bearings, exposed switches and
electrical equipment.
During maintenance, the fairings in critical areas should be

removed for cleaning and examination. All fairings, in other
exhaust areas, should also be thoroughly cleaned and
inspected. In some situations, a chemical barrier can be applied
to critical areas, to facilitate easier removal of deposits at a later
date, and to reduce the corrosive effects of these deposits.
Frequent cleaning, water-dispersing treatment and re-lubrication

will be required, whilst ensuring that bearings are not
contaminated, either with the cleaning water or with the waterdispersing fluids, used when re-lubricating.
7.18 - 11
Rev. 00
Mar 2014

Category B2
Bilge and Water Entrapment Areas
Magnesium Alloy Skins
Although specifications call for drains wherever water is likely to

collect, these drains can become blocked by debris, such as
sealant or grease. Inspection of these drains must be frequent.
Any areas beneath galleys and toilet/wash-rooms must be very
carefully inspected for corrosion, as these are usually the worst
places in the whole airframe for severe corrosion. The
protection in these areas must also be carefully inspected and
renewed if necessary.
These, give little trouble, providing the protective surface

finishes are undamaged and well maintained. Following
maintenance work, such as riveting and drilling, it is impossible
to completely protect the skin to the original specification. All
magnesium alloy skin areas must be thoroughly and regularly
inspected, with special emphasis on edge locations, fasteners
and paint finishes.
Aluminium Alloy Skins
Recesses in Flaps and Hinges

Potential corrosion areas are found at flap and speed brake
recesses, where water and dirt may collect and go unnoticed,
because the moveable parts are normally in the closed
position. If these items are left open, when the aircraft is
parked, they may collect salt, from the atmosphere, or debris,
which may be blowing about on the airfield. Thorough
inspection of the components and their associated stowage
bays, is required at regular intervals.
The most vulnerable skins are those which have been integrally
machined, usually in main-plane structures. Due to the alloys
and to the manufacturing processes used, they can be
susceptible to intergranular and exfoliation corrosion.
Small bumps or raised areas under the paint sometimes
indicate exfoliation of the actual metal. Treatment requires
removal of all exfoliated metal followed by blending and
restoration of the finish.
The hinges, in these areas, are also vulnerable to dissimilar

metal corrosion, between the steel pins and the aluminium
tangs. Seizure can also occur, at the hinges of access doors
and panels that are seldom used.
7.18 - 12
Rev. 00
Mar 2014

Category B2
Spot-Welded Skins and Sandwich Constructions
Control Cables
Corrosive agents may become trapped between the metal

layers of spot-welded skins and moisture, entering the seams,
may set up electrolytic corrosion that eventually corrodes the
spot-welds, or causes the skin to bulge. Generally, spot-welding
is not considered good practice on aircraft structures.
Loss of protective coatings, on carbon steel control cables can,

over a period of time, lead to mechanical problems and system
failure. Corrosion-resistant cables can also be affected by
corrosive, marine environments.
Cavities, gaps, punctures or damaged places in honeycomb

sandwich panels should be sealed to exclude water or dirt.
Water should not be permitted to accumulate in the structure
adjacent to sandwich panels. Inspection of honeycomb
sandwich panels and box structures is difficult and generally
requires that the structure be dismantled.
Electrical Equipment
Any corrosion found on the outside of a control cable should

result in a thorough inspection of the internal strands and, if any
damage is found, the cable should be rejected.
Cables should be carefully inspected, in the vicinity of bellcranks, sheaves and in other places where the cables flex as
there is more chance of corrosion getting inside the cables
when the strands are moving around (or being moved by) these
items.
Sealing, venting and protective paint cannot wholly obviate the

corrosion in battery compartments. Spray, from electrolyte,
spreads to adjacent cavities and causes rapid attack on
unprotected surfaces. Inspection should also be extended to all
vent systems associated with battery bays.
Circuit-breakers, contacts and switches are extremely sensitive
to the effects of corrosion and need close inspection.
7.18 - 13
Rev. 00
Mar 2014

Category B2
CORROSION
REMOVAL,
REPROTECTION
ASSESSMENT
AND
General treatments for corrosion removal include:
Due to the high cost of modern aircraft, operators are expecting

them to last much longer than perhaps even the manufacturer
anticipated. As a result, the manufacturers have taken more
care in the design of the aircraft, to improve the corrosionresistance of aircraft. This improvement includes the use of new
materials and improved surface treatments and protective
finishes. The use of preventative maintenance has also been
emphasised more than previously.
Preventative maintenance, relative to corrosion control, should
include the:
Adequate and regular cleaning of the aircraft

Periodic lubrication (often after the cleaning) of moving
parts
Regular and detailed inspection for corrosion and failure
of protective treatments
Prompt treatment of corrosion and touch-up of damaged
paint
Keeping of drain holes clear
Draining of fuel cell sumps
Daily wiping down of most critical areas
Sealing of aircraft during foul weather and ventilation on
sunny days
Use of protective covers and blanks.
7.18 - 14
Cleaning and stripping of the protective coating in the

corroded area
Removal of as much of the corrosion products as
possible
Neutralisation of the remaining residue
Checking if damage is within limits
Restoration of protective surface films
Application of temporary or permanent coatings or paint
finishes.
Cleaning and Paint Removal

It is essential that the complete suspect area be cleaned of all
grease, dirt or preservatives. This will aid in determining the
extent of corrosive spread. The selection of cleaning materials
will depend on the type of matter to be removed.
Solvents such as trichloroethane (trade name Genklene) may
be used for oil, grease or soft compounds, while heavy-duty
removal of thick or dried compounds may need
solvent/emulsion-type cleaners.
Rev. 00
Mar 2014

Category B2
General-purpose, water-removable stripper is recommended for

most paint stripping. Adequate ventilation should be provided
and synthetic rubber surfaces such as tyres, fabrics and acrylics
should be protected (remover will also soften sealants).
Rubber gloves, acid-repellent aprons and goggles, should be
worn by personnel involved with paint removal operations. The
following represents a typical paint stripping procedure:
Brush the area with stripper, to a depth of approximately

0.8 mm 1.6 mm (0.03 in 0.06 in). Ensure that the
brush is only used for paint stripping
Allow the stripper to remain on the surface long enough
for the paint to wrinkle. This may take from 10 minutes to
several hours
Re-apply the stripper to those areas which have not
stripped. Non-metallic scrapers may be used to assist the
stripping action
Remove the loosened paint and residual stripper by
washing and scrubbing the surface with water and a
broom or brush. Water spray may assist, or the use of
steam cleaning equipment may be necessary.
Note: Strippers can damage composite resins and plastics, so
every effort should be made to 'mask' these vulnerable areas.
7.18 - 15
Ferrous Metals
Atmospheric oxidation of iron or steel surfaces causes ferrous
oxide (rust) to be deposited. Some metal oxides protect the
underlying base metal, but rust promotes additional attack by
attracting moisture and must be removed.
Rust shows on bolt heads, nuts or any unprotected hardware.
Its presence is not immediately dangerous, but it will indicate a
need for maintenance and will suggest possible further
corrosive attack on more critical areas. The most practical
means of controlling the corrosion of steel is the complete
removal of corrosion products by mechanical means.
Abrasive papers, power buffers, steel wool and wire brushes

are all acceptable methods of removing rust on lightly stressed
areas. Residual rust usually remains in pits and crevices. Some
(dilute) phosphoric acid solutions may be used to neutralise
oxidation and to convert active rust to phosphates, but they are
not particularly effective on installed components.
Corrosion on high-stressed steel components may be
dangerous and should be removed carefully with mild abrasive
papers or fine buffing compounds. Care should be taken not to
overheat parts during corrosion removal. Protective finishes
should be re-applied immediately.
Rev. 00
Mar 2014

Category B2
Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys
Alclad
Corrosion attack, on aluminium surfaces, gives obvious

indications, since the products are white and voluminous. Even
in its early stages, aluminium corrosion is evident as general
etching, pitting or roughness.
WARNING: USE ONLY APPROVED PAINT STRIPPERS IN

THE VICINITY OF REDUX BONDED JOINTS. CERTAIN
PAINT STRIPPERS WILL ATTACK AND DEGRADE RESINS.
USE ADEQUATE PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
WHEN WORKING WITH CHEMICALS. USE ONLY THE
APPROVED FLUIDS FOR REMOVING CORROSION
PRODUCTS. INCORRECT COMPOUNDS WILL CAUSE
SERIOUS DAMAGE TO METALS.
Aluminium alloys form a smooth surface oxidation, which

provides a hard shell, that, in turn, may form a barrier to
corrosive elements. This must not be confused with the more
serious forms of corrosion.
General surface attack penetrates slowly, but is speeded up in
the presence of dissolved salts. Considerable attack can take
place before serious loss of strength occurs. Three forms of
attack, which are particularly serious, are:
Penetrating pit-type corrosion through the walls of tubing

Stress corrosion cracking under sustained stress
Intergranular attack ,characteristic of certain improperly
heat treated alloys.
Treatment involves mechanical or chemical removal of as much

of the corrosion products as possible and the inhibition of
residual materials by chemical means.
This, again, should be followed by restoration of permanent
surface coatings.
7.18 - 16
Obviously great care must be taken, not to remove too much of

the protective aluminium layer by mechanical methods, as the
core alloy metal may be exposed, therefore, where heavy
corrosion is found, on clad aluminium alloys, it must be removed
by chemical methods wherever possible.
Corrosion-free areas must be masked off and the appropriate
remover (usually a phosphoric acid-based fluid) applied,
normally with the use of a stiff (nylon) bristled brush, to the
corroded surface, until all corrosion products have been
removed. Copious amounts of clean water should, next, be
used to flood the area and remove all traces of the acid, then
the surface should be dried thoroughly.
Note: A method of checking that the protective aluminium
coating remains intact is by the application of one drop of
diluted caustic soda to the cleaned area. If the alclad has been
removed, the aluminium alloy core will show as a black stain,
whereas, if the cladding is intact, the caustic soda will cause a
white stain.
Rev. 00
Mar 2014

Category B2
The acid must be neutralised and the area thoroughly washed

and dried before a protective coating (usually Alocrom 1200 or
similar) is applied to the surface.
Further surface protection may be given by a coat of suitable
primer, followed by the approved top coat of paint.
Magnesium Alloys
The corrosion products are removed from magnesium alloys by
the use of chromic/sulphuric acid solutions (not the phosphoric
acid types), brushed well into the affected areas. Clean, cold
water is employed to flush the solution away and the dried area
can, again, be protected, by the use of Alocrom 1200 or a
similar, approved, compound.
Acid Spillage
An acid spillage, on aircraft components, can cause severe
damage. Acids will corrode most metals used in the
construction of aircraft. They will also destroy wood and most
other fabrics. Correct Health and Safety procedures must be
followed when working with such spillages.
Mop up as much of the spilled acid, using wet rags or

paper wipes. Try not to spread the acid
If possible, flood the area with large quantities of clean
water, taking care that electrical equipment is suitably
protected from the water
If flooding is not practical, neutralise the area with a 10%
(by weight) solution of bicarbonate of soda (sodium
bicarbonate) with water
Wash the area using this mixture and rinse with cold
water
Test the area, using universal indicating paper (or litmus
paper), to check if acid has been cleaned up
Dry the area completely and examine the area for signs
of damaged paint or plated finish and signs of corrosion,
especially where the paint may have been damaged.
Remove corrosion, repair the damage and restore the
surface protection as appropriate.
Aircraft batteries, of the lead/acid type, give off acidic fumes and
battery bays should be well ventilated, while surfaces in the
area should be treated with anti-acid paint. Vigilance is required
of everyone working in the vicinity of batteries, to detect (as
early as possible) the signs of acid spillage. The correct
procedure to be taken, in the event of an acid spillage, is as
follows:
7.18 - 17
Rev. 00
Mar 2014

Category B2
Alkali Spillage
This is most likely to occur from the alternative Nickel-Cadmium
(Ni-Cd) or Nickel-Iron (Ni-Fe) type of batteries, containing an
electrolyte of Potassium Hydroxide (or Potassium Hydrate).
The compartments of these batteries should also be painted
with anti-corrosive paint and adequate ventilation is as
important as with the lead/acid type of batteries. Proper Health
and Safety procedures are, again, imperative.
Removal of the alkali spillage, and subsequent protective
treatment, follows the same basic steps as outlined in acid
spillage, with the exception that the alkali is neutralised with a
solution of 5% (by weight) of chromic acid crystals in water.
Mercury Spillage
WARNING: MERCURY (AND ITS VAPOUR) IS EXTREMELY
TOXIC. INSTANCES OF MERCURY POISONING MUST, BY
LAW, BE REPORTED TO THE HEALTH AND SAFETY
EXECUTIVE. ALL SAFETY PRECAUTIONS RELATING TO
THE SAFE HANDLING OF MERCURY MUST BE STRICTLY
FOLLOWED.
Mercury contamination is far more serious than any of the
battery spillages and prompt action is required to ensure the
integrity of the aircraft structure.
7.18 - 18
While contamination from mercury is extremely rare on

passenger aircraft, sources of mercury spillage result from the
breakage of (or leakage from) containers, instruments, switches
and certain test equipment. The spilled mercury can, quickly,
separate into small globules, which have the capability of
flowing (hence its name Quick Silver) into the tiniest of
crevices, to create damage.
Mercury can rapidly attack bare light alloys (it forms an
amalgam with metals), causing intergranular penetration and
embrittlement which can start cracks and accelerate powder
propagation, resulting in a potentially catastrophic weakening of
the aircraft structure.
Signs of mercury attack on aluminium alloys are greyish
powder, whiskery growths, or fuzzy deposits. If mercury
corrosion is found, or suspected, then it must be assumed that
intergranular penetration has occurred and the structural
strength is impaired. The metal in that area should be removed
and the area repaired in accordance with manufacturers
instructions.
Ensure that toxic vapour precautions are observed at all times
during the following operations:
Do not move aircraft after finding spillage. This may
prevent spreading.
Remove spillage carefully by one of the following
mechanical methods:
Rev. 00
Mar 2014

Category B2
Capillary brush method (using nickel-plated carbon fibre

brushes).
Heavy-duty vacuum cleaner with collector trap.
Adhesive tape, pressed (carefully) onto globules may pick
them up
Foam collector pads (also pressed, carefully, onto
globules).
Alternative, chemical methods, of mercury recovery entail
the use of:
Calcium polysulphide paste
Brushes, made from bare strands of fine copper wire
Neutralise the spillage area, using Flowers of Sulphur
Try to remove evidence of corrosion
The area should be further checked, using radiography,
to establish that all globules have been removed and to
check extent of corrosion damage
Examine area for corrosion using a magnifier. Any parts
found contaminated should be removed and replaced.
Note 1: Twist drills (which may be used to separate riveted
panels, in an attempt to clean contaminated surfaces) must be
discarded after use.
Note 2: Further, periodic checks, using radiography, will be
necessary on any airframe that has suffered mercury
contamination.
7.18 - 19
CORROSION CONTROL PROGRAMES

These are intended to remain intact throughout the life of the
component, as distinct from coatings, which may be renewed as
a routine servicing operation.
They give better adhesion for paint and most resist corrosive
attack better than the metal to which they are applied.
Electro-Plating
There are two categories of electro-plating, which consist of:
Coatings less noble than the basic metal. Here the
coating is anodic and so, if base metal is exposed, the
coating will corrode in preference to the base metal.
Commonly called sacrificial protection, an example is
found in the cadmium (or zinc) plating of steel.
Coatings more noble (e.g. nickel or chromium on steel)
than the base metal. The nobler metals do not corrode
easily in air or water and are resistant to acid attack. If,
however, the basic metal is exposed, it will corrode locally
through electrolytic action. The attack may result in pitting
corrosion of the base metal or the corrosion may spread
beneath the coating.
Rev. 00
Mar 2014

Category B2
Sprayed Metal Coatings
Surface Conversion Coatings
Most metal coatings can be applied by spraying, but only

aluminium and zinc are used on aircraft. Aluminium, sprayed on
steel, is frequently used for high-temperature areas. The
process (aluminising), produces a film about 0.1 mm (0.004 in)
thick, which prevents oxidation of the underlying metal.
These are produced by chemical action. The treatment changes

the immediate surface layer into a film of metal oxide, which has
better corrosion resistance than the metal. Among those widely
used on aircraft are:
Cladding
The hot rolling of pure aluminium onto aluminium alloy (Alclad)
has already been discussed, as has the problem associated
with the cladding becoming damaged, exposing the core, and
the resulting corrosion of the core alloy.
Anodising of aluminium alloys, by an electrolytic process,

which thickens the natural, oxide film on the aluminium. The
film is hard and inert
Chromating of magnesium alloys, to produce a brown to
black surface film of chromates, which form a protective
layer
Passivation of zinc and cadmium by immersion in a
chromate solution.
Other surface conversion coatings are produced for special

purposes, notably the phosphating of steel. There are numerous
proprietary processes, each known by its trade name (e.g.
Bonderising, Parkerising, or Walterising).
7.18 - 20
Rev. 00
Mar 2014

Category B2
NON-DESTRUCTIVE
TECHNIQUES
TESTING/INSPECTION
(NDT/NDI)
Among the many inspection tasks, done by aircraft serving

technicians, are those involving Scheduled Maintenance
Inspections (SMIs).
SMI's are special inspections, detailed by the manufacturer, to
be done at a specified time period. When doing these
inspections the ultimate aim is to ensure that the aircraft (or
part) being inspected, remains in a safe condition or that it
complies with the original design specification.
The common factor, in all the inspection/test procedures is that
they entail techniques that do not affect the continued
serviceability of the components under inspection. They are, in
fact, non-destructive testing/inspection techniques.
Non-destructive testing (NDT) or, in America, Non-destructive
inspection (NDI) techniques, involve the use of such methods
as:
It is incumbent on all aircraft servicing technicians, regardless of

trade or level of certification, to be constantly vigilant and to use
their eyes to detect the slightest imperfection in and around the
areas of aircraft or component parts on which they are working.
When approaching an aircraft, a perfunctory glance may reveal
the fact that one wing is lower than the other, which could
indicate a difference in the fluid levels of the respective landing
gear struts, different tyre pressures or, perhaps, a deflated tyre.
Missing or badly secured panels have often been discovered by
such alert observations, as have potentially catastrophic
structural failures, and the student is urged to adopt this vigilant
attitude as quickly as possible to ensure the safety of all aircraft
and the people that fly in them.
While all aircraft servicing technicians can, therefore, do visual
and assisted visual inspections, only those who have received
appropriate training will be authorised to do certain PFD
techniques. The more sophisticated MPFD, ECFD, UFD, and
RFD techniques will be done by specially trained and approved
NDT (NDI) technicians.
Visual and Assisted Visual Inspections

Remote Viewing Instruments
Penetrant Flaw Detection (PFD)
Magnetic Particle Flaw Detection (MPFD)
Eddy Current Flaw Detection (ECFD)
Ultrasonic Flaw Detection (UFD)
Radiographic Flaw Detection (RFD).
7.18 - 21
Rev. 00
Mar 2014

Category B2
Visual/Assisted Visual Inspections

The appropriate visual or assisted visual inspection techniques
will be detailed in the relevant servicing manuals but, generally,
they will depend on such factors as:
The nature of the item being inspected (i.e. the material

from which it is made): It may be metallic, plastic, rubber
or any other type of material
The purpose of the inspection: It may be to establish
whether the item is suffering from a known fault or to
confirm the integrity of a previous repair
The location of the item to be inspected: It may be
installed in an aircraft or removed from an aircraft. In
most cases the maintenance schedule will specify that
an item is always inspected without removal from the
aircraft. The term in-situ has previously been used to
describe this instance
The inspection surface: Whether it is an internal or an
external surface. The normal convention is that
inspections are external unless otherwise stated
The time available for the inspection: This is often
dictated by circumstances, in that, if a tyre needs to be
inspected for wear, it should be able to be checked in a
few minutes. A major aircraft inspection, on a large
aircraft, is however, normally planned to take many days
The degree or depth of the inspection: Depending on the
criticality of the component, or its adjacent structure, to
the safety of the aircraft.
7.18 - 22
It should be stressed here that, whenever a visual inspection is

being done, there must be adequate illumination of the
inspection site, to ensure that small defects are able to be
detected.
Some visual inspections may dictate that a specific amount of
illumination (in a stated number of lux) be available during the
inspection.
To assist in visual inspections, use is frequently made of such
aids as:
Inspection Mirrors
Magnifying Glasses.
Inspection mirrors enable the technician to see the remote

surface of components and into places that normal vision is
restricted. Selections of inspection mirrors are available,
mounted on the end of a handle or rod. Such mirrors should be
mounted by means of a universal joint so that they can be
positioned at various angles.
A development of this device has the ability to change the angle
of the mirror by remote control. A rack and pinion mechanism
passes through the stem and is controlled by a knob on the
handle.
Rev. 00
Mar 2014

Category B2
This permits a range of angles to be obtained, after insertion of

the instrument into the structure. Some instruments come
equipped with integral non-dazzle illumination.
Magnifying glasses are most useful instruments, to assist with
the close inspection of an airframe. They are capable of
clarifying details, when normal visual inspection only produces a
suspicion of a crack or corrosion. Magnifying glasses vary in
design from the pocket type, with a magnification factor of times
two (x2), to the stereoscopic type with a magnification of up to
x32.
The magnification factor relates to the size of an object, seen
through the magnifying lens, compared with the size of the
object, viewed with the naked eye, at a distance of 250 mm (10
in).
For day-to-day inspection of structures, a hand instrument with
an x8 magnification and integral illumination could be used.
Magnification above this value should not be used unless
specified, because the limited area of observation does not
reveal the surrounding area. A higher magnification lens can be
used, once the lower powered lens has identified a problem.
Note: Magnifying glasses and similar inspection instruments will
provide the best results only when the area under inspection is
well illuminated.
7.18 - 23
REMOTE VIEWING INSTRUMENTS

These instruments have a variety of different names, although
they all, basically, operate on similar principles. Whether they
are called borescopes or fibrescopes, (or, collectively,
introscopes), they are optical instruments used for the
inspection of the remote areas of structures, components or
engines, which would be, otherwise, not directly viewable.
Note: A detailed knowledge of the internal structure of the
component under inspection is essential, and proper training in
their use should be obtained, before inspections involving
remote viewing instruments are attempted.
Borescopes consist of ostensibly rigid tubes of nickel-plated
brass or of stainless steel. The outer diameters of the tubes
may range from approximately 5.5 mm (0.22 in) to 11 mm (0.43
in) with lengths from 230 mm (9 in) to 1 750 mm (69 in).
While they do possess a degree of rigidity, they can be very
easily bent if too much sideways force is applied to them, so
great care must be taken in their use.
Inside the thin metal tube is a complex series of precision
optical lenses and mirrors, surrounded by a bundle of very fine
glass fibre filaments, which guide light to the viewing end of the
tube.
Rev. 00
Mar 2014

Category B2
The light is provided by a box, containing an electrical

transformer, a high-intensity, light bulb of quartz-iodine, Xenon
or something similar (which is mounted in front of a reflector),
and a cooling fan.
Fibrescopes are flexible and, probably because of this, they are

extremely prone to abuse and damage. As the name implies,
they rely on fibre optic cables rather than a rigid tube and
lenses/mirrors to provide the image of the inspection area.
The light source box is usually connected to a mains outlet and

the powerful light is transmitted to the borescope by means of a
connecting flexible cable which also contains a guide bundle of
glass fibres.
The image is viewed through a bundle of fibre optic strands,

while the object is illuminated by light transmitted through
another surrounding bundle of fibre optic strands. Diameters
and lengths of fibrescopes are similar to those of rigid
borescopes and they are also provided with the various viewing
ends and focussing arrangements.
In this way cold yet brilliant light is provided at the viewing

area, to give the necessary high quality illumination without the
hazards associated with heat and any flammable fluids which
may be present in the viewing area.
Rigid borescopes are provided with several versions of viewing
ends, which allow either a forward view, a lateral view (normal
to the longitudinal axis of the tube), a forward oblique or a
retrograde (reverse) view of the inspection area.
With the exception of those with a forward view end, all the
other borescopes may also have the capability of rotating the
tube around the longitudinal axis, so that a full 360 internal
view of the area is possible. They also have adjustable focus of
the eyepiece, to minimise eye strain on the viewer and to
accommodate the various levels of acuity of the inspectors
eyesight.
7.18 - 24
Some fibrescopes have a controllable distal viewing end, to

allow articulation through almost 360 on both an X and Y lateral
axis. These (refer to Fig. 2) are most often used (in addition to
borescopes) to inspect the inside of gas turbine engines, but
can also be used for many other inspections such as; loose
article checks, fuel leaks etc.
The images, presented by borescopes and fibrescopes, may be
viewed directly through an eyepiece, as stated, or they may be
displayed on a TV screen via a video camera, which can be
attached to the eyepiece.
The results of the inspection can also be recorded, by means of
a video tape, and retained, for future comparisons of possible
deterioration of the inspection area.
Rev. 00
Mar 2014

Category B2
7.18 - 25
Rev. 00
Mar 2014

Category B2
Borescopes and Fibrescopes may be used for the inspection of

gas turbine engine:
Compressors: for damage to Fans, FOD, Interference
between Rotors and Stators, Surge damage, and
Bearing Oil Leakage
Combustion Sections: for signs of Burning, Cracking,
Distortion, and Carbon Build-up
Turbine Sections: for signs of Burning, Cracks, Dents,
Deposits of Melted Metals and Nicks.
Wherever they are used, there are certain difficulties involved

with the interpretation of what is seen through the instruments.
When using remote viewing instruments, it is recommended that
the inspecting technician should:
Note: When using remote viewing instruments for engine

inspections it must be ensured that:
The engine must be allowed to cool down before

inserting the scopes
Windmilling (or inadvertent Starting) of the engine must
be prevented by gagging or removing the appropriate
fuses/circuit breakers and placing warning placards on
the flight deck
Contamination of the instruments, by Fuel, Grease and
Oil, must be avoided
Borescopes do not get bent and Fibrescopes do not get
kinked nor crushed.
Remote viewing instruments may also be used to inspect many

other areas of an aircraft. Typical areas would include:
Electrical Components
Electrical Looms
Enclosed Structural Parts
Fuel System Components
Hydraulic System Components.
7.18 - 26
Be fully trained in the use (and care) of the instruments

being used
Be familiar with the layout of the structure or component
under inspection
If possible, have a spare or an example of the part near
at hand with which to compare the images from the
inspection area
Use the experience of other inspectors where doubt
exists (or consult previous video recordings etc.)
Refer to the appropriate servicing manual for guidance
whenever necessary.
Rev. 00
Mar 2014

Category B2
PENETRANT FLAW DETECTION (PFD)
Before discussing the application of PFD techniques it is

necessary to highlight the health hazards associated with
working with PFD materials and to consider the recommended
First Aid treatments and the Safety Precautions, which need to
be observed, during their use. The hazards include:
Contact with the eyes: to prevent the possibility,

chemical proof goggles should be worn. If, despite this,
eye contamination occurs, then the eyes must initially be
irrigated with copious amounts of water and proper
medical assistance sought
Contact with the skin: due to the de-fatting action of the
chemicals, barrier cream should be applied to the hands
before work commences and, where prolonged contact
is probable, protective PVC-type gloves should be worn.
Contaminated skin should be thoroughly washed with
warm soap and water and, after drying, a lanolin-based
cream applied. If irritation persists then medical attention
is needed
Ingestion: food must not be consumed while doing PFD
procedures and hands should be carefully washed
before eating. If chemicals are ingested then medical
help must be sought. VOMITING SHOULD NOT BE
INDUCED
7.18 - 27
Inhalation: face masks should be worn where

concentrations of fumes or particles are high and there
must always be adequate ventilation. Victims who
become nauseous, dizzy or drowsy should be moved to
fresh air and medical advice sought. Resuscitation
methods should be used where asphyxiation occurs and
breathing has stopped and the Emergency Services
summoned.
Fire: all the necessary fire precautions must be observed
(CO2 , Foam and Dry Powder extinguishers are the
recommended types) and, in the event of a fire, any
ventilation should be switched off first
Storage: PFD chemicals should be stored in a dry area,
away from heat and direct sunlight
Spillage: any spillages should be soaked up with
absorbent materials
Transport: appropriate precautions, depending on the
flash point of the particular chemicals should be
observed
Disposal: materials should be treated as oily waste and,
where large quantities are involved, must not be
discharged into public sewers or waterways.
Penetrant flaw detection may be used to detect surfacebreaking discontinuities in any non-porous materials, including
ceramics metals, and plastics. It may also be used to detect
porosity in those materials that should not be porous, leaks in
tanks and cracking of internal bores.
Rev. 00
Mar 2014

Category B2
ULTRASONIC FLAW DETECTION (UFD)

This form of Non-destructive Testing is done by specially
trained, and approved, technicians, so only brief details of the
background and the procedures are given in this course. The
student is, however, required to have a basic knowledge of the
principles of the techniques involved in Ultrasonic Flaw
Detection (UFD).
UFD methods may be used to detect sub-surface defects in the
majority of solid materials. Ultrasonics can also be used to:
Measure the thickness of materials when it is only possible

to get access to one side of the component
Test for the delamination (de-bonding) of composite
structures
Monitor real time cracking in spars and struts via Acoustic
Emission methods.
The term, ultrasonic, describes sound oscillations at

frequencies too high to be detected by the human ear. Normal,
healthy adults are, usually, able to detect sound frequencies in
the range between 20 Hz 20 kHz. For example, the lowest
note of a typical, full-size, piano vibrates at approximately 27.5
Hz, while the highest note is in the region of 3.52 kHz. UFD
procedures use sound frequencies ranging from as much as
500 kHz to 25 MHz (and, sometimes, more).
7.18 - 28
Sound is caused by the sinusoidal oscillations of the particles in

a medium and the speed of sound is fixed in different materials,
depending on their elasticity and density. Table 1 shows the
speed of sound through some common materials.
Table 1
SOUND VELOCITIES IN COMMON MATERIALS
Material
Air (at 20C)
Water (at 20C)
Perspex
Pyrex Glass
Steel
Aluminium
m/sec
343
1,480
2,680
5,640
5,900
6,350
ft/sec
1,125
4,854
8,793
18,500
19,351
20,827
Low-frequency sound travels outwards, from its source, and

goes in all directions, whereas the higher the frequency, the
more the sound becomes unidirectional until, at the extremely
high frequencies employed in UFD, the sound can be
considered to be similar to a very narrow beam of light.
The principle of UFD is that a narrow beam of sound is
introduced into a material and the effects on that beam can
indicate the structural state of the material.
Rev. 00
Mar 2014

Category B2
At the same time a pulse is generated across the time base of

the oscilloscope. The pulse repetition frequency (PRF) is set so
that the time base of the oscilloscope appears as a straight line.
The sound beams, used in UFD, are produced (and detected)

by means of a piezoelectric transducer (i.e. a device which
converts electrical energy to mechanical energy and vice
versa).
When the transducer, mounted in a device known as the probe

(refer to Fig. 4), is applied to a material, the vibrations cause a
narrow beam of ultrasonic waves to be transmitted through the
material.
A piezoelectric crystal (formerly quartz but, more commonly,

man-made ceramics such as barium titanate or lead zirconate
titanate) is made to vibrate when stimulated by electrical energy
from the pulse generator of a cathode ray tube (CRT)
oscilloscope.
Initial
Back
Wall
Echo
Pulse
Pulse
Generator
Time Base
Controller
Probe
Controller
X-plate
Amplifier
Y-plate
Probe
Back Wall
Component
under
Inspection
7.18 - 29
Couplant between
Probe and
Inspection Surface
Sound Beam
and
Echo
Simplified UFD System

Fig. 4
Rev. 00
Mar 2014

Category B2
In a similar manner to radar waves in air (and sonar waves in

water) the sound waves travel through the material until they
meet an interface with a medium which has a different acoustic
impedance. The acoustic impedance of a material is a function
of the density of, and the velocity of sound in, the material.
At the interface of different acoustic impedances the sound will
be reflected (as with the radar and sonar echoes) in proportion
to their differences. It is usual for the majority of sound to be
reflected from an interface and the interface can be caused by:
The far face (also called the back wall), of the

component under inspection, with the air on the other
side
A crack or a void within the material (which will contain
air or another gas)
An inclusion of a foreign body within the material (such
as occurs in welds).
The reflected sound (or echo) returns to the transducer probe,

where the energy is converted into an electrical pulse, which is
fed (via an amplifier) to the oscilloscope. The amplified pulse
causes a peak on the time-base, which is calibrated so that the
position of the peak represents the distance the reflected sound
has travelled in the material under inspection.
Because the transducer crystal is vibrating against the casing of
the probe, a great deal of sound is initially reflected within the
probe. This is referred to as the initial pulse (Americans refer to
it as the main bang) and it is usually placed at the extreme left
of the time base, to act as the surface reference, and is not
ISO9001:2008Certified considered as part of the search beam.
7.18 - 30
The face of the probe also creates an interface with the surface
of the material under test, due to the microscopic particles of air
between them.
Because of the vast difference in the acoustic impedance of air
compared to other materials, most of the sound would not enter
the material, unless a medium, with a closer acoustic
impedance to the probe and the material under test, is
interposed between them to act as a couplant. Typical
couplants used are fluids in the form of glycerine, silicon grease,
petroleum jelly or medium-viscosity oils.
With this pulse/echo method, the location of a discontinuity in a
component can be quite accurately calculated. Unlike the PFD
method, it is not only able to detect subsurface flaws but also
tight surface flaws which may be filled with oil, grease, paint,
rubber or any other contaminants which would create difficulties
for the PFD methods.
UFD has a greater versatility in that different modes of sound
waves are utilised to locate discontinuities occurring in various
planes relative to the inspection surface. Those modes of sound
include:
Longitudinal or Compressional waves (also called

Straight Beam testing)
Transverse or Shear waves (also called Angle Beam
testing)
Surface or Rayleigh waves.
Rev. 00
Mar 2014

Category B2
Because the narrow beams of sound obey some of the physical

laws applicable to light, with regard to reflection and refraction, it
is necessary to employ Longitudinal sound waves to locate
discontinuities which are approximately parallel to the surface
which is being scanned by the probe (refer to Fig. 5).
Compressional Wave
Initial
Back Wall
(a)
(a)
(b)
(c)
Echo from Flaw
Reduction of
(b)
Total Reflection
from Flaw
(c)
Using Longitudinal Sound Waves

(Straight Beam Testing)
7.18 - 31
Rev. 00
Mar 2014

Category B2
Considering the light law, which states that, the angle of

incidence is equal to the angle of reflection it can be seen that
the incident sound will be reflected back to the probe when the
maximum dimension of the flaw is in a plane parallel to the scan
surface.
In instances where flaws are oriented at angles which are either
oblique or normal to the scan surface, the sound would not be
reflected directly back to the probe and the flaws would be
extremely difficult (if not impossible) to detect.
For the detection of these types of flaws it will be necessary to
use Transverse sound waves, to enable the sound beam to be
reflected back to the transducer crystal (refer to Fig. 6).
Shear Wave
Probe
Using Transverse Sound Waves

(Angle Beam Testing)
Fig. 6
7.18 - 32
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Category B2
Again considering the laws associated with light, the crystal

is angled in such a manner that the Longitudinal waves are
refracted out of the material under inspection, leaving only
Transverse waves for the search.
Note: By fixing the transducer to a more acute angle, it is
also possible to refract the waves in such a way that they
travel along the surface of the material. In this way Surface
or Rayleigh waves may be generated, and used, to detect
flaws which are in, but which are normal to, the scan
surface.
In very acoustic absorptive materials it may be necessary to
resort to Through Transmission or Pitch and Catch
methods (refer to Fig. 7) where two probes are used, with
one being a Transmitter (Tx) and another a Receiver (Rx).
Tx
Rx
Tx
Rx
(a)
(b)
Through Transmission or Pitch and Catch Methods

Fig. 7
7.18 - 33
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Category B2
Using the Through Transmission methods will ensure that

enough sound energy is received to provide useful search
information in materials which tend to absorb great amounts
of sound.
In Fig. 7 (a), it can be seen that two Compressional wave
probes are being used, where access to two opposite
surfaces is possible, while Fig. 7 (b) shows two Transverse
wave probes being used, where access is only available to
one surface.
The disadvantage of the method, however, is that, while the
existence of the flaw can be detected (by the loss of the
signal to the Receiver probe), unlike the pulse echo method,
the actual location of the flaw cannot be determined,
because there will be no peak on the time base to indicate
its position.
As previously stated, UFD techniques can also be used to
measure the thickness (or the loss of thickness in the event
of corrosion) of metals and most other materials.
The de-bonding or delamination of composite structures can
be achieved by either the Through Transmission method
(already described) or by means of the Resonance
technique.
7.18 - 34
This technique uses the fact that a material will vibrate at its
maximum amplitude when the sound is at the resonant
frequency for a given thickness of that material. Thus a
certain thickness of properly bonded structure will vibrate at
maximum amplitude at a specific frequency when an
ultrasonic transducer is applied to its surface.
The amplitude and frequency of the sound can be displayed
on an oscilloscope and, when the transducer passes over a
de-bonded area, the loss of adhesion will be detected as a
change in thickness of the material. This results in a change
of amplitude and a shift in the frequency range on the
oscilloscope, such that the de-bonded area can be quite
easily located.
Acoustic Emission techniques involve the placing of
piezoelectric transducers at critical positions on spars or
struts and the monitoring of the sounds being given out as a
crack propagates through the metal.
The information is electronically processed and, through
appropriate circuitry, can be linked to recording devices or
real time warning lamps to indicate the progress and
severity of the cracking or wear in the particular structure.
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Category B2
EDDY CURRENT FLAW DETECTION (ECFD)

ECFD procedures are, normally, restricted to specially trained
and approved personnel but there may be instances where (in
aircraft wheel servicing bays for example) locally trained
technicians are approved either to do limited and uncomplicated
procedures or to monitor automated ECFD equipment. For
these reasons it is necessary for the student to understand the
fundamentals of ECFD and the techniques involved in its
application.
Flaw detection procedures, utilising eddy currents, are
employed on electrically conductive materials (metals) and are
capable of detecting:
Surface and (to a limited degree) subsurface cracks:

which may be closed by metal flow, oil, paint, rubber or
other contaminants
Variations in the thickness of metal skins: due to internal
corrosion of closed areas, to which normal access is
difficult (or impossible) due to time/expense constraints
Changes in the electrical conductivity of metals: through
incorrect heat-treatments or fire damage
Cracking emanating from rivet and bolt holes in aircraft
skins and structures.
The basic principle is that a probe (refer to Fig. 8), consisting of

a small coil, which is tightly wound around a ferrite core and
supplied with alternating current (ac), is held in contact with (or
in close proximity to) the surface of the component under
inspection.
ac Supply
Ferrite Core
Alternating Magnetic
Field around Coil
Conductive Material
under Inspection
Induced Alternating
Electrical Currents
Principles of ECFD
Eddy currents are alternating electrical currents, which are
induced, into a conductive material, by an alternating magnetic
field. They circulate in the material in a plane normal to the field,
which produces them.
7.18 - 35
Fi
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Any factors, which alter the value of the induced eddy

currents in the inspection area, will result in an indication on
the meter.
Incidentally, an increase in conductivity, or permeability, will

also result in a decrease in the depth of penetration, of the eddy
currents, in the material under inspection.
Factors, which affect eddy currents in a metal (and require

careful interpretation), include:
Conductivity
Permeability
Frequency
Proximity
Probe Handling
Discontinuities.
A change in the conductivity and the magnetic permeability of

the metal will obviously influence the induced current flow and
subsequent magnetic fields.
The frequency, at which the driving current of the probe coil
alternates, will govern the quality of the induced current and
influences the depth of penetration of the eddy currents into the
material.
The higher the frequency of the coil current, then the closer to
the surface of the material the eddy currents remain. This is
referred to as the skin effect.
High frequencies of ac are used to drive the coils when
searching for fine fatigue cracks in the surface of metals, while
low frequencies are employed for the coils of the probes used to
detect sub-surface defects.
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The proximity of the probe to the surface affects the induced

currents and this phenomenon can be used to provide a
coating thickness measurement.
With the probe placed on a bare metal test specimen, the
inspection meter indicator is set at zero. Known thicknesses of
plastic films are then gradually interposed between the probe
and the metal.
As the thicknesses increase, the amount of lift off will be
indicated on the meter and these indications can be used to
compare with readings, obtained when the probe is positioned
on a painted surface of similar metal, to provide a measurement
of the coating thickness.
Probe handling is also very important and the probe should be
maintained at a constant angle to the search surface (preferably
normal to the surface). To ensure this, probes are often
mounted in purpose-made shoes, which conform to the surface
under inspection (particularly in wheel flanges and bead seat
areas) to maintain the correct angle of the probe with the
surface.
Discontinuities will, of course, cause a change in the induced
eddy currents but the type (and severity) of flaws cannot be
deduced unless the equipment is properly calibrated before
(and during) the inspection procedure. In order to calibrate the
equipment, standard reference pieces, manufactured from a
material similar to that being tested, are necessary.
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RADIOGRAPHIC FLAW DETECTION (RFD)

Because the misuse of radiographic equipment could result in
the release of physically harmful (ionising) radiation, operators
must be trained and aware of the many safety regulations and
codes of practice associated with these procedures.
Aircraft RFD inspections are, therefore, only done by qualified
NDT personnel from organisations approved under BCAR A8,
and who are nationally registered as radiation workers. These
workers are subject to frequent medical checks and wear
sensitive film badges to detect any radiation dosage to which
they may become exposed. Should the dosage exceed
stringent limits, then the worker is withdrawn from tasks
involving ionising radiation.
Interpretation of radiographic images is also very important, as
incorrect conclusions could result in the acceptance of
unserviceable structures or, conversely, in the scrapping of safe
structures.
Due to the hazards of radiation, it will be necessary to isolate

the aircraft and to keep personnel at a safe distance from the
inspection area. The area should be roped off, with radiation
warning signs (a black trefoil against a yellow background),
clearly shown. Flashing lights and horns (or klaxons) are also
employed to signify that ionising radiation sources are in use in
the area and that unauthorised personnel should keep away.
The main sources of ionising radiation, used in aerospace RFD
procedures, involve the use of either X- or Gamma-ray emitters.
Both rays have the ability to penetrate materials, which cannot
be penetrated by visible light and are identical forms of energy
in the electromagnetic spectrum (refer to Fig. 17).
Their difference lies only in the way in which they are generated
and the names given them by the scientists who discovered
them.
Students are, however, required to have knowledge of the

fundamental principles of RFD and its applications in aerospace
inspections.
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Infra-red
Radar
Radio
Rays
TV
Typical aerospace RFD procedures use machines generating

X-rays in the range of 10kV to 250kV, depending on the
penetrative power required.
UV Rays
White
Light
Cosmic
Rays
X & Gamma
Rays
1m
10 m
0.01 m
0.1m
100 m
0.001 m
1 m
10 m
10 nm
100 nm
0.1 nm
1nm
10 -3 nm
0.01 nm
10 -5 nm
10 -4 nm
10 -7 nm
10 -6 nm
The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Fi
17
X-rays are electrically produced in a cathode ray tube, (refer to

Fig. 18) which accelerates electrons, released at the cathode,
towards a dense metal (tungsten) target which is embedded in
the anode.
The amount of electrons, freed at the cathode, is controlled by
adjustment of the tube current, which is measured in milliamps
(mA). The force of the collisions and, hence, the penetrating
power of the X-rays, is controlled by the potential difference
between the cathode and the anode. The tube voltage is
measured in kilovolts (kV).
7.18 - 39
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Category B2
DISASSEMBLY AND RE-ASSEMBLY TECHNIQUES
Disassembly and re-assembly, in the terms of aircraft, can

cover a range of activities from complete airframes down to
component maintenance, with several steps in between. The
reasons for dismantling and re-assembly may include:
Complete airframe disassembly for road/air shipment

Replacement of major components/modules
Replacement of minor components/modules
Disassembly & re-assembly of major components
Disassembly & re-assembly of minor components
Complete Airframes
It may be necessary to dismantle a complete aircraft for the
purpose of transportation by road or by air. This could be for
recovery from an accident site, remote from the airfield or for
movement of the aircraft when it is totally non-airworthy, due
perhaps to severe corrosion or an unknown maintenance
history.
Because many larger, modern aircraft are manufactured at

several different locations, the completed modules are
assembled in the final build hall of the primary manufacturer.
The joining points are often known as transportation joints,
and, in extreme instances, can be the points where the aircraft
may be dismantled again to allow transportation (refer to Fig.
20).
7.18 - 40
Typical Manufacturers Joining Points

Fig. 20
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Category B2
The instructions for the dismantling operation will be found

either in the aircrafts Maintenance Manual or in a special
dismantling procedure, issued by the manufacturer. During the
dismantling operation, precautions must be taken to prevent
injury and damage.
General precautions would include such items as:
The aircraft should, if at all possible, be dismantled

within a hangar. If this is not possible, then level and firm
ground will suffice
Sufficient clearance in the hangar must be available,
both to clear the airframe when on jacks, and to allow
heavy lifting cranes enough room to manoeuvre over the
aircraft
All precautions, in accordance with the manufacturers
instructions, must be taken prior to the aircraft entering
the hangar; such as de-fuelling and the removal of
devices such as emergency oxygen canisters
When the aircraft is jacked-up, all trestles must also be
placed in position. This allows the aircraft to be climbed
upon and, later, ensures that it will not overbalance when
a major part (such as a wing), is removed.
Undercarriage units
Centre section
Fuselage.
Re-assembly is in the reverse order of disassembly, and all

parts must be cleaned, protected and serviceable, prior to their
installation.
Replacement of Major Components/Modules
This type of operation will normally be completed at a large
maintenance base, where all the required equipment is
available. An example could be the replacement of a wing that
has suffered major damage.
Other types of similar work might be the replacement of
damaged wing tips, empennage surfaces and nose cones. If the
aircraft is at an outstation when the damage occurs,
confirmation should be sought as to whether the aircraft can be
flown back to base for repair, or repaired where it is.
Whilst the manufacturers instructions will give the details for a

specific aircraft, the following sequence of dismantling gives an
idea of the correct order of disassembly:
Main planes
Tail unit
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Category B2
Replacement of Minor Components/Modules

Some components have to be repaired by replacement. Repairs
to flying control surfaces, for example, are often done in a repair
bay. The component may be replaced on the aircraft by a
serviceable item, or reinstalled once the repair in the bay has
been completed.
Other components, which are replaced first and repaired later,
might include some structural items such as doors of all types,
and most fairings and cowlings. Most of these tasks are simple
removal and replacement operations that are covered in the
AMM.
Disassembly and Re-assembly of Major Components
Most of the work done, during this phase of maintenance, is
scheduled in with normal aircraft maintenance. The components
may not only be removed and reinstalled at different times
during the maintenance, but work will also be done on the items
whilst they are removed. They may also be removed to allow
access to other parts of the airframe during the maintenance.
Items such as engines, propellers, landing gears and wheels
require some form of maintenance. This may include a simple
condition check, or a full overhaul of its component parts,
allowing checks on internal component parts for wear, damage
and corrosion.
7.18 - 42
The full procedure for this type of work will be carried out in
accordance with the CMM. This book will give all the operations
required to dismantle the component and will advise what to
look for whilst the item is undergoing maintenance. It will also
state the re-assembly method, including the fitting of new parts
such as seals, gaskets, oil and other consumables that have to
be replaced, during overhaul.
Disassembly and Re-assembly of Minor Components
A typical passenger aircraft can contain hundreds of small
components that work together as parts of a larger system. This
can include a wide range of hydraulic and pneumatic
components that can be mechanical, electromechanical or
electrical in operation.
Other components might include those installed into fuel, air
conditioning, pressurisation, electrical and electronic systems.
These components have their own CMM to allow maintenance
and trouble-shooting to be done. Some components are only
removed once they fail (On-Condition), while others receive
regular maintenance.
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Category B2
Instruments, electric and electronic components can be

dismantled and serviced by the aircraft operator. It normally
requires the use of a dedicated overhaul facility, which can
provide the correct environmental conditions and is equipped
with the special test equipment required to carry out
maintenance and repair.
Operators of smaller aircraft, or those who operate only a few
aircraft, will usually send components requiring repair or
maintenance to a third party maintenance organisation. This
company will have the special facilities, equipment and
personnel, to complete the required work on components from a
number of different customers.
Other locking devices include items such as single tab washers,

shake-proof washers, circlips and locking rings. Some can only
be used once only whilst others are re-used provided they are
still serviceable.
The replacement of spring washers is advised during overhaul
and repair, especially on engines and pumps. Other devices
used for locking or holding fasteners in position, such as multitab washers and locking plates can normally be reused.
Stiff nuts with fibre or nylon inserts can be checked to ascertain
if a certain degree of stiffness is still available. If the nut can be
run along a thread by hand it should be replaced. They should
not be used in high temperature areas.
Basic Disassembly and Re-assembly Techniques

All of the previously mentioned procedures require the use of
the correct techniques over a wide range of working practices.
These techniques will ensure that the components are removed,
dismantled, re-assembled and re-installed in accordance with
both the relevant manuals and using the correct standard
practices.
An AMM and CMM dictate the correct type and size of locking
wire or split pin to be used during overhaul or maintenance of a
component. These publications also stipulate exact detail of
items such as the lock wire angle of approach and the correct
positioning of a split pin. AMM chapters 20 and 70 list the
standard practices that should be used during overhaul.
7.18 - 43
In all matters relating to aircraft, the manufacturer has the final

say on which fasteners can be reused and which must be
replaced.
Because friction is essential to keep the fasteners secure,
sometimes it is necessary to do a torque check on the bolt/nut
combination, in order to confirm their continuing serviceability.
This is especially true of all metal fasteners that can normally be
re-used.
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Category B2
The majority of nuts, bolts and set-screws, on an aircraft, are

subject to a standard torque value. This depends on their
material, finish, lubrication, thread type and size, although the
manufacturers torque value will be the correct one to use.
The correct torque loadings are normally applied using a torque
wrench that has been previously calibrated to the correct value.
In some special instances, pre-load indicating (PLI) washers
may be specified.
When assembling any component or major airframe part, the
manufacturer will specify whether the torque value is lubricated
or dry. Lubricated values are measured with the threads and all
mating surfaces lightly lubricated with oil, sealant or anti-seize
compound as appropriate.
When assembling some components, it may be vital that certain
alignments, dimensions or profiles are achieved. During initial
production, most of the airframe and many of the components
are assembled in a jig.
A jig is device that allows the manufacture, repair or rigging of
components to a high dimensional accuracy. This guarantees
consistency over a number of components. The jig holds all of
the items securely, so that, when assembled, the whole
component is exactly the shape that the designer has
stipulated.
Jigs are used to build fuselage and wing sections in the factory.
They are also used to ensure that small actuators are pre-set to
the exact length, to assist in rigging the controls containing the
actuator.
7.18 - 44
Small Part and Component Identification

When disassembling or removing any component, it is vital that
all small items such as bolts, screws, nuts, washers and shims
are clearly identified.
This involves not only identifying the items by part number, but
also recording their correct location and which aircraft they have
been removed from as, in some hangars, more than one aircraft
may be in a state of disassembly at any one time.
Some items may simply be attached to the major assembly
using many small tie on bags with identification labels. If a
number of different sized fasteners are removed from a
component such as a windscreen, they can be located in a
locally-made holding jig which keeps the different parts in their
same relative position to the original item. This should allow all
the screws to be returned to their original locations when the
screen is reinstalled.
Any part which is removed must have its identity and location
retained until it is reinstalled.
Discarding of Parts
A number of items, when they are removed from their original
position, have to be discarded. The once only policy is a
combination of the manufacturers recommendations together
with normal engineering practice.
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Category B2
Items that are usually discarded at removal are filters, sealing

rings, desiccants, fuels and oils of all types.
There are many other items that have a given life. This may be
counted in flying hours, calendar time or operating cycles, which
will mean that items have to be replaced throughout the life of
the aircraft.
If aircraft, or major components of them, have been
disassembled, it may be policy to replace components with
zero life items prior to re-assembly. This will allow the aircraft
to fly for considerable time before any parts become due for
replacement.
Freeing Seized Components
When dismantling any part of an aircraft, it is not unusual for the
technician to encounter a seized fastener. Depending upon its
location, the AMM may recommend a range of actions to assist
in the removal of the item(s).
Use of Correct Tools

It is normal for technicians to own a comprehensive tool kit,
containing tools recommended for the work planned and which
are of the highest quality. In a number of situations, it may be
possible for a technician to use an incorrect tool that may
appear to be the correct one for the task. It is most important
that only the correct tools are used for each and every
maintenance task.
When, for example, using a cross point screwdriver, it is
possible to find at least six different types of screw bits, each of
which only fits its own respective screw head slot.
The removal of nuts from bolts is normally accomplished using
a socket and wrench set and these sockets can be of the
twelve-point or six- point type. When spanners need to be used,
preference should be given to a ring spanner rather than an
open-ended spanner. Adjustable spanners or mole grips
should never be used on aircraft.
These actions may involve use of penetrating oil, which works

its way down through the seized threads, providing both an anticorrosion action and lubrication for the threads. Other actions
may involve the application of heat or cold to a specific part, so
that their relative diameters change, thus lowering the friction
between the parts.
7.18 - 45
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Category B2
The manufacturer of the aircraft often specifies special tools,

when standard tools are unable to complete the task. Unless
approved to do so, the technician should never substitute
conventional tools for the special tools that are called for in the
manual. Damage to the part being worked upon will almost
always result from the use of incorrect tools.
Murphys Law
This law states that:
If a part or component can be installed incorrectly, someone,
somewhere will install it that way.
There are numerous solutions in the fight against this problem.
For example, when pair of pipes or hoses are to be joined, there
is the risk of the two pairs of couplings being cross connected.
This could result in serious damage if the pipes carried fuel and
hydraulic oil.
To prevent this happening, pipes and couplings usually have
different diameters. Alternatively, the two sets of couplings
would be located at different places, so the pipes could not be
wrongly connected under any circumstances.
The same logic is applied to control cables that, of course, must
also never be cross-connected. In this instance, the turnbuckles
are located at slightly different locations at each cable break,
again making it impossible to connect the wrong pair of cables
together.
7.18 - 46
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Category B2
TROUBLESHOOTING
Troubleshooting is a form of problem solving, often applied to
repair failed products or processes. It is a logical, systematic
search for the source of a problem so that it can be solved, and
so the product or process can be made operational again.
Troubleshooting is needed to develop and maintain complex
systems where the symptoms of a problem can have many
possible causes. Troubleshooting is used in many fields such
as engineering, system, administration, electronics, automotive
repair, and diagnostic medicine. Troubleshooting requires
identification of the malfunction(s) or symptoms within a system.
Then, experience is commonly used to generate possible
causes of the symptoms. Determining the most likely cause is
a process of elimination - eliminating potential causes of a
problem. Finally, troubleshooting requires confirmation that the
solution restores the product or process to its working state.
In general, troubleshooting is the identification of,
or diagnosis of "trouble" in the management flow of a
corporation or a system caused by a failure of some kind. The
problem is initially described as symptoms of malfunction, and
troubleshooting is the process of determining and remedying
the causes of these symptoms.
7.18 - 47
A system can be described in terms of its expected, desired or

intended behavior (usually, for artificial systems, its purpose).
Events or inputs to the system are expected to generate specific
results or outputs. (For example selecting the "print" option from
various computer applications is intended to result in
a hardcopy emerging from some specific device). Any
unexpected or undesirable behavior is a symptom.
Troubleshooting is the process of isolating the specific cause or
causes of the symptom. Frequently the symptom is a failure of
the product or process to produce any results. (Nothing was
printed, for example).
The methods of forensic engineering are especially useful in
tracing problems in products or processes, and a wide range of
analytical techniques are available to determine the cause or
causes of specific failures. Corrective action can then be taken
to prevent further failures of a similar kind. Preventative action is
possible
using failure
mode
and
effects
analysis
(FMEA) and fault tree analysis (FTA) before full scale
production, and these methods can also be used for failure
analysis.
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Category B2
Flight line aircraft maintainers have an excellent record of

identifying and correcting causes of system and subsystem
failures and keeping highly complex, aging aircraft flying.
These technicians continue to troubleshoot an aircraft until the
problem is isolated; sometimes aided and sometimes hindered
by current maintenance and logistics processes and procedures
or even the maintenance environment itself. It takes little
analysis to determine that the success or failure of the
troubleshooting process hinges on the technician.
Terminology
The AF has placed great emphasis on enterprise process

improvements and cost reduction programs. However, it has
placed less emphasis on the processes and systems supporting
the technician in making effective troubleshooting decisions at
the task level. Thus, while the current troubleshooting
environment is functional, it is often inefficient. The AMIT
program's purpose was to identify the factors (especially human
factors) that contribute to inefficiency in troubleshooting
intensive portions of the maintenance process, and devise
proven (i.e., field tested) means to improve efficiency. If those
means are demonstrated to be statistically significant, their
introduction into the AF maintenance environment should have
a meaningful, positive impact on aircraft availability.
Efficiency and inefficiency are inverse indicators of a

technician's troubleshooting proficiency, where proficiency is a
vectored quantity (i.e., a mathematical representation of a
physical phenomenon where direction is as important as the
value; "velocity" and "force" are two such physical phenomena).
In other words, proficiency is a combination of the time it takes
(troubleshooting time) to make the right decision
(troubleshooting accuracy).
7.18 - 48
For this effort, the AMIT Team defined troubleshooting as "a

process that includes all activities related to determining the
correct repair action." This included all activities from problem
notification through repair verification; understanding the current
discrepancy, technical data research, historical maintenance
data
research,
determining
aircraft
condition,
and
communication.
The AMIT program did not measure AF technicians'

troubleshooting proficiency quotients or even attempt to develop
a method for doing so. Had that been done, however, an
efficiency distribution with an upper bound of some practicable
state of proficiency and a lower bound of an acceptable state of
sufficiency would result as shown in Figure 1 (Gott, S. P. 1998).
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Category B2
7.18 - 49
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Category B2
A statistical analysis of this theoretical efficiency distribution

would yield a dividing line. Those troubleshooters with
proficiency quotients to the right of the line would be considered
Experts (i.e., proficient) and those to the left would be
considered Novices (i.e., sufficient) for the purposes of the
AMIT program. (NOTE: In the AMIT program, an individual
technician's proficiency quotient is neither a reflection of his or
her fitness for the job nor a measure of their personal
performance. The AMIT program simply used this theoretical
construct of proficiency quotients to describe two classes of test
subjects, "Novices" and "Experts".)
As illustrated in Figure 1, the troubleshooting process entails
three domains of cognition: process knowledge, strategic
knowledge, and system knowledge. A troubleshooter leaves
technical school with relatively more process than system or
strategic knowledge.
Process knowledge is general in nature. The troubleshooter
knows the theory and operation of the major components and
subsystems on an aircraft (e.g., jet engines, landing gear
actuators, etc.), how to find and use the technical
documentation, test equipment, and fault isolation procedures.
The availability of accurate, current information is critical in this
cognitive domain (Gott S. P.1989).
7.18 - 50
System knowledge is the knowledge of a specific type of

system, or set of interrelated functional components on the
aircraft, including design-specific interactions and interfaces
with other systems. System knowledge in the Novice is minimal,
but grows with on-the-job exposure to a myriad of details and
situations. Experiential increases in process and system
knowledge result in a more mature level of strategic knowledge
(i.e., mental database) or reference model of facts and
experiences that support better decision making. The relative
size of the spheres in Figure 1 depicts the development of the
troubleshooter's process, system, and strategic knowledge over
time.
At this point, the troubleshooter's personality, training, innate
abilities, and on-aircraft experience bring process, system, and
strategic knowledge into balance and heighten the technician's
ability to synthesize information, reducing task time. The
technician's proficiency quotient is now to the right of the
average and he or she can be acknowledged as an expert.
Unfortunately, this corporate knowledge will soon be lost due to
advancement, retirement, or separation, until another
troubleshooter completes his or her pilgrimage to proficiency.
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Theory
The AMIT program's strategic goal was to identify a set of
changes to the current AF maintenance environment that would
improve troubleshooters' overall proficiency, thereby increasing
aircraft availability. The team's first challenge was to identify a
set of metrics that establish a baseline, against which
improvement could be measured. It was evident from the
program's outset that the metrics collected during the field
demonstration test (FDT) were vital to the program's credibility
in the scientific community and critical to a business case for
transitioning the solution into the field if the solution were
successful. Those metrics and the practicability of their
collection would be considerations in both the design of the
solution as well as the design of the FDT.
Troubleshooting proficiency, a function of both task accuracy
and task time, would be an ideal metric. Plotting the average
troubleshooters' proficiency quotients over time would yield a
trend line's direction and indicate whether or not changes in the
AF's maintenance environment were beneficial or detrimental.
In addition, its slope would indicate the rate of change. A
positive and large slope would indicate that the changes were
increasing proficiency; aircraft availability trend analyses should
show a corresponding improvement. Since the AF does not
presently derive such a metric, developing and validating a
methodology for doing so was outside the spirit, scope, and
resources of the AMIT program. The team had to identify other
practicable metrics to quantitatively demonstrate any
performance improvements afforded by the solution.
7.18 - 51
Since increased aircraft availability was the desired outcome,

and the AF has long established data collection mechanisms
and defined formulae for calculating aircraft operational
availability (Ao), the AMIT team considered using those
measurement systems and metrics as a barometer for the AMIT
solution's success. However, a review of the existing AF Ao
metrics revealed that, for the purposes of this experiment, such
an analysis would include such a large number of variables the
program would have to extend much beyond the contract's
period of performance, while also confounding the experimental
findings.
A third approach considered was to measure the solution's
impact on recurring or intermittent problems. If the solution
caused significant improvements in task accuracy, then the
number of problem reports closed with a Can Not Duplicate
(CND) entry, and those determined to be repeats (same
problem on the next flight) or recurs (same problem on the
subsequent four or five flights, depending upon aircraft type)
should decrease noticeably. Here again, deriving a viable test
that involved flying the same aircraft four or five times under
controlled conditions was not practical.
The AMIT team finally settled on a 3 x 3 x 2 mixed factorial
experimental design that would yield empirical, objective results.
The test was designed to include three (3) groups of test
subjects: system specific Novices, system specific Experts, and
a non-system specific Experts (referred to as "Novice," "Expert,"
and "Crew Chief," respectively, throughout the remainder of this
document). These groups completed maintenance tasks of
three (x 3) degrees of difficulty:
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Simple, Moderate, and Complex, to be accomplished With or

Without (x 2) the AMIT solution.
Task Time and Task Accuracy measurements would be
collected and the troubleshooting proficiencies of the test
groups would be compared and contrasted. Any improvements
in proficiency would become the basis for predicting the
improvements of larger population groups. (See CDRL A008,
"Demonstration Test Plan")
During test planning and preparation, SMEs pointed out two
separate, but equally effective, approaches to troubleshooting:
1) hard failures of discrete components, which lend themselves
to a procedurally oriented fault isolation tree approach, and 2)
repeat and recur problems that indicate soft or intermittent
failures, which favor a divide-and-conquer signal tracing
approach. In order to gauge the applicability of the AMIT
solution to both troubleshooting approaches, the test included
two different subsystems, one favoring each troubleshooting
approach.
7.18 - 52
Extent of Theory
A by-product of the AMIT program was the documented
paradigm of the AF flight maintenance environment shown in
Figure 2. The paradigm provided a working framework within
which the Team could rate and prioritize all change
opportunities for their potential impact.
The three dimensions illustrate the three facets of on-aircraft
maintenance believed to hold the greatest improvement
potential. The x-axis represents the daily operational
environment for a maintainer, predominately a time-based
sequence of prescribed procedures and practices. If it can be
assumed that all flightlines comply with Air Force Instruction
(AFI) 21-101, "Aircraft and Equipment Maintenance
Management," then, arguably, any improvement(s) made by the
AMIT solution along this dimension are extensible across the
entire AF.
The y-axis depicts the event-based nature of each maintenance
scenario. Random failures occurring on an aircraft trigger and
gauge the series of actions along the x-axis. Since random
failures are the result of inherent characteristics in electrical,
electronic, and mechanical devices and are not typically
affected by human performance, the AMIT team left this area to
those involved with the practical applications of probability
theory.
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The z-axis represents the cognitive dimension of maintenance.

Troubleshooters synthesize data and information into
knowledge, and make intuitive leaps from symptoms to
solutions in this dimension. Cyclically, novices mature to experts
as they gain wisdom and that wisdom or corporate knowledge
erodes away as the experts move on with their lives and
careers.
Thus,
the
AMIT
program's
problem/solution
space
encompassed the entire AF maintenance paradigm: doctrine,
organization, training and education, materiel, leadership,
personnel, and facilities; the physical work and information
processing environments; the maintainer's psychological
makeup, including the way they learn and think; their decision
making skills and habits; and their character traits. All were
considered to be within scope during the program's formative
period.
Assumptions / Constraints
Because no initial constraints were imposed on either the
problem or solution space, the AMIT Team had complete total
freedom of thought about what the problems might be, what
their underlying causes might be, and what solutions might
affect positive changes. This mental freedom allowed the team
to "think outside the box" regarding investigatory techniques,
analytical approaches, and technologies.
The program's "freedom-of-thought" environment was nurtured
by the initial operating assumptions stated at the AMIT
program's outset:
Any aspect of the current AF maintenance environment could
be changed if the objective evidence provided confidence in the
change's positive impact on human performance and the return
on investment justified the resource expenditures.
This assumption gave the team the freedom to delve into any
and every aspect of the current maintenance environment for its
improvement potential.
The AMIT program's efforts will result in the transition of one or
more improved troubleshooting capabilities into the AF's System
Development and Demonstration acquisition process and/or
one or more changes to the current maintenance environment.
This assumption not only bred an expectation of success, but it
kept the team focused on deriving benefit to the troubleshooter.
Moreover, this expectation established the need for efforts
targeted toward successfully transitioning the AMIT solution
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No radical or disruptive changes will occur within the

maintenance environment before the AMIT solution is fully
developed and fielded. If such a change occurs, the cost
analysis contained in this document would need to be
reevaluated in light of the changed environment.
processes, the maintenance environment, and the requirements

for any solution intended to increase a maintainer's proficiency
than any single technique. All three were conducted
concurrently, because each targeted a different outcome:
Literature Reviews to determine the state of knowledge and the
state of technology as it pertained to the problem; Process
Interviews towards discovering the current maintenance
process; and Cognitive Task Analyses to determine how Novice
and Expert maintainers mentally approached troubleshooting
tasks.
Purpose - Program Goals
Literature Review
In keeping with the restrictions upon 6.3 (Advanced Research)

funds and the DoD 5000 series guidelines for technology
development, the purpose was to identify an affordable
increment of militarily-useful capability, to demonstrate that
capability in a relevant environment, and describe how a system
can be developed for production within a short timeframe
(normally less than 5 years) (DoDI 5000.2, 3.6.7). In other
words, the AMIT program had to design and develop a
capability sufficient for a field demonstration, without ftilly
developing the final fieldable solution.
A Literature Review (Lit Review) was performed to identify and

scientifically qualify current and prototype technologies and
research endeavors that might support the AMIT solution.
Through this Lit Review, the AMIT team established user-based
constraints, targeted key research findings for application, and
identified additional research opportunities for future
improvements to the maintenance environment.
from the program's outset. Other potential improvements in the

maintenance process were identified, but if they did not directly
benefit the troubleshooter, they were excluded from further
consideration.
Defining Customer Needs and Processes

Literature Reviews, Process Interviews, and Cognitive Task
Analyses were chosen for the unique areas of insight they
provided. The AMIT team believed that such a combination
would paint a more accurate picture of the maintainers' thought
7.18 - 55
Lit Reviews were conducted in two parts. Initially, the Team

reviewed AFRL program reports in conjunction with Process
Interview and Cognitive Task Analysis results to establish the
Core Topic Areas listed in Table 1. An extended Lit Review then
sought and analyzed Department of Defense (DoD) and
academic works in the Defense Technical Information Center
(DTIC) and the Ohio Library and Information Network
(OhioLINK) relevant to the Core Topic Areas.
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Documents chosen for both reviews were analyzed and

reduced to brief statements, or findings, with each expressing a
single thought. The 830 statements, virtually verbatim extracts,
were categorized and summarized into the 63 potential AMIT
requirements shown in Figure 3.
A full description of the methods used to build the complete
AMIT requirements traceability matrix was provided in CDRL
A017, "Systems Specification."
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Process Interviews
Cognitive Task Analysis
In order to ensure that the AMIT solution would be "an
increment of militarily useful capability," the Team conducted a
series of process interviews to determine whether organizations
and practices were indeed uniform across the AF. In all, 27
Process Interviews with subjects from ten different weapon
systems, seven technical specialties, and two major commands
demonstrated that the maintenance organization structures and
processes were consistent across different AF wings, with very
minor exceptions. The minor exceptions were due to the
numbers of assigned maintainers and the type of aircraft, not to
different
maintenance
philosophies,
approaches,
methodologies, or practices. The interviews uncovered some
recurring themes that are indicative of problem areas for
maintainers. Furthermore, it was determined that on-aircraft
maintenance has not radically changed over the past 50 years
and does not appear likely to change in the next 5 years. All
process interview results were considered when the AMIT
requirements were defined (See CDRL AO 17, "System
Specification").
7.18 - 59
In order to understand the "intuitive" nature of troubleshooters,

Cognitive Task Analysis (CTA) interviews were conducted to
capture the thought processes that occur during aircraft system
troubleshooting activities. The CTA focused on both Novice and
Expert troubleshooter thought processes and information needs
for cognitively difficult or complex maintenance tasks.
Task Diagrams and Knowledge Audit techniques were used as
the primary CTA instruments for this task. Task Diagrams
yielded a procedural perspective on maintainer decisionmaking, while Knowledge Audits provided insight into Expert
troubleshooting strategies and techniques. (See CDRL 017,
"System Specification," for specifics on the AMIT CTA.)
Figure 4 depicts the similarities and differences between Novice
and Expert AF on aircraft maintainers' thought processes and
awareness and usage trends of knowledge stores.
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An analysis was completed after each set of CTA interviews,

and again when all sets were completed. High-level themes
within and across interviews were identified using a Card Sort
method. The findings were consistent with, and expanded upon,
those from the Process Interviews. The CTA also identified
three areas in the maintenance process that were most
problematic, especially for Novice troubleshooters. These were
debrief, problem duplication, and troubleshooting. As with the
Process Interviews, the CTA contributed to the requirements for
the AMIT solution (See CDRL AO017, "System Specification").
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Aircraft Disassembly, Inspection, Repair Techniques

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PIATRAININGCENTRE(PTC)

Module 7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

DISASSEMBLY, INSPECTION, REPAIR AND ASSEMBLY

PIATRAININGCENTRE(PTC) Module 7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

PIATRAININGCENTRE(PTC) Module 7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

An operational aircraft can suffer from many defects and these

PIATRAININGCENTRE(PTC) Module 7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

Security of attachments, fasteners, connections, locking

Rubber, Fabric, Glass Fibre and Plastic Parts: such as

Electrical Components: actuators, alternators and

Control System Components: cables, chains, pulleys, rods

Correct alignment no fouling

Damage to the outside of the airframe can occur by interference

PIATRAININGCENTRE(PTC) Module 7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

Inlets and Exhausts

External leaks of oil and fuel systems are normally easy to

A careful check of all inlets and exhausts, during inspections,

If the leak is internal, then a much more thorough inspection of

Some hydraulic oils, especially the phosphate ester based

Potable water tanks are often permanently pressurised, so that

The cause of a lower-than-expected level should be

The physical signs of water inside the aircraft or dripping from

PIATRAININGCENTRE(PTC) Module 7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

Windscreen de-icers are usually in the form of a pressurised

Pneumatic systems contain high-pressure air of a stated

PIATRAININGCENTRE(PTC) Module 7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

Tyre-inflation devices usually consist of high-pressure bottles

Most tyres can be re-treaded a number of times after they have

The correct pressure for a specific aircraft is given in the

Creep is the movement of a cover around the rim, in very small

If a tyre is completely deflated with the weight of the aircraft on

To provide an indicator, small white marks are painted across

The installation of tubeless covers has reduced the problem of

Defects to aircraft wheels are usually due to impact damage

PIATRAININGCENTRE(PTC) Module 7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

Landing Gear Locks

Brake units are normally attached onto the axle of an

These items are normally fitted to the aircrafts undercarriage as

Inspection of brake units between flights is essential, to check

A rejected take-off at maximum weight will produce the

PIATRAININGCENTRE(PTC) Module 7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

Gas Bottle and Pressure

Gas Bottle Bursting Disc

PIATRAININGCENTRE(PTC) Module 7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

Most fasteners have a positive form of closing or locking, whilst

This switch is designed to reduce or remove power to the

Handles and Latches

PIATRAININGCENTRE(PTC) Module 7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

Emergency System Indication

Some systems use protective covers, to prevent inadvertent

These have to be checked regularly, to ensure they remain

There are a number of items on the aircraft that have a specific

All aircraft have a list of permitted defects that do not have to be

The components which can become unserviceable due to life

PIATRAININGCENTRE(PTC) Module 7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

VISUAL INSPECTION TECHNIQUES

PIATRAININGCENTRE(PTC) Module 7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

Locations of corrosion in aircraft

Engine Intakes and Cooling Air Vents

Certain locations in aircraft are more prone to corrosion than

The protective finish, on engine frontal areas, is abraded by

Landing gear bays are exposed to flying debris, such as water