WHAT ARE ATOMS? and WHAT DO WE MEAN BY FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES?

(sub atomic particle

s)
Compounds are formed when two or more elements are chemically combined to form a
new substance in a reaction which is not easily reversed i.e. its difficult to
separate a compound back into its constituent elements.
However, what are elements made up of? How and why do elements bond together?
In order to answer these questions we must look a bit deeper into the fundamenta
l structure of matter, that is everything around you!
Atoms are the smallest particles of matter whose properties we study in Chemistr
y.
Every element or compound is comprised of atoms. All the atoms are the same
in the structure of an element (ignoring isotopes) and two or more different ato
ms/elements must be present in a compound.
Initially, once the concept of an atom was established, it was assumed that atom
s were indestructible and not divisible into smaller particles, but merely combi
ned in different proportions to give the range of compounds we know about.
However from experiments done in the late 19th and early 20th century it was ded
uced that atoms are made up of three fundamental or sub atomic particles called pr
otons, neutrons and electrons, which are listed below with their relative masses
and electrical charges.
WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTIC PROPERTIES OF THESE SUB ATOMIC PARTICLES?
WHAT IS THE NUCLEUS? WHAT ARE NUCLEONS?
The three fundamental particles of which atoms are composed
The table gives the relative mass and electric charge of the three sub atomic part
icles known as the proton, neutron and electron
Sub atomic particle
Relative mass Electric charge
Comments
Proton 1
+1 (+ positive)
In the nucleus, a nucleon
Neutron
1
0 (zero)
In the nucleus, a nucleon
Electron
1/1850 or 0.00055
1 ( negative)
NOT a nucleon. Electrons
are arranged in energy levels or shells in orbit around the nucleus
You can think of the mass of an electron as about 1/2000th of the mass of a prot
on or neutron, so, a pretty small mass BUT they occupy most of the space of atom
!!!

What can we say about 'A Portrait of an Atom'?

an image of what you can't see!

(c) doc b
However this diagram, which is based on the Bohr model of atomic structure, alth
ough more realistic in terms of the real size of the nucleus compared to the ato
m as a whole, so it is not convenient to give a brief diagrammatic picture of th
e composition of an atom.
The central nucleus of protons and neutrons (most of mass) is extremely small ev
en compared to the size of an atom. The rest of the 'almost empty space' of an a
tom is occupied by the negative electrons, held by, and moving around the positi

ve nucleus in their energy levels or 'shells'.

The electrons are also pretty tiny in mass too, compared to a proton or neutron.
The size of an individual atom is around 0.1 nm or 1 x 10-10 m
(nm = nanometres, 1 nm = 10-9 m).
Most of the mass is in the nucleus, which has a radius of around 1/10000th o
f the whole atom.
This means the radius of the nucleus is about 1 x 10-14 m !!!
Bohr theorised the negative electrons can only exist in certain specific energy
levels (shells) held in place by the positive nucleus (see section on the histor
y of development of the atomic model).
All of these theories must, and have been, backed up by repeated and varied expe
riments.
As each new experiment was/is done, it must support the current theory or the th
eory needs to be modified to take into account new discoveries.
Some of these important experiments are described further down the page.
Even new experimental findings written up in research papers should be thoroughl
y peer reviewed, that is checked by scientists of at least equal academic rankin
g to the researchers. That's how science works!
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom decides what element that atom i
s.
e.g. if the atom has 3 protons in the nucleus, it cannot be anything except lith
ium!
Elements consist of one type of atom only determined by the proton number (atomi
c number).

(c) doc b
Some more concise and handy styles to show the atomic composition of the same li
thium atom
What sub atomic particles make up atoms? What is their mass and charge?
The diagram above of a 'portrait of an atom' gives some idea on the structur
e of an atom (sometimes called the Bohr Atomic Model), it also includes some imp
ortant definitions and notation used to describe atomic structure
The three fundamental particles you need to know are ...
proton: particle mass = 1, electric charge = +1, the charged particle in
the nucleus
neutron: particle mass = 1, charge = 0, uncharged particle in the nucleu
s
electron: particle mass = 1/1850 ~1/2000, electric charge = 1,
Electrons are NOT in the nucleus but exist in electronic energy leve
ls around the nucleus (a sort of orbit, often described as a shell, see later).
The nucleus of protons and neutrons is tiny, even compared to the tiny a
tom!
So most of the volume of an atom is empty space, BUT it is where the

tiny electrons are.

In fact the diameter of the nucleus of protons plus neutrons is abou
t a ten thousandth of the diameter of the whole atom!
Since the nucleus is composed of positive protons and neutral neutro
ns, the nucleus itself must be positive.
A neutral atom carries no overall charge because the number of posit
ive protons equals the number of negative electrons, and this information is giv
en by the atomic/proton number.
Protons and neutrons are the 'nucleons' or 'sub atomic' particles present in t
he minute positive nucleus and the negative electrons are held by the positive p
rotons in 'orbits' called energy levels or shells.
Although the nucleus must be positive because of the positive protons (n
eutrons are neutral) an individual atom is neutral because the number of electro
ns equals the number of protons
so the charges 'cancel out'.
If electrons are removed from an atom you get a positive ion and if elec
trons are added to an atom you get a negative ion.
An ion, by definition, cannot be neutral.
Some important evidence for this 'picture' is obtained from alpha particle s
cattering experiments (see Appendix 1).
The atomic number (Z) is the number of protons in the nucleus and is also kn
own as the proton number of the particular element and it is this number that de
cides what element a particular atom is.
Each element has its own atomic number, so all the atoms of a particular
element have the same atomic number.
It is the proton/atomic number (Z) that determines the number of electrons a
n element has, its specific electron structure and therefore the specific identi
ty of a particular element in terms of its physical and chemical properties.
It cannot be overemphasised that it is the electronic structure that determi
nes the chemical character of an element, hence the proton/atomic number determi
nes everything about a particular element
The mass number (A) is also known as the nucleon number, that is the number
of particles in the nucleus of a particular atom isotope (notes on isotopes
defini
tion and examples).
Therefore the mass number or nucleon number = sum of the protons plus ne
utrons in the nucleus.
Since the mass of a proton or neutron equals 1, the mass number equals t
he mass of a particular atom to the nearest whole number.
Relative Atomic Mass is dealt with on a separate calculation page
The neutron number (N) = mass number proton/atomic number
In an individual atom the number of protons (+) equals the number of electro
ns ( ), that is the number of positive charges is equal to the number of negative
charges to make the atom neutral.
In the example above for lithium 7, the nuclide notation states that
before the chemical symbol of the element Li
the top left number = nucleon/mass number = 7
and the bottom left number = proton/atomic number = 3
Similarly for ...
, atom of hydrogen 1, symbol H, mass 1, just 1 proton and NO neutrons (onl
y atom with no neutrons)
, atom of helium 4, symbol He, mass 4, 2 protons, 4 2 = 2 neutrons, 2 ele
ctrons
, atom of sodium, symbol Na, mass 23, 11 protons, 23 11 = 12 neutrons, 1
1 electrons
atom of iron 56, mass 56, 26 protons, 30 neutrons (56
26), 26 electrons
If the proton number and electron number are different, the atom has an over
all surplus or deficiency of electrical charge, resulting in an electrically cha
rged particle called an ion e.g.
If an atom loses 1/2 electrons, the protons produce an excess of 1/2 uni

ts of positive charge.
The excess positive charge on the positive ion is written as + or 2+
etc.
If an atom gains 1/2 electrons, the extra electrons produce an excess of
1/2 units of negative charge.
The excess negative charge on the negative ion is written as - or 2etc.
reading the symbol as above, BUT, taking into account the electrical cha
rge on the ion ..
the positive sodium ion Na+,11 protons, 10 electrons (11-1), 12 neutrons
(23-11)
the positive magnesium ion Mg2+,12 protons, 10 electrons (12-2), 12 neut
rons (24-12)
the negative chloride ion Cl ,17 protons, 18 electrons (17+1), 20 neutrons
(37-17)
the negative sulfide ion S2-,16 protons, 18 electrons (16+2), 16 neutron
s (32-16)
for more details and examples see ionic bonding notes.
The electrons are arranged in specific energy levels according to a set of r
ules (dealt with in section 3).
This description of an atom consisting of the relatively minute
rotons and neutrons surrounded by electrons in particular shells or
s is sometimes referred to as the Bohr Model of the atom, after the
scientist Niels Bohr (1885 1962), one of the brilliant founders of
theory.

nucleus of p
energy level
great Danish
modern atomic

Other examples of interpreting the nuclide notation and definition reminders

:
Top left number is the nucleon number or mass number (A = sum of protons
+ neutrons = nucleons)
Bottom left number is the atomic number or proton number (Z = protons in
nucleus)
Electrons = protons if the atom is electrically neutral i.e. NOT an ion.
The neutron number N = A

Z i.e. mass/nucleon number

atomic/proton number

Therefore from the following 'full' atomic symbols, assuming we are

dealing with electrically neutral atoms, the number of sub-atomic particles for
the following atoms will be as follows ...
Cobalt atom (isotope cobalt 59), mass 59, 27 protons, 32 neutrons (59
27), 27 electrons
Californium atom (isotope californium 246), mass 246, 98 protons, 148
neutrons (246
98), 98 electrons
So, at this point we had better explain, slightly belatedly, what is
otopes are!
top index
2. ISOTOPES
WHAT ARE ISOTOPES? ARE THEY IMPORTANT?

Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons in
the nucleus and therefore different masses (different nucleon number or mass nu
mber).
Isotopes are atoms of the same atomic number but different mass numbers.
Some elements have just one isotope but others may have up to eight
different isotopes.
Most elements have one or more stable isotopes, but many other isoto
pes are unstable, disintegrate spontaneously (nuclear decay) and are known as ra
dioactive.
This gives each isotope of a particular element a different mass or nucl
eon number, but, being the same element they have the same atomic number or prot
on number, but different nucleon number.
Isotopes of a particular element are also chemically identical, because
they have the same number of electrons, hence the same electron structure and wi
ll therefore behave in an identical manner to each other.
Study the diagrams of the isotopes of carbon further down the page.
Relative Isotopic Mass is dealt with on a separate calculation page
(and see also mass spectrometry)
The phrase 'heavier' or 'lighter' isotope means 'bigger' or 'smaller' mass n
umber for a particular element.
There are small physical differences between the isotopes e.g. the heavier i
sotope has a greater density or boiling point, the lighter the isotope the faste
r it diffuses.
However, because they have the same number of protons (proton/atomic number)
isotopes of a particular element have the same electronic structure and identic
al chemistry.
Examples of isotopes are illustrated and described below.
Caution Note: Do NOT assume the word isotope means the atom it is radioactiv
e, this depends on the stability of the nucleus i.e. unstable atoms (radioactive
) might be referred to as radioisotopes.
Many isotopes are extremely stable in the nuclear sense and NOT radioactive
i.e. most of the atoms that make up you and the world around you!
(c) doc bhydrogen 1, (c) doc bhydrogen 2, and (c) doc bhydrogen 3 are the three is
otopes of hydrogen with mass numbers of 1, 2 and 3, with 0, 1 and 2 neutrons res
pectively. All have 1 proton, since all are hydrogen! Hydrogen 1 is the most commo
n, there is a trace of hydrogen 2 (sometimes called deuterium) naturally but hydro
gen 3 (sometime called tritium) is very unstable and is used in atomic bombs
nucle
ar fusion weapons.
They are sometimes denoted more simply as 1H, 2H and 3H since the chemic
al symbol H means hydrogen and therefore must have only one proton.
(c) doc b and (c) doc b or 3He and 4He, are the two isotopes of helium with
mass numbers of 3 and 4, with 1 and 2 neutrons respectively but both have 2 prot
ons. Helium 3 is formed in the Sun by the initial nuclear fusion process. Helium 4 i
s also formed in the Sun and as a product of radioactive alpha decay of an unsta
ble nucleus.
An alpha particle is a helium nucleus (mass 4, charge +2) and if it pick
s up two electrons it becomes a stable atoms of the gas helium. For more details
see Radioactivity Revision Notes Part 4
(c) doc b and (c) doc b or 23Na and 24Na, are the two isotopes of sodium wit
h mass numbers of 23 and 24, with 12 and 13 neutrons respectively but both have
11 protons in the nucleus and 11 surrounding electrons. Sodium 23 is quite stable
e.g. in common salt (NaCl, sodium chloride) but sodium 24 is a radio isotope and is
a gamma emitter used in medicine as a radioactive tracer e.g. to examine organs
and the blood system.
and are the two nuclear symbols for the two most common and stable isotopes
of the element chlorine. They both have 17 protons in the nucleus and 35 17 = 18 a
nd 37 17 = 20 neutrons respectively (and both have 17 surrounding electrons).
and are the two nuclide symbols for the two most common and stable isotopes

of the element bromine. They both have 35 protons in the nucleus and 79 35 = 44 ne
utrons and 81 35 = 46 neutrons respectively. By coincidence, there are almost exac
tly 50% of each isotope present in naturally occurring bromine.
The three known isotopes of carbon (the electron structure is fully explaine
d in the next section)
isotope
nuclide symbol protons
neutrons
electron
s
% abundance
carbon 12
126C
6
6
6
98.9%, stable
carbon 13
136C
6
7
6
1.1%, stable
carbon 14
146C
6
8
6
trace, unstable radioact
ive
The table of information on the three isotopes of carbon is illustrated
by the diagrams above it.
Now is an appropriate point to introduce the concept and definition of r
elative atomic mass (Ar), which is required for very accurate quantitative chemi
stry calculations.
The relative atomic mass of an element is the average mass of all the is
otopes present compared to 1/12th of the mass of a carbon 12 atom (12C = 12.00000
amu i.e. the standard).
When you average the masses of the isotopes of carbon, taking into a
ccount their relative abundance (%), you arrive at a relative atomic mass of car
bon of 12.011, Ar(C) = 12.011, though at this academic level 12.0 is accurate en
ough!
(c) doc b See also chemical calculations on how to calculate relativ
e atomic mass
I've put this calculation on its own page because there is plenty on
atomic structure already on this page!
Anything on this page relevant to the calculation of RAM is repeated
on the page.
Knowledge of isotopes is important in modern science.
Radioactive isotopes are used in medicine to trace aspects of body chemi
stry due to their radioactive emissions, and in chemical synthesis as tracers to
follow how a reaction sequence occurs.
Radioactive isotopes are used in radiotherapy to kill malignant cancer c
ells.
For lots more details see the (c) doc b RADIOACTIVITY NOTES
DO NOT CONFUSE ISOTOPES and ALLOTROPES see Appendix 3.
top index
3. The Electronic Structure of Atoms

rules to be learned

WHAT DO WE MEAN BY Electron configuration, electronic structure of atoms

that is what is the arrangement of electrons in the shells or energy levels?
The Bohr model of the atom in its more elaborate form involves the maximum n
umbers of electrons that each shell or energy level can hold and how the shells
are progressively filled with electrons from atom to another with increase in pr
oton/atomic number.
The electrons are arranged in energy levels or shells around the nucleus and
with 'orbits' on average increasing in distance from the nucleus.
The lowest energy levels are always filled first, you can think of the l
ower the shell, the nearer the nucleus, and numbered 1, 2, 3 etc. as the shell g
ets further from the nucleus.
Each electron in an atom is in a particular energy level (or shell) and the
electrons must occupy the lowest available energy level (or shell) available nea

rest the nucleus.

When the level is full, the next electron goes into the next highest level (
shell) available.
There are rules to learn about the maximum number of electrons allowed in ea
ch shell and you have to be able to work out the arrangements for the first 20 e
lements (for GCSE students, up to at least 36 for Advanced level students).
The 1st shell can contain a maximum of 2 electrons (electrons 1 2)
The 2nd shell can contain a maximum of 8 electrons (electrons 3 10)
The 3rd shell also has a maximum of 8 electrons (electrons 11 18)
The 19th and 20th electrons go into the 4th shell, (required limit of GC
SE knowledge).
Remember the total electrons to be arranged equals the atomic/proton num
ber for a neutral atom.
If you know the atomic (proton) number, you know it equals the number of ele
ctrons in a neutral atom, you then apply the rules to work out the electron arra
ngement (configuration).
For elements 1 to 20 the electron arrangements/configurations are written ou
t in the following manner:
Note that each number represents the number of electrons in a particular
shell, dots or commas are used to separate the numbers of electrons in each she
ll. They are written out in order of increasing average distance from the positi
ve nucleus which holds these negative electrons in their energy levels (shells).
The electron configurations are summarised below with reference to the p
eriods of the periodic table and in order of increasing atomic number.
For more see the Periodic Table and Electron Structure notes below.
Period 1

elements 1 to 2 (2 elements)

the electron arrangement is written out simply as 1 or 2

Period 2

elements 3 to 10 (8 elements)

electron arrangements of 2.1 to 2.8 (since 1st shell is full with 2

electrons i.e. the first number)
Period 3

elements 11 to 18 (8 elements)

denoted by 2.8.1 to 2.8.8 (1st,2nd full shells with 2,8 electrons)

Period 4

first two elements 19 to 20

written out as 2.8.8.1 and 2.8.8.2 (1st,2nd,3rd full shells with 2,8
,8 electrons)
Reminder
this is as far as GCSE students need to know, after that th
ings get more complicated, BUT only for advanced level students!
For example, after element 18, the 3rd shell can hold a maximum of 1
8 electrons!
The above is summarised in the diagram below

(c) doc b
The electron shell arrangements are quoted in numbers e.g. 2.4 for C (ca
rbon) but you need to be able to draw electron diagrams showing the electronic s
tructure of the atom.
Some examples are given below and GCSE/IGCSE/O level students need t
o be able to work and draw the electronic structures of the first 20 elements.
You should notice that the number of shells used equals the period n
umber of the element in the periodic table.
They can be all worked by the 'shell filling' rules described above.
For the rest of Period 4 and other Periods you need a more advanced elec
tron configuration system up to at least Z=36 using s, p, d and f orbital notati
on BUT for advanced level chemistry students only!
Examples: diagram, symbol or name of element (Atomic Number = number of protons
and the number of electrons in a neutral atom), shorthand electron arrangement a
nd a diagram to help you follow the numbers.
Filling 1st shell, electron level 1 (c) doc b (c) doc b2 elements only, Period 1
of the Periodic Table
Filling 2nd shell, electron level 2 (c) doc b to (c) doc b to (c) doc b 3 of the
8 elements of Period 2
Filling 3rd shell, electron level 3 (c) doc b to (c) doc b (c) doc b 3 of the 8
elements of Period 3
The first 2 elements of the 4th shell (c) doc b (c) doc b to Kr [2.8.18.8], star
t of Period 4
Only the first 2 of the 18 elements of Period 4 are shown above, the rule for 3r
d shell changes from element 21 Sc onwards (studied at Advanced level, so GCSE s
tudents don't worry!)
A few more 'snappy' examples
n (abbreviated to e.c.)

given atomic number, work out electron configuratio

Z = 3 e.c. 2.1 or Z = 7 e.c. = 2.5 or Z = 14 e.c. = 2.8.4 or Z = 19 e.c. =

2.8.8.1 etc. up to Z = 20
top index
4. Which electron arrangements are stable and which are not?
Both atoms and ions are considered
WHY ARE SOME ELECTRON ARRANGEMENTS ARE MORE STABLE THAN OTHERS?
WHICH ELECTRON ARRANGEMENTS ARE THE MOST STABLE AND WHICH ELECTRON ARRANGEME
NTS THE LEAST STABLE?
HOW DO ELECTRON ARRANGEMENTS RELATE TO THE REACTIVITY OF CHEMICAL ELEMENTS?
When an atom has its outer level full to the maximum number of electrons all
owed, the atom is particularly stable electronically and very unreactive.

This is the situation with the Noble Gases: He is [2], neon is [2,8] and
argon is [2,8,8] etc.
There atoms are the most reluctant to lose, share or gain electrons in a
ny sort of chemical interaction because they are so electronically stable.
For all elements most of their chemistry is about what outer electrons d
o or don't!
[2], [2,8] and [2,8,8] etc. are known as the 'stable Noble Gas arrangeme
nts', and the atoms of other elements try to attain this sort of electron struct
ure when reacting to become more stable.
More details on Electron configuration notes for Advanced Level Chemistr
y Students
The most reactive metals have just one outer electron.
These are the Group 1 Alkali Metals, lithium [2,1], sodium [2,8,1], pota
ssium [2,8,8,1]
With one outer shell electron, they have one more electron than a stable
Noble Gas electron structure.
So, they readily lose the outer electron when they chemically react to t
ry to form (if possible) one of the stable Noble Gas electron arrangements
which
is why atoms react in the first place!
When Group 1 Alkali Metal atoms lose an electron they form a positive io
n because the positive proton number doesn't change, but with one negative elect
ron lost, there is a surplus of one + charge e.g.
sodium atom ==> sodium ion
Na ==> Na+
is [2.8.1] ==> [2.8] electronically
in fundamental particles [11p + 11e] ==> [11p + 10e]
IONS are atoms or group of atoms which carry an overall electrical c
harge i.e. not electrically neutral.
The most reactive non metals are just one electron short of a full outer shell
.
These are the Group 7 Halogens, namely fluorine [2,7], chlorine [2,8,7]
etc.
These atoms are one electron short of a stable full outer shell and seek
an 8th outer electron to become electronically stable
yet again, this is why at
oms react!
They readily gain an outer electron, when they chemically react, to form
one of the stable Noble Gas electron arrangements either by sharing electrons (
in a covalent bond) or by electron transfer forming a singly charged negative io
n (ionic bonding) e.g.
chlorine atom ==> chloride ion

Cl ==> Cl
is [2.8.7] ==> [2.8.8] electronically
in fundamental particles [17p + 17e] ==> [17p + 18e]
the positive proton number of Cl doesn't change but the chloride ion
carries one extra negative electron to give the surplus charge of a single
on t
he ion.
EXTRA NOTE ON 'ATOMIC' NOTATION

representation of isotopes of ions

Nuclide notation and ions (interpretation required for advanced level studen
ts only)
sodium 24 isotope ion, 11 protons, 13 neutrons, 10 electrons (one electron
lost to form a positive ion)
sodium 23 isotope ion, 11, protons, 12 neutrons, 10 electrons (one electro
n lost to form a positive ion)
isotope sulfur 32 in the form of the sulfide ion, 16 protons, 16 neutrons,
18 electrons (two electrons gained to form the double charged negative ion)
For more on electron structure and chemical changes and compound formation s
ee ...
(c) doc b GCSE/IGCSE/AS notes on CHEMICAL BONDING
and for more on metal and non metal reactivity see
(c) doc b GCSE/IGCSE notes REACTIVITY SERIES of METALS
(c) doc b GCSE/IGCSE notes Group 1 ALKALI METALS
(c) doc b GCSE/IGCSE notes GROUP 7 HALOGENS
top index
5. The Periodic Table and Electronic Structure

more patterns!

Selected Elements of the Periodic Table are shown below with atomic number and c
hemical symbol.
HOW DOES AN ELEMENT'S ELECTRON ARRANGEMENT RELATE TO ITS POSITION IN THE PERIODI
C TABLE?
(c) doc b
The elements are laid out in order of Atomic Number
otons in the nucleus.

that is the number of pr

It is important to realise that the 'chemical structure' of the periodic Tab

le (shown above), that is the chemical similarity of vertical groups 'like' elem
ents (apart from the Noble Gases), was known well before the electronic structur
e of atoms was understood.
In other words the elements are laid out in vertical columns (groups) an
d horizontal rows (periods) so that chemically (usually) VERY similar elements a
ppear under each other and there is a very good electronic structure reason for

this!
However, it wasn't understood why they behaved in the same way chemicall
y e.g. similar compound formulae and reactions etc. nor was it understood at fir
st why Noble Gases were so unreactive towards other elements.
BUT, once the electronic structure of atoms was understood, 'electronic'
theories could then be applied to explain the chemical similarity of elements i
n a vertical Group of the Periodic Table.
Originally they were laid out in order of ' relative atomic mass' (the old t
erm was 'atomic weight'). This is not correct for some elements now that we know
their detailed atomic structure in terms of protons, neutrons and electrons, an
d of course, their chemical and physical properties.
For example: Argon (at. no. 18, electrons 2,8,8) has a relative atomic mass
of 40. Potassium (at. no. 19, electrons 2,8,8,1) has a relative atomic mass of
39. BUT Argon, in terms of its physical, chemical and electronic properties is c
learly a Noble Gas in Group 0. Likewise, potassium is clearly an Alkali Metal in
Group 1.
Hydrogen, 1, H, does not readily fit into any group
A Group is a vertical column of chemically and physically similar elements e
.g.
Group 1 The Alkali Metals (Li, Na, K etc.) with one outer electron (one
more than a Noble Gas structure),
Group 7 The Halogens (F, Cl, Br, I etc.) with seven outer electrons (one
short of a Noble Gas arrangement)
and Group 0 The Noble Gases (He, Ne, Ar etc.). The group number equals t
he number of electrons in the outer shell (e.g. chlorine's electron arrangement
is 2.8.7, the second element down Group 7 on period 3).
A Period is a horizontal row of elements with a variety of properties (left
to right goes from metallic to non metallic elements. All the elements use the sam
e number of electron shells which equals the period number (e.g. sodium's electr
on arrangement 2.8.1, the first element in Period 3).
The ten elements Sc to Zn are called the Transition Metals Series and form p
art of a period between Group 2 and Group 3 from Period 4 onwards.
Below are
Table format
you move down
o the maximum

the electron arrangements for elements 1 to 20 set out in Periodic

(Hydrogen and The Transition metals etc. have been omitted). When
to the next period you start to fill in the next shell according t
electrons in a shell rule (see previous section).

NOTE: In the most modern periodic table notation Groups 3 7 and 0 are numbered
Groups 3 to 18.
(c) doc b
The first element in a period has one outer electron (e.g. sodium Na 2.8
.1), and the last element has a full outer shell (e.g. argon Ar 2.8.8)
Apart from hydrogen (H, 1) and helium (He, 2) the last electron number i
s the group number (in the old notation) and the number of shells used is equal
to the Period number.

The periodicity of elements i.e. the repetition of very chemically simil

ar elements in a group is due to the repetition of a the same outer electron str
ucture
check out the last number from element 3 onwards.
(c) doc b More GCSE/IGCSE notes on the Periodic Table
and the (c) doc b electronic explanations of chemical bonding formulae
Advanced Level Chemistry
riodic Table

electron configurations/arrangements and the Pe

top index

APPENDIX 1. The history of the atom concept and the Alpha Particle Scattering Ex
periment
(some of the theory ideas described here go above GCSE/IGCSE level!)
The development of the 'atomic model' is an excellent example of how new experim
ent evidence initiates the need to change an existing scientific model or even c
ome up with a different theoretical model, in this case for atomic structure.
The Greeks Leucippus and Democritus ~400 BC wondered what was the result of cont
inually dividing a substance i.e. what was the end product or smallest bit i.e.
what was left that was indivisible the word atomic is from Greek adjective meani
ng 'not divisible'.
The Greeks idea was not forgotten and later revived by Boyle and Newton but with
little progress.
However in 1808 Dalton proposed his atomic theory that all matter was made up of
tiny hard particles/spheres called atoms.
Dalton also proposed (correctly) the theory that different types of atoms (e
lements) combined together to give all the different substances of the physical
world (all which of course is true, except for the 'hard solid indivisible spher
es'!).
He also produced the first list of 'atomic weights' (we now call relative at
omic masses) on a scale based on hydrogen
given the arbitrary value of 1 since i
t was lightest element known, and, as it happens, correctly so.
He was incorrect by stating that atoms were indivisible, but we now know tha
t atoms consist of electrons, protons and neutrons and that atoms can be 'taken
apart' by ionisation or nuclear changes e.g. radioactivity.
Until the discovery of the electron, atoms were thought of as hard indivisible s
pheres, but brilliant 'JJ' changed all that.
J J Thomson Around 1897 proposed his 'plum pudding model' theory based on the gr
owing evidence that atoms were themselves composed of even smaller more fundamen
tal particles like the electron i.e. atoms were not hard indivisible spheres.
His experiments had shown that atoms contained small negatively charged part
icle called electrons which could removed from atoms using a vacuum tube and app
lying a high potential difference (voltage) to a very low pressure gas.

From his experiments Thomson envisaged a plumb pudding atom consisting of a

positively charged 'pudding' with just enough lighter negatively charged electro
ns embedded in it to produce a neutral atom. Note that both the positive charges
and negative charges are evenly distributed through the sphere of the atom (sho
wn by Rutherford and Bohr etc. to be completely wrong).
The idea of positive particles balancing the negative particles was correct
but the relative size and nature of the nucleus and distribution of electrons we
re not, BUT it was a more advanced model.
Ernest Rutherford, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden (the latter two were students
of Rutherford at Cambridge University) conducted alpha particle scattering exper
iments (1902 1910, and described in detail below).
These experiments established
(i) minute nature of the nucleus even compared to the size of an atom
(ii) the nucleus was positive and the positive charge varied from element to
element.
(c) doc bDiagram of the Rutherford and Geiger Marsden scattering experiment
When alpha particle beams are fired on very thin layers of metals (e.g. very fin
e gold leaf) some rather surprising results were made by scientists of the early
20th century.
By using a 360o charged particle detection system it was found that ...
3. most particles passed through un deflected (as if there was not
hing there!)
2. a small proportion were deflected slightly (so there was some
thing there!)
1. about 1 in 20,000 were 'bounced' back through an angle of ove
r 90o, in other words were reflected backwards, a totally unexpected result and
quite shocked the experimenters - not what they were expecting. So, whatever was
there, was substantial and positively charged to cause the repulsion 'bounce' o
f the positive alpha particles, BUT what it was (the 'nucleus') it wasn't very b
ig!
From a detailed mathematical analysis of the scattering experiment results, the
only 'atomic model' which could account for the pattern was an atom consisting o
f ...
... mainly empty space (which is why most alpha particles passed through
undeflected), thus completely contradicting JJ Thompson's 'plum pudding' model.
Other experiments showed that the electrons were orbiting in energy levels arou
nd the nucleus, but occupying virtually no significant volume in themselves as p
articles.
... a relatively minute positive centre (the nucleus) causing deflection
(like charges repel, alpha particles are positively charged and so were being r
epelled by the 'later to be discovered' positive protons in the nucleus), we now
know the nucleus is positive due to protons,
... a tiny dense centre of similar or greater charge or mass to an alpha
particle (which we now call the nucleus), so most of the mass of an atom was in
the central nucleus, we know the mass is made of protons and neutrons.

Putting these three points together forming the basis of the modern pict
ure of the 'nuclear atom' the atomic model.
Other experiments have shown that electrons are arranged in energy levels, sort
orbits around the nucleus, ideas first proposed by scientists such as Bohr.
So an atom is quite well represented by the Bohr model of the atom (picture
below).
Bohr's suggestion that the negative electrons can only exist in certain spec
ific energy levels (shells) held in place by the positive nucleus complimented t
he Rutherford model of the atom to gives a reasonably complete picture of an ato
m (at least for this academic level!).
Bohr envisaged the electrons orbiting the nucleus in specific energy levels
at specific distances from the central nucleus and that the negative charge of t
he electrons was balanced by the positive charge of the nucleus.
Diagram of a 'Bohr' lithium atom
AND, most importantly, experimental results matched a theoretical mathematic
al model of simple atoms like hydrogen.
Earlier theories of atomic structure, e.g. the 'plum pudding' model in which 'pr
otons' and 'electrons' were scattered or arranged evenly across the atom, were s
uperseded by the nuclear model of Bohr.
It was the only model that could explain the scattering of the high speed al
pha particles by a small dense and positive atomic centre.
Experiments had shown that the outer bits could be knocked off atoms and the
se had a very tiny mass and a negative charge, in other words the electron!
Moseley studied the X rays emitted by highly energised ionised atoms and from the X ra
y spectra of elements (the K alpha line, Ka) he was able to deduce the electric
charge of the nucleus which we now know is equal to the atomic number of protons
in the nucleus.
Moseley showed that when atoms were bombarded with cathode rays (electrons)
X rays where produced.
It was found that the square root of the highest energy emission line (calle
d the K alpha line, Ka) gave a linear plot with the apparent atomic number,
but the plot of vKa against atomic weight (relative atomic mass) gave a zig za
g plot, suggesting this 'atomic number' was far more important the 'atomic weigh
t' of an element in terms of the atom's fundamental structure..
However, there was still the problem of why the atomic mass and atomic number wh
ere different i.e. in the case of the lighter elements, the atomic weight was of
ten about twice the atomic number.
In 1919 Aston developed a cathode ray tube i.e. like those used by Wien and
Thompson etc. into a 'mass spectrograph', which we now know as a mass spectromet
er GCSE AS atomic structure notes.
This showed that atoms of the same element had different masses but there wa
s no experimental evidence that they had different atomic numbers (which of cour
se they didn't). These different atoms of the same element were called isotopes.

In 1920 Rutherford suggested there might be a 'missing' neutral particle and

in 1932 Chadwick discovered the neutron by bombarding beryllium atoms with alph
a particles which produced a beam of neutrons.
These were shown to have a relative mass of 1 (same as a proton) and wer
e electrically neutral and quite penetrating into matter. This penetration and l
ack of charge had made them difficult to detect.
It was not until 1932 that the nature of the neutron was finally deduced by Chad
wick and this completely explained the nature of isotopes and backed up the idea
s from Moseley's work that the fundamentally important number that characterises
an element is its atomic number and NOT the atomic mass.
See section 2. Radioactivity Notes page on other experiments with mixed particle
beams and their separation.
See also Atomic structure and radioactivity
top index
Appendix 2. Atomic structure diagrams

some variations!

e.g. for the element lithium 73Li consisting of three protons and four neutrons
(c) doc b
Appendix 3. Allotropes

don't confuse with isotopes!

WHAT ARE ALLOTROPES?

As explained above, Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different masses
due to different numbers of neutrons in the nucleus. Same protons and electrons
. e.g. atomic number 6 = 6 protons = carbon, but there can be 6, 7 or 8 neutrons
giving isotopes of carbon 12, 13 or 14.
Oxygen atoms usually form 'stable' O2 oxygen molecules (also called dioxygen), B
UT they can form a very reactive unstable molecule O3 ozone (also called trioxyg
en). The mass of the oxygen atoms in each of the molecules is mainly 16 (99.8%),
and about 0.2% of two other stable isotopes of masses 17 and 18. Whatever isoto
pe or isotopes make up the molecule, it doesn't affect the molecular structure o
r the respective chemistry of the O2 or O3 molecules.
However, what sometimes confuses the issue is the fact that oxygen O2 and ozone
O3 are examples of allotropes.
Allotropes are defined as different forms of the same element in the same physic
al state.
The different physical allotropic forms arise from different arrangements of
the atoms and molecules of the element and in the case of solids, different cry
stalline allotropes.
They are usually chemically similar but always physically different in some way
e.g.
O2 (oxygen, dioxygen) and O3 (ozone, trioxygen) are both gases but have diff
erent densities, boiling points etc.
Graphite, diamond and buckminsterfullerene are all solid allotropes of the e

lement carbon and have significantly different physical and in some ways chemica
l properties! (details on bonding page)
Rhombic and monoclinic sulphur have different geometrical crystal structures
, that is different ways of packing the sulphur atoms (which are actually both m
ade up of different packing arrangements of S8 ring molecules). They have differ
ent solubilities and melting points. There is also a 3rd unstable allotrope of s
ulfur called plastic sulphur made by pouring boiling molten sulphur into cold wa
ter which forms a black plastic material consisting of chains of sulphur atoms S S S S S
tc..
It doesn't matter which isotopes make up the structure of any of an element's al
lotropes described above, so to summarise by one example ...
oxygen 16, 17 or 18 are isotopes of oxygen with different nuclear structures due t
o different numbers of neutrons,
and O2 and O3 are different molecular structures of the same element in the same
physical state and are called allotropes irrespective of the isotopes that make
up the molecules.
other associated web pages
GCSE/IGCSE Foundation Atomic Structure multiple choice QUIZ
GCSE/IGCSE Higher Atomic Structure multiple choice QUIZ
(c) doc b GCSE/IGCSE Atomic Structure Crossword Puzzle * ANSWERS!
(c) doc b GCSE/IGCSE multi word gap fill worksheet on atomic structure
and definitely NOT GCSE/IGCSE pages on atomic structure
Advanced Level Chemistry notes on electronic structure

s, p, d orbitals etc.

A Level notes on electron configurations of elements & the periodic table

A Level Notes on mass spectrometers, mass spectrometry and relative atomic mass
top indexKEYWORDS phrases for this page: allotropes * Alpha particle scattering *
Atomic (proton) number * Atom structure * Electron * Electron arrangement (examp
les) * Electron shell rules * ions * Isotopes * Mass (nucleon) number * Neutron
* Neutron number * Nuclide symbol notation * Periodic Table (and electron struct
ure) * Proton * stable/unstable electron arrangements * mass electric charge pr
oton neutron electron fundamental sub atomic particles *1. The Structure of Atoms
three fundamental particles 2. Isotopes definition and examples 3. The Electroni
c Structure of Atoms rules to be learned 4. Which electron arrangements are stab
le and which are not? 5. The Periodic Table and Electronic Structure
more patter
ns! 1. to 5. are essential for ALL GCSE/IGCSE science chemistry students Appendix
1. The Alpha Particle Scattering Experiment * 2. Atomic structure diagrams
some
variations! 3. Allotropes
don't confuse with isotopes! 4. The Mass Spectrometer
(separate page for advanced level students!) AND Atomic Structure Crossword Puzz
le * ANSWERS! * multi word gap fill worksheet on atomic structure GCSE/IGCSE Foundat
ion Atomic Structure lower tier multiple choice quiz or GCSE/IGCSE Higher Atomi
c Structure higher tier multiple choice quiz
What does a nucleus of an atom consist of? what a re isotopes? A Level GCSE IGCS
E revision notes on atomic structure information on atomic structure KS4 Science
atomic structure GCSE chemistry guide notes on atomic structure for schools col
leges academies science course tutors images pictures diagrams of apparatus for

atomic structure investigations word balanced symbol equations of atomic structu

re science chemistry revision notes on atomic structure revising the chemistry o
f atomic structure help in chemical understanding of atomic structure descriptio
n of atomic structure experiments for chemistry courses university courses in ch
emistry careers in chemistry jobs in the chemical industry laboratory assistant
apprenticeships in chemistry technical internship in chemistry IGCSE chemistry a
tomic structure USA US grade 8 grade 9 grade10 atomic structure chemistry explan
ations of atomic structure chemistry revision notes atomic nucleus AQA science G
CSE chemistry proton particle Edexcel science GCSE chemistry neutron particle OC
R 21st century science GCSE chemistry masses of sub-atomic particles OCR Gateway
science GCSE chemistry electric charges of sub-atomic particles WJEC gcse scien
ce chemistry atomic models CCEA/CEA gcse science chemistry history of developme
nts in atomic structure notes for revising models of atoms atomic structure of t
he elements

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