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....

//

//WT-745

\"'Copy No.

.r

277

NEVADA PROYING GROUNDS

TECHNICAL LIBRARY

OC!fL~L960 "0-/</ (S7 .

Marett- June 1953

ro:.F1NS

AtOMIC

SUPPORT AGENCY

Projact 4.5
OCULAR EFFFCTS OF THEitAdA:&.. RAlJIATlON FROM

.$e.
0

ATOMIC DBTONATlON-FLASHBLlNDNESS AND

0
000

CRORIORBTINAL Bl1JttJS

o
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cMfJdal CI ~tI.. If tItI. ,..,.,. ..

UNCLASSIFIED

o.

In~'

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This document contains reatrjc1M-data u

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~ in the AtcmHe
--1954.
Its
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roet have beel' rem. wid ff'Om III p.....

lied.

C' \

.-.,

JUN 16 1966

HfAOQUARTERS FIELD COMMAND, ARMfO FORCES SP(C:Al vtB~~ "P.OJECT

SANOIA BASE. ALBUQUERQUE, NEW MXICO
-- .

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Reproduced directly frcm manu.cript copy by

AEC Technical Information Extension
Oak Ridge, TeMessee

Inclulrles relative to this report may be made to

Chief, Armed Forces Special Weapons ProJect
Washington, D. C.

..

...
lMSD 1267 q 8

1960

WT-745
This document consists of 76 pages
No.

277

of 290 copies, Series A

r
OPERATION UPSHOT-KNOTHOLE

Project 4.5

(OCULAR EFFEas OF THERMAL RADIATION FROM

ATOMIC

DETONATIOr~

- FLASHBLINDNESS

AND CHORIORETINAL BURNS~

DISTRIBUTION OF THIS DOCUMENT IS
tJHL !.~ITED.

.......

by

....
....
..
.....

Victor A. Byrne,;, Col. USAF (MC)

D. V. L. Brown, Captain USAF (MC)
H. W. Rose, MD
Paul A. CHJIS, MD
30 November 1955
.!

I
::." .'I'~ . .

~ ... albl. dpc,"e". eG!,t ". ,.,1r l,oo data as

j
delin~ in th .. Atomic Energy Act of 1954

; ).'.:

,_i_~_..:--

RESTR!CTED DATA

__J

Its transmittal or the dl.cJgl.le~

cdftteiil& hs an, I!'.tililef""to an unau~horized

peroo. I. prohlblled.

Project of

School of Aviation Medicine

Randolph Field, Texas

.. ..
....

t,
,

ABSTRACT
PART I

This proj~ct vaa designed to further evaluate the effects of atomic

detonations on the eyes. This was studied in two previous projects, one
on the daytime problem which was found to be of minor importance inaofe!"
as the production of flash blindness is concerned, and one on the night,time problElll where flash blindness was of considerable importance, but
",hich vas curtailed because two subjects received l'etir18.1 burns.
The present project, like the aecond one mentioned aoove, was designed to determine the effect of the flash of atomic detonatl~D8 at
night upon the ablli ty of military personnel to carry out thtJir a,acdgned
tasks when such tasks involve the use of vi~ion. It is considered that
in ge"leral three types of visual tasks are involved in. military operations: (a) reading of inatru&D8nts in ships, aircraft, tanks, and vehiclee; (b) central acute vision at 10", levels of illumination; and (.:;
peripheral vision at very 10", levels. Arter an s.tomic flash each iDdividual involved in such military visual tasks would a.~tempt to return
to seeing under the light level then available to him. The t1.lle required for him to see under each of these cirCUlllstanceS was detel"'nined~
Subjects ",ere dark adapted in a light-tight trailer. Their eye~
were exposed to the atomic flash by a shutter arrsngemsnt. %8S ~ere
protected b.Y a combined infrared absorbing and red transmitting filter.
This filter vas chosen because it selectively filters out e. large poztion of the visible 'lDd infrared spectra of the bomb, and because individuals waring it can see x-ed-llgbted inatnaents in vehicles, ships,
tanks, and aircraft. The period of exposure to the flash began at lero
time and extended tt.rough the period of the blink reflex.
Twelve SUbjects in a, light-tight trailer vere exposed to five
nuclear deton.ation flashes at distances of from 7 to 14 mile~. The dark
adapted subjects looked at the flash with the lef~ eye through filter
ports which screened out all wavelengths except those between 600 and
900 mil.l.Wcrons. Fo!l.owing exposure through the protective filters,
return of visual fWlction vas detennined using Zeiss f..rktomaters,
adaptometers and readings on red-lighted aircraft instruments. Results
ve~e as follows:
a. Red-l1ehted instnaents could be read correctly in an :lvcnge
of 18.4 sec (range of 5 to 27 sec) if illuminated with regulation type
small red floodlightl, and in an average of 55.9 aec (range of 44 to 81
sec) if ill\ml1nated with standard red internal lighting only.
J

"CRIiT

1"TII"[8 "AT A

... ..

Reasonably good central vis~,-on (20/IJ) under reduced lllumination (1.57 Nlt)* retur~ei in approximatelY 154 sCC e
c. PeriJ;1eral v~ ....;:.~., ~..,tl1rned in an average of 160 89C und81" 0.001
Nit lllDinance \ '\ppro:rlmately tlJat ot iliCionless night sky) and in an
average of 249 sec under 0.00001 Nit of l'DII1nance (slightlY less than
moonless night &7 with overcast).
It is conclu,:ied that filters of the type used protect almost all
individuals from reti.nal burns under the conditions of the ~r1ment
and allow perfol"lll&.nc~ of typical visual. tasks required of a pilot f~
ing the aircraft \11 J~in 20 to 60 sec following the flash (If the atomic
c!etonati'ln.
b.

..

,1

PART II

....
...
.
"

...
...

.....

When the 8ye observes an atomic fireball, tho energy rncei ved in the
retinal image per wit time and area depends on tle relative opening of
the eye (pupillary diameter divided by focal len~th) and the energy
emitted by the fireball per unit area. Due to t~.e concentration of
energy in the image formed on the retina, skin burns and retinal bums
follow different laws. As a result of this concentration retinal lesions are produced at distance,;; many times greater than those for mn!mal skin burns.
In comparison with the skin the central part of the retinal l~ge
gets a higher percentage of its total radiation at an ~arl1er time
The energy (per unit area and time) EIIlitted by an atomic fireball
bas an earlY peak before 1/1000 of a second. Human ar:l anllual eye protective reflexe~ come too late for this first peak.
In order to determine the burn injury processos to the dark adapted
rabbit eye and their possible correlat.ion with thoEe which occur in
humans, 700 pigmenteci rabbits were exposed to six pred&wn atomic blasts
at diatances varying from 2 to 42t miles. Dark adap~ed rabblt eyes suffered ret1.na1 burns at distances up to 42t miles; 350 of the 700 rabbits
placed in the field received retinal injuries. It WI! found that retinal damage varied with the banb kilotonnage and d1m1nis.'1ed vi th the
distance of the animals from the flash.
Pathologic findings in the' expo sed pigmented rabbit eyes correlated
well with clinical obaervations and shoved characteristic coagulation
necrosis with or without JDfAjrr tissue and cell destru.\:tion in the retina
and choroid. ~losive generation of steam in some cases caused rupture
of the retinal elem~nts with hemorrhage into the vit~ou~.
Four cases of acc~dental atomic chorioretinaJ burns have occurred in
humans. These indi rtduals vit3ved the flash at distances varyi:lg from 2
to 10 miles from ground zero. ClInically the lesions resemble those
occurring in rabbits at co~sponding distances and are supporting evidence for predictions made in the laboratory. Permanent 3cotomata havt;
resulted in these ind.i.vidus.ls.

See !)aftni tions for meaning of !lit.

Si'AE'-

l!StRiC'!88A'A

'

..

PREFACE

PART I
This is the third report in the serie5 on flash blindness. The
first was a study of the effectc produced by atomic detonations during
daylight operations. '!his was reported as Flash Blindness, WT-J41,
Project 4.3, Opera'ti.on BUSTER. The second study vas reported as Flash
Blindness, W'r-5JO, Project 4.5, Operation SNAPPER. This vas a study of
the nighttime problem; howver, it vas interrupted because tw of the
test subjects incurred retinal burns. This third study repre8ents a
continuation of tho interrupted project. Its p~ pvse is to give opere.tional units an estimate of the length or time perEX>nn6l \d 11 be unable
to see well enough to carry out their assigned duties if they a:re unexpectedly exposed to an atomic flash.
It is emphasized that these experiments were devised to obtain an
estimate of the usefulness of a specific filter combination in eye dAzzle protection. They were not intended to obtain bs.sic data or. dazzle
effects and cannot be so interpreted.

.. - .
....

PART II

The study here reported vas done in four parts and is not ,et entirely "ompleted. The first portion will consider the physical factors
involved in the effect of these facturs on the eyer This will include
the determination of the threshold energy required to produce a lesion
in the retina by the vawlengths involved. The s~ond portion will gin
the results obtained in an experiment us!.ng 700 rabbits 1n six atomic
detonations in Nevada during UPSOOT-OOTOOL t~st8 in 1953. The third
portion will be a report vf four human C.S6S of chorioretinal b\trn~ produced by atomic flash. The fourth portion will be eo brief 8l.1J1m1ltion or
the pathological findings in the retinal burns.

....

....
I"l!

ACKNOWLEOOMEN'l' 5

The Project Officer desires to expra8S appreciation to Crew Training Air Force for cooperation in furnishing teet subjects from Nellis
Air F(lroe Base for these studies and for the assistance of Col Jack
Bristow, Ophthalmolog18t ell. Nellis, who examined the 811bjects and aesisted in the tests.
To Lt Col E. A. Pinson, the Director of Program 4, apprecial.~ on is
expressed for administrative assistance, techrucal guidance, and for
procurement of supplies and transportation.
The st8.tistic:U e'\-aluation of the expermmtal results and the perfO!'m&llce of certain other computations vere done by Mr. David Rubenstein,
Department of Biometrics, School of Aviation Medicine.
All phot~graph9 wre taken by Sergeants Kahn! tz, Burnap and Seal,
who alao gave much of their time in many other varied tasks.
Finally, much credit is due to personnel of the School of Aviation
Medicine who conducted the testing, acted as subjects in a fev
instances, and traveled back and forth to the Nevada Proving Grounds
in order that this work could be accomplished without interfering with
their heavy dut_ 38 at the School. ~ee1al credit is due to Lt Col John
R. Grun1-fell., Jr., and to Lt A. D. Ruedemann, Jr.

... ..

S6ER'J

REST.fey!" eAT A

00 NT mrs

t,

iBSl'RACT

PRWACE

A.COOWLEIXJUB1' S

II

OCULAR D7H:T S or THm-W. R.l.DUl'ION F!l)M A.TOMIC

IETOHATIOlf - lUSHlLIJIIi Fm

13

ILLUSTRATIDHS

. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

TA1I.ES

PART I

CHAPl'm 1

INTR:)IU;TlON

1.1

ObjectIve

13

1.2

Backgt~und

and Tbeory

13

1.2.1 Dlyt!me 51 tlBt10n ..

1.2.2 NIgbttt.e Situat10n

13

CHAP'UR 2

2.1
2.2
2.3

IN Sl'RtIUl'rrA.TION

Te.t1ng

.. . . .

CHAPTlR J 0 PooT lOW

3.1
3.2

~nt

Shot Data

PIl)C EOORES

4.2

Daaign

ClW"I'm 4 Rr.sm.rs AID DlS:USSION

4.1

15

The Trailer
::lb'.ltter!

Result.

4.1.1 St.at,1. t1 oa.l Dl.ta
4.1.2 Ther..l ~i.::.=+'i
D18CUU1on

24
2.4

2.4
25

R!!TII!T!15

..

15
15
15

..

.;;

??

13

OAiI

........

CHAPl'!R 5 CONCLUSIONS

5.1

Cont"luaione

"

'"

..

PART II OCULAR m:rors OF' THmJ.'.&L RADIATION !ROM ATOMIC

LE'TONATlm; <&~ CHORlOREI'INAL BURNS ,
CHAPl'm 6

INTRO.I::JlXTION

..

..

26

. 26

27

27

.. .

27
Baekground
6.2
, 27
6 2.. 1 The Litarature
27
" ..
6.2.2 Cbaraaterlstlca or Light '" e 28
6.2.3 Phya1cal Fa~tor!l " , 28
CHAPTER 7 INSfIllJ.imTAT!ON ..
35
..
6.1

Objective

..
and Theory

to

It

8.1
8.2

..

..
.

8 .. 3

Rabbits .
Patbologica..".. Findings
8.2.1 Material ..
8.2.2 Tecblrlque
8.2.3 J.t,r~bology

6l

t;

"


.. ..
c
to

6l

Accidental Chorioretiw Burns in Humans

DISCUSSlUN AND CONCLUSiONS

CHAPTER 9

9.1
9.2

.,

It

to

Dia:ussion
Conclu8ion~

IEFIN IT IONS

BIlL IOGPAPHI

<l'

<"

6l

t;.

CHAPTm 8 RESm.TS

!;

It

It

It

8-

37

.,
" ,
., . .,


to

.. "
~

1;

37

37
37
39
39
45

51

51
64

..

ill

..

"

10

SEERET

A~STRle'1!8

65

66

8Al:.l

~.-

ILLUSTRATIONS

2.1 Interior of Light-tight Trailer " " 16

2.. 2

2.3
2.4

2.5
2.6
6.1

Sbutwr MechaniSt

Shutter Timing Mechanism . . . . . . . . " . . . . .

Aircraft Ir,truments Used in the Instrument ReadiIl6 Task o .
Batt.ery of NyJctometers and Adaptometars "
Trananission Chart of Combined Red and Infrared Filters
Spectral &dssion of Black Bodies of 300,OOOOK and 6100 oK,

17

18
19

20
21

and 2OOOOK' " " " " 31

6.2 Time of Incidence of Certain Percentages of the Total

6.3
7.1

7.2
8.1
8.2

8.3

8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8

8.9

Tl1ermal &lergy- per Unit Area from a Nominal Atomic Bomb

for the Central P81t of ~ Retinal Image "
Spectral. Tro.n9J1ission of the fumn Eqe a
Photograph ot Animal Exposure Box::le, Camera and Photoelectric Timing Device as Used ~ng Atomic Tests "
Photograph Taken b.y Flash ~f Atomic Bomb
Atomic Chorioretinal Lesion in Rabbit Inaurred at 10.3
~les During Shot 11. 0
Atomic Choriorst~nal Lesion in Rabbit Incurred at 27
Miles During Shot 11. " "
Ator.ic Cborio1"st1nal Lesion in Rabbit Incurred at 28.5
Miles During Shot 11. " "
A+..,mic Cboriorotinal Lesion in Rabbit Eye Produced at 10.3
~les During Shot 11. " " ~ " " " "
Early S'bge of Atom.i,c Chorioretinal Lesion "
Early Stage of Atomic Chorioretinal Lesion
Early Stage of ltomic Chorioretinal Lesion in Pigmented
Rabbit ~e Due to High Energy
Eu>~v Stage IJf Atomic: Chorloretinal Lesion Due to High
Energy
- .; "
Acept.ic InrlaD1J118. tory Reaction in Early Atome

Cnorioretinal

~esion

31

34
35

36

38

38
40

41
4243

43
4J.,

" 44

8.10 late Stage of Atomic Chorioretinal. Lesion, Pigmented

Rabbit
" . . . . . . . . . . 46
8.ll Late Stage or Atomic Cborloretinal Lesion, Pigmented
Rabbi t
" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' . . . . . . . 47
8.12 Atomic Chorioretinal Le(;ion in Human (S.H.) 2 Miles from
Explosion, Shot 8 .. 48
11

'iiAET

RESTR'CTED "AT'"

8.1.3

,(
I

Fsaled Atcmdc Cho.:l(i~t1rAl Lesion in Ibr" II (B. V.G.) at

10 Milev tram Explosion ~

8.14 Atom.1c Chorioretinal Lf5lion in lhw'J. (M.C.B.) at ,., Miles

48

tram F.!xplo s1~ 1'1

.......,.............
&.. 15 .ltamic Cllorioretine.l Lesion (W~L.C.) in IhDb.n at 10

49

Hiles trom EEplosiQn

49

TAlLES
~.1 Shot Data and Distance ~ 0
6.1 Estimated Threshold Distances tor Cborioretinal Lesions
fro. a Bom1 nsl Atomic Bomb 0
9.1 Estimated Threshold Distances tor Choriorotinal Lesions

t.rom Nominal

.,

......

.
.. .
...
...
.

......
..

...
.. ... .

Atomic ~bI

23

33

9.2 Becovar,y ~ime, Shot 1, 17 Mar 1953

9.3 Recover" Time, Shot 2, 24 Mar 1953 a
9.4 ~cov&r.1 Time, Shot 5, 18 Apr 1953
9.5 Recoverr Time, Shot 7, 25 Apr 1953
9.6 Reco~ry Time, Shot 8, 19 ~ 1953
9.7 Summar,y of Previous Tables ~
9 8 Results or Clinical Examination and Placement Inf'ormation
on Rabbits tor Shot 1 (17 Mar 1953)
9.9 Results ot Clinical Examination and Placement Information
on Rabbits tor Shot 2 (24 Mar 1953)
9.10 Results on Clinical Eumination and Placement Information
~n Rabbits for Shot 5 (18 Apr 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.11 Results ot Clinical Enmination and Placement Information
on Rabbits for Shot 7 (25 Apr 1953)
9.:.12 Results ot Clinical EDmination and Placement Information
on Rabbits tor dbot 8 (19 May 1953)
9.13 Results of Clinical Eramination and Placement Information
on Rabbits tor Shot II (4 Jun 1953)
9.14 Composite Results ot CllnicalF..umination for Entire
Series of Six Shots

53
54

55

56
57
58
59

1.2

,!elt!'

1t!"ItICl!D BATA

60
60

61
61
62

62
63

PARr I

OCULAR WFID'tS OF THmMAL RAJ)IATIOH FROM ATOMIC DETONATION

FLiSHltIlflifas
CBAPrPR 1
IHTBOImTION

1.1 OBJEtTIVE
This research vas conducted to determine to wbat degree the flash
of an atomic detonation impairs the vision and reduces the efficiency
of militar)T p~lOnnel during night operations. Observations vere made
which were ~.ntended to raveal the evolution, degree, and duration of
the reduced vision.. An atte!dpt was made to evaluate the efficacy of a
filter designed to protect against retinal bums and flash blindness
and also designed to permit performance of visual tasks such as ar<J
~qu1red of aircraft pilots.
1.2

BACKGROUND AND THIDRY

1.2.1

~1me

S'taation

In considering the effect of atomic flashes on vision, both the

daytime and nighttime situation must be mentioned. The efrect of flash
on daytime vision vas studied in Flash Blindness, wr-34l, Project 4.3,
Operation BUstER. The effect is transient because of two irIlportant
factors. First, the pupil is constricted by the bright light uifting
prior to detonation. Sacon~, arter detonation, the individual returns to his visual task in the high illumination present in daylight.
The retinal burn hazard in this 81 tuation is discussed in another section of this report.
1.2.2

Nighttime

~",tuation

The night task is somewhat different.

In this instance the in-

di.vidua1 has pupils which are more or less widel1' dilated, depending on

the amount of light to which the eye 1s being exposed prior to detonation and the amount of ill\lldnation involved in the vil\.&l task at
hand. There are essentially t\lO types of night vision tasks which are
of interest to the Serv1C6S. One of th6se is the si tuatlon 1n which an
individual itt looking at illuminated dials
red lighted) aboard
ship, as pilot of an aircraft or driver of a tank. He may be exposed

<uaual.lJ'

13

_-

mas

..... .
~

to a m.'ight f'lash of light slWh as that produced by an atolnic detonation

and then returns to his task of at tempting to read illuminated instruments.
The other type of night visio~ task is that of the soldier or airman on the ground. His visual task 18 carried out with on13 the illumination providea by tho moon or stars. If he is exposed to the flash of
an atomic bomb he returns to his taak of trying to see objects under
this dim illuminatioD.. This task is further subdivided into two because
vision at mocnllght lavels permits the use of central (photopic) vision.
When there is o~ starlight available, all vision must be peripheral
(sootopic) vision.
Tests vera therefore designed to procure data on all three of these
vilr.'ll tasks; the reading of red-lighted instn1ll8nts, the racogni tion of
objects b,y moonlight intensities and the recognition of objects under
starllght intens1 ties.

......
o

..
o

00

.
0

o
o

.....

14

5"115'

.!!'ltle,!~

'flAT A

CHAPI'ER 2

INSTRUMOOAT:ON
2.1

THE TRAILER

Since all of the detonations took place within JO min prior to official sunrise and a considerable amount of il1um1nat 1 vn from the sun
was present, it was necestl8l7 to use 80me means of exposing the eyes
while the subject was dark adapted and had the normal dilated pupils
that go with the night-seeing situation. This is, of course, necessary
in order to obtain useful information applicable to night operational
conditions. A light-tight trailer was used to house the observers 80
that dark conditions could be silllulated (Fig. 2.1).
2.2

SHt1l'TERS

Along the side of the trailer were 12 ports fitted with shutter
dAvices for exposing the eyes of the observers. The shutters were constructed in such a manner that the left eye only was expo sed to the
flash, while the right eye vas used to fix the position of the eyes by
regarding a luminous fixation object. The shutter-opening mechanism vas
in! tiated by means of a minus 1 sec signal (lent out by the Control
Point (1 ms accuracy). A built-in delay opened the shutter at an average
of ll 3 ms before time zero. The shutter remained open for I sec.
Mechanians were calibrated before, during, and after each test. Shutter
mechanians worked satisfactorily during all teats (Figs. 2.2 and 2.3).
2.3

TESI'ING

Three types cf equiptlent were used to examine the subjects a1'ter

exposure. One group of subjects was asked to report readings on redlighted aircraft instruments (Fig. 2.4). Return of the ability to read
these instruments vas rs.;orded in seconds.
Zeiss QYktometers were used to indicate the return of mesopic
vision following vhich the observers reported their ability to S8e
Landolt rings in adaptometers of known luminosity (Fig. 2.5).
During the exposures all of the observers in each group vibved the
detonation through a combined filter. One portion of this filter vas an
infrared absorbing glass which prevented the passage of the larger part

15

-"'AiT

AESTRICf!rJ DATA

.. .
,

..

..

F1g. 2.1 Interior or L1gbt-tlgh+ Tra.1ler. The shutter aechaniSllls aN

on the r1gbt. Tbe subjects vere seated on stool". A.fter exposure they
turned around and faced tbe teat apparatus shown on the left. Stools
vere guided to the proper apparatus by tracks on the floor. Tbe \-ar10us
'*'t10ns vere 180lated rro. each other by the dark curtains on the slic)1ng rods. The bl..acl: 5tonp1pe Tieible vas a portio" of the light-tight
forced air TCDt1lation 11.tca.
16

9[tl!1

RESTRicTED bAiA

Fig. 2.2 Sh~tte.r Mech&n1.. The" .tlutterl baTe a ....n eel.t-llAinoul

fixation spot before the right (un4lXJX>aed) fI1e. 'nli. il brougbt to iDf1n1 ty by the strong plus len. emovu. 111i. deT10e inaure. that th.
aubJect vill be looting near, but DOt directq at, the detonation point
and that hi. aceo.oelation rill be proper~ controlled. 111. lIbutt4r.
had an aTerage opening lag of 11 3 allliMCOnd., r E 'iDed open 1 ... 0ond and clo 8ed again autou. tical.l1.

17

S5'A'T

1l55TRLrTfO oAT A

......
...
......

..

\-.
..

*'-

Fig. 2.3

td

..

Shutter t1aing _ehani .. eAlpable of taking &nJ" in17J.t signal of

one aec or 18ee prior to detonation and actiftting the ehut~r8.
It hae an accuracy of OM millisecond.

""-

r
18

$.5"['

IEST ElEe 814.14

---

~
tc

Fig. ;;'.4

Aircraft Instrt.lllents Used in the Instrument Ree.d1r,g Task - The red flood lighting and the individual inlftr\JlDent lighting sources are visible. Altimeter and gyro compass vere selected
ooC4use readings could be changed by the examiner and because they represent the typical instrument reading task of pilots

.... '.

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""".

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fig. 2.5

1\

t-.
.....1'
.

.,

.... ~~/!''
"
"-.,.;'"
,.

Battery of Hyktceeter. and Adaptometer. - Theae vere uaed to plot the ret.w.'"l'l of dark adaptation, both of the central and peripheral visual functions

..

-~

-......-.

'001~-~-

"I

10

....

60

i '0
'"Cz
'
I

40

l
I

30

I
,

10 !

.0 '

100

100

100

'00

.a . . E_f'

Fig. 2.6

1000

.. 00

'ZO" "

-,~'c.,..

'-

Transniss10n Chart of Combined Red and In1'rared Filters

of the ractiat.ion vi th wvelengths longer than 1 micron (Fittsburgh heat

absorbing glas~ HA7). The other ecmpor.~nt of the filte~, through which
the flash was vieved, vas the standard gcggle, dark adaptation, Type
F'~l, Spec. No. 94-3142.
Th15 filter pend te the p8 ~.gP of radiati0n
vi th wavelength e longer thar. 5~ f-l, thus ab80rbinf the short \o"avelenrths,
which have 8Uch high intens1 ty early L. the flash. Py this comoination
o!" filters the light Wf! r8~eed to a fairly narrov band between t:{)() and
9:XJ f-L' as indicated 1n Fig. ':.t'. W1t~ tht' cC'cblned filters tL' retinal
irradiati0n in the central ima.ge. fOnDed at 10 milt's ctist&nce fro;n the
fireball, durinG the fir5t 1/10 of ~ second, was reduced va 20-25 per
cent of the irradiation vithout the filters ~~der otherwise equal circmstAnces.

21

SSC.HiT

CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSS!ON

4.1

RESULTS

4.1.1

statist~cal

Data

rata tor this project were obtained from rive detonations. There
19 subjects u88d with a total or 55 teat observations. or these,

vere
39 vers tests on red ligbted instruments or the aircratt type and 16

......

...

ware tests ot mesopic and ecotopic viedon. The results of' these tests
are BUllll8rls6d in Table 7.1 to 7.4, and th81 indicate that the reoov8l"1 ot useful v'_aion tor reading red lighted instruments w,s very
rapid. The average time to the tirst corr~ct rfIIld1 ng vas 18.4 sec. !hie
time varied but little tor bomb& ot various si,es. It ldll be noted O!l
the taDles that th~8e tests were conducted in ysry clear air conditioDa.
Reruts might not be the aame if' haze or J1ftering weather conditions
prevailed.
Nyktometer testa snowed that recovery ot resaonablJ- good mesopic
vision (acu1t.1 0.5 or 20/40) oc('urr&d on the aven.bft in ;'53 sec (nnge
47 to 420 sec).
The adaptometer tests indicated that recovery or sec-topic vi "ton
to d1atinguJ.sh light at 0.001 Nit luminance occurred in an average ot
152.8 see (range ot 45 to 250 sec). Visual acuity ot 0.01 at this
luminance returned on an average of 160.7 sec (rauge at 50 to 255 sea).
At a lUlll1nMce ot 0.00001 Nit, the ability t() distinguish torm returned
in an avm-age ot 226.3 sec (range 100 + to 300 sec), and vi sual acnl1ty
or 0.01 in an average ot 248.9 sec (rango of 105 to :330 sec).

4.1.2

Th~

Eftects

VIle oftic81"", U~<1 aa a substitute on the last tost ll sustained a

sllgbt retinal burn in his paramacul.ar area. He vas the only SUbJect 01"
~h8 55 e%pO~e8 who did. All other peraonnel vere adequately protectod
b.7 the combinad filter used and careful objective and subjective ~
inati1JL .moved no injury. This bUrn occurred on the tinal sh~t and was
not det3cted until after the trailer had been diflllZ.!ltlM, so the filters
could not be- recbecked to be sure they were intact. Thi. officor does

5i.CAiT

1!!JRICl EO OA i A~

.-.~

.- .

have an extremely darkly pigmented f~~due and energy striking the pigment layer of his retina would be absorbed wi thin a very thin layer of
tissue. Hib injury occurred during the participation in the detonation
of the largest of the bombs and the trailer was located nearer (7 miles)
to ground zero than in any of the previous shots. The signifance of
such a retinal burn is discussed in the other section of this report
concerned with atomic chorioretinal burna.
4.2

DISCUSSION

There are two important eye problems relAting to radiant energy

released b,y the atomic detonation. One is the problem of physical
tissue injury due to an increased temperature in the pigment layer of
the choroid and the r~tina due to absorption of lnfra~ed and visible
light. This problem is discussed in project report Chorioretinal
Burns Produced by Atoruic Flash, Project 4.5, Operati~n UPSHOT-KNOTHOLE.
The second problem is tEe temporary loss of visual fmlction due to
bleaching of the photochemical substances in the retina. This is the
so-called flash blindness which is temporary. It was the aim of this
study to determine the duI-cltion of this phase of the problem when a
specific filter vas used. Such filters are readily available and can
be used b,y tactical organ1~ation8 if the visual tasks of the individual
can be carried out with the filter h. place. Observation of red
lighted aircraft instruments and navigational instruments are examples.
In addition to reducing the period of usual disability, these fi ~ers
in most instances will protect the eye against a chorioretinal burn.
The degree of protection afforded b.Y these combined infrared absorbing and red tre.n9l1itting filters cannot be determil'led with great
accuracy oince on each test there were many variables. In this latest
bomb series not only vere all individuals protected by filters, but
different subject~ were employed. Distances, total yields and atmospheric cc:;.di tions varied on each shot. However, it may be inferred
from our data and from the previous TUMlLER-SNAPPER study that an individual wearing such goggles in the vicinity of an atanic detonation
at night would recover from the flash blindness in about JO per cent
less time than an unprotected person. While the percentage of time is
not high, the lerJgth of time an aircraft can be flown at night without
visv.al control is limited. Reduction':n this temporary disability can
be very significant from the standpoint of operation effectiveness and
safety.

. ..

_.

,
..
.,
. .
8

25

5i'.ii'

AE"AJ"E. I/JTA
.-

_ _ _ _ _ __

-.~-7'''''

"

CHAPTm 5

CONCLUSIONS

5.1 CONCLUSIONS

. -.

It is concluded that a significant loss of central and peripberal

vision occurs temporarily following exposure to an atomic detonation.
It i s al~ concluded that til ters of the type tUDt.;;: !Ilene to shorten
by about .30 per nent tbe n'Jrmall...v longer period ot incapaci tat ton in
unprotected individuals as measured in the TlMILm-BNAPPEa operation.
These filters will als> protect almost all eyes against chorioretinal
burns with bombs cf the given yields, at the given distances, and
under the stated a-~Jlospherie conditions. The atmosphere during the
test was nearly ideally clear. Over industrial areas air attenuation
would be higher

.. ..
.. ....
,

26

"'IK," lentil i EO OXI AF

,,-_._----

"', ~-"'"--.-.,,--JJII

PART II
OCllLAR mEeTS OF THmMAL RADIATION FROM ATOMIC DETONATION
ClI>RIORETINAL BORN S
CHAPTm 6
lNTRODIDTION
6.1

OBJ~TlVE

To find the extent of damage caused by exposure of the dark adapted

rabbit eye to the high intensity illumination of an atomic detonation
with appropriate ~valuation to determine vb~ther human eyes might suffer
similar injuries under the same exposure conditions. The injuries to
the rabbit eyes were to be assessed by clinical photographic and hi&tolgic means in an attempt to determine a threshold distance where
retinal burns were no longer produced. An attempt ws also to be made
to correlate the aize and frequency of retinal. burns with weapon kilotonnage and distance of the animals from the fireball and insofar as
possible with thermal flux intensity produced on the retinal image.
6.2
6.2.1

, .. -...

BACKGROUND AND THFDRY

The Literature

The advent of the atomic bomb has produced new problems for the
ophthalmologist and it has inten3ified some of the old ones. The neutron
radiation problElll 1s completely new. The gamma radiation problEm is an
expanded version of the roentgen ray and radi\Dll emanation problEm. The
radiant energy released at detonation of an atomic bomb in the form of
infrared and vis:ble light is again a physical agent with which opthalmologistIJ are familiar because it produces the vell-koovn eclipse burn
of the retina. It is the same infrared and visible light which produces
the atomic chorioret1nal ~lrnS which are the subject of this presentation. Eclipse blindness vi';.h its tn>lcal macular burns has been reported
by Birch-Hirschfeld (12), (13), (14), (15), Ve~hoefr, Bell and Walker
(124), Alexanavr (1), Aubaret (3), Lundagaard and Ronne (83), McCulloch
(85), Rosen (105), !bwer (121), Zade (138), (139), (140), Jess (67),
(68), (69) l and DIS.lV others. Excellent reviews have be~~: published by
Lauber (76), Birch-H1rschfelt (14), Verhoefr, Bell and Walker (124) and
Irvine (65).
27

SE6RET

''Y.

I[ST.,e,e! lATA

~(-'-,j. . . .~'-

- -. .,
. ---

---

---

--"

......

6.2.2 Cba?acteristlcs of Light

... ,..

...
...
....
.',

While the components of light from the sun and from the atomic
bomb flash whIch produce the damage are the same (visible light and
infrared), there. are 8011e rather marked differences between them. The
eclipse burn ill almost always macular; the atomic burn is usually not
macular unless BOme fixation point has been provided g1 ving the location or the bomb. The eclipse burn is incurred through a very snall
pupil, hence an a~ciable period of tiJne is required to heat tissue
suffiCiently to damage it. During this period the vascular system of
the 818 can dilla1pate some of tbi9 heat. In the atcmic burn most of
the energy ill d~'l1V8red 80 rapidly as to be almost instantaneous, thus
giving DO opportunity for vascular dissipation and very little for di&sipation bf conduction. In addition, it llA'1 well be delivered through
the videq dilated pupil occurring at night. This vide open ]n..'Pil vill
acb1t roughly 50 times the energy passed by the 1III&11e&t pupil in the
88IIle period ot t1mel 80, while the mechwan is the same, there are
d1tterencea which warrant careful consideration.
The extremely high intensity of radiation from tha atomic flach
has been reCQgn1zed fM~ the earliest tests. As a result, the eyes of
practi~ all observers at atomic detonations have been care.fuJ.ly
protected by very dense filterA required by the test organization of the
Atomic ,Energy COIDission. Tbe .. e filters transmit less than 0.01 of 1
per cent ot the risible light falling on thElll. A few indi v1duals who
have exposed their eyes in experiments and a few accidental.ly exposed
eyes bave sustained atomic chorioretinal btL~s. The literature reveals
no report of ouch a burn except for a single case of bila tara! central
scotomata incurred in the Hiroshima atomic explosion, (Oyama and
Sasald. (99)). The main reason tor the paucity ot burns in the Hiro shw
incident 1s apparent - detonation in bright sunlight with pupils of the
observers comrtrictad to snall size. There were other factors also,
including size of the bomb.
Atomic chorioret1nal burns are a real hazard from a national
defense and civilir.n defense standpoint and the factors governing the
production ot these lesions should be; known to ophthalmologists.

6.2.3

~sical

Factors

Physical factors largely determine vhether or not an atomic

chorioretinal lesion will be produced. A theoretical consideration of
the physical factors led to the prediction that such le~ions could be
produced cons1denbly f:u-tber away from an atomic explosion than any
other damage to living beings (Buattner and Rose (25), (26)). Heat
damt.lge to llving tissue depends on the temperature and tr,e length of
time the temperature persists. The increase in temperature of matter
depends on the energy abeorbed per unit voltune. If the energy is iI'radiated on a /Surface and aboorbed by & layer of know thickness and
absorption, the temperature during the beating period depends on thp
irradiance (th~t 1 s, the energy arriving per un!. t area and unit time,
e. g., cal/c:m2/ eec) There is a difference betlleen skin damage fi'nm
thermal radiation and the production of chorioretinal lesion by thermal
radiation. The irradiance fi'oc an atomic fireball on a surface, e.g.,

28

S'ClLiT

--~-..-

--

A['TIIC:'~b

--.........-.-_-'""--

- ...

OA i A

...........

on skin, depends on radiant emittance, air attenuation, absorption and

scattering, and on the inverse square of the d1stan~e. Due to the
image formation in the eye the irradience or' the retina does not depend
on the inverse square of the distance. It depends on the radiant
emittanc'3 of the fireball, the square of tne relative opening of the
optics (pupillary radius divided by focal leng~h) and on attenuation
by the air and the ocular media. If a1'!' atter.uation could be ignored,
irradiance on the retina lIOuld not vary vi th d1 stance. In the perception of brightness a similar phenomenoh is v~ll known. Due to the
constancy of illumination of the retina a surface appears of equal
brightness to us when we vary our distance from it. This is true as
long as the distances are not large r.::nougb to introduce effects of
attenuation b.Y the air.
The radius of tha image of an atonic firebaJ~ on the retina
varies linearly with the radius of the fireball and inversely vi th the
distance from the fireball. Thus with a. pupil of given size at a given
distance, a certain amount of ,:onci'gy ift distributed over the image area.
Now if the subject is tv1.~e ar far away, the amount of energy plssing
through the same pupil lrl.11 only be one-fourth as great, hovever, the
image area into which the en3r~ falls vill onl,y be one-fourth as
large, therefore, the energv per 'l,nj t area viII be constant except for
the attenuations produced b./ aIr and ocular media as mentioned above.
Attenuation in the ocular medla will cltange due to the change in spectral
distribution of the fireball t s radiat10n passing through the a1.:'
The
significance of thi 9 change cannot be determined at present due e.o lack
of spectral distribution data for short times.
When the angle subtended by the fireball is smaller than the resolving power of t.he optical system of the eye, an image of constant
size results. The size of this image (often loosely called point-size
or point-shaped image) dappnds on the diffraction at the entrance
pupil, optical aberrations and scattering. The irradiation per unit
area in such a "point-shaped" image on the retina is like irradiation
of the slin dependent on the inverse square of the distance but it is
higher than the skin irradiation due to the radiation gathering power
of the optical system.
fust of the folioving discussion (but not all of the experiments
later lescribed) wili be concerned with atomic bombs equivalent to
20,000 tons of Thl, (Effe~t of~tomic ~aponsJ l~!O_ (47)). 3..tch a bon:b
produces a fireball of 1370 em rIms after explosion. furing the first
second the fireball grows to about 10 times this radius, and it persists
for about 3 Bec after the explosion ..
While expanding, the firebsll cools rapidly. At 0.1 ms the surface temperature is .J)O,OOOoK. After 10 me it is 2COQOK; then it rises
again, reaches a marlmtml of 75000K after about 0.3 sec and finally drops
to ambient teJlperature at 3 sec. (See also more recent data in The Thermell ~t8. H8.ndpoo~_- ~::700.) The radiant flux per unit area ancttb-equali ty of radiation changes conaiderably vi th the surface temperature
of the fireooll. Spectral ElDission measurements have not been published.
Figure 6.1 gl vel) spectral snission computed on the assunption of black
body radiation and :r-1anck's formula.
The radiation at 0.1 ms is rich in ultraviolet and "blue- radiation. The radiativn at 10 ms i8 wreddish;- the radiation during most
"f the time therea.fter is fairly vell repreaented by the third curve

29
R[SfRITEQ QATA

-,,~

.....

for 6100o K. The initial image on the retina subsequently receives the
sum of tris radiation eDftrgy for each unit area.
Ring-shaped zones around this initial image (corresponding to "the
enlarging fireball.) receive less energy per unit area and radiation of
different spectral quality (relatively more "reddish" than the initial
radiation). If air absorption in the illlnediate vicinity of the fireball. is considered, but air absorption on long paths of air is neglected,
the J.rradiation of the rin~shaped zones of the image of the fireball
can be given approximately in per cent of the irradiation which the ~en
tral part of the image (corresponding to a fireball of 1370 an at 0.1
ms = millisecond) would receive during 3 sec. The central image would
have received at 100 ms 38 per cent, at 150 ms 40 per cent. A zone corresponding to a fireball of 2740 em radius would have received at 100
ms 2.8 per cent, at 150 ms 5.5 per cent. The zones corresponding to
r':'..-eballa of 4110 em, 5500 em, 6850 em and 8250 em would have received
at 100 ms 1.7 per cent and at 150 ms 4.3 per cent. It is easily seen
that at distances at which such zones can optically be resolved, the
central zone will determine the threshold distance for damage.
The initial high radiant emittance and high temperature radiation is of special interest for several reasons. It can be assumed
that an eye will react to the flash with closure of the lids. In man
this reflex has a minimtID latency of 5; ms (Brunn, Fall, f.'.atthes, 1941
(24); rt9l'athewohl and Strughold, 1953 (54, with an average nearer 100
ms. In rabbits the average lid closing time was found to be 284 ms.
About 35 per cent of the total energy emission of the central
part of the fireball. (radius 1370 em) arrives at the eye during the
first millisecond, (Fig. 6.2). For this part, the closure of the lids
as well as the pupil.J.Ary reflex have too much latency to be of any protecti ve value. *
The transmission of the eye is asSUtled to be similar to the data
in Fig. 6.3. This Cl1rV8 is a composite of data from Ludvigh and
McCarthy, 1938 (84), froAll 400 P. to 640 J.l and the data of Roggfmbau and
Wetthauer, 1927 (103) for \l8.velengths longe." than 640 millimicrons.
The latter data were recomputed for the thickness of the media of
average human eye according to :isting, Helmholtz, and Gullstrand. it
ws extrapolated into the ultraviolet takinb into con:rlderation Kinsey's
(70) data on rabbits. rata or the absorption of the pigme:tt layer were
not available for this -study.
For the animal experiments a8 well as for those human eyes in
which accidental damage occurred, refractive error must be considered.
The enlJl.rgement of the; image radius is at:-proxb..ately proportional to
the pupillary radiuB and to the shift of the image from the reti~a.
In htmlllr. beings it can be assumed for the lar~e ms.jori ty ~hat correct
focusini; occurs either by emmetropia, 8.CCOImk riation, or correction of
refracti ve errors. The strain of rabbi ts t:.sed in tte FFSHCT-K~~OTHVL':
eXpt1ruent 5 had abcmt 2.5 diopters manifest hyperopia. For pr!1ctical
-

T'r.e r;::.liu~time and temperature data quoted tere il5.~ obtained from
UfectB of Atom~c__~~OT-6._!?~ \4 7 ). For rea30n~ of expedience, in
;-:----b~li-....v i-o-n- 0 f t"i"
reoo"'t J.,:C""_~
,.., ............ "'_,-",
. . ,,,.... ja4-",~ (ro
{'
:"""'-'71c-' ~_ ~_'_~
;"r
vna pc
Co.
~;
\~_.t.._. __ - .. '
t,;I

9last
Measurements)
--- -- --------------

......

>.1

...

was nc: utilized.

Sit.!'

R!3fkltfED

bAtA

-- .. - .

100
90

'~

10

~
BLAC! BODY
10 'K

.~

~.

='.J

r~
a::

5L

w
a.
>C)

___

.... - 10 .

.~

~
~

6~1 X 10 ~ 0 K

._-----------

1...---

________

r-

0.

lL.

,.-

10 2 ~

>

,.J
ClIO'

40
r--:"

30

Q::

-t

-4

u...

(.. :.>
V.

f-.

>-.

'A

60

...J

BI ACK BODY

;: 10 3~

'I

f-

~ 50

w
~

70

DSKIN

a::

:-;I04~

f-.

'Z':

-r

80

ct

""~x

~ 10 6

CENTRAL RETINAL IMAGE

ct

J",

lAJ

20

10 :r-!

o L._-,300

j.

50C

'" .!. .

700

J. .....

1..

900

.L

.j

'..L.__

1100

-L..._.

.L~

1300 WAVELENGTH 11I?/I

10

..

--,
0.001 SEC.

0.25 SEC.
TIME

:Jpectral l:miesion of Blaclc Bodies of

L,lUOoK and 2(J{)cPK, Representing Three
of the Atomic Fireball.

Fig. b.l

J()(),lJ()(jOK,

Pha6~9

3 SEC.

AFTER EXPLOSION

Fig. 6.2 Time of Incidence of Certain Percentagus

of the Total Thermal Energy per Unit Area from a
Nominal Atomic Bomb for the Central Part of a
Re',.l.llu.l !mage(dark column) and the Skin(vhite column)

,'

.........

purposes the resulting enlarge;nent of the image radius is negligible

(about 0.08 UIIl when pupil diameter 9 mm and focal length 10 mm). The
inareasi4Jg size of the actual fireball image, diffraction and 8catte!ing effects would over~adov the effect of snall errors in refraction.
The relative opening of the ~e differs in rlifferect species.
A rabbit eye vith vide night pupil, about 9 mm has about twice the
relative opening of a hllDM eye vith vide pupil of 8 JIII1 (the nodal point
ia closer to the retina in the rabbit). Since irradiance on the retina
ia proportional to the equare of the relative opening of the eye, a
hUll&ll trfe, if abeorption were equal, wo'lld require at the cornea four
time~ the irradiance necessary for ~ raobit at the cornea for the pr0duction of a chorioretinal burn.
Wi th equal irradiance on the retina differe:lces in pigmentation
exert a decisive influence on the production of lesions. Radiant energy can produce i.mediate ~ffects only where it is absorbed. The dealing here is net with a specific effect of certain wavelengths, as in
viSion, but vith non-specific heat effects from energy absorption. In
an unpigmented albinotic eye, in spite of focusing by the optical system
much radiation will pass through the eye and into th~ orbital fat. The
li ttle that is absorbed in the retina is absorbed in a relatively long
path. Conversely, 1n a darkly pigmented eye much of the pigmentation
is concentrated in the single cell layer of the pigment epithelium of
about 5 micron thickness. It can be assumed that per unit length of
path througb the eye and per un.! t volume the pigment epi th8lium 1n a
vell pigmented eye has the highest energy absorption.
It is the
high energy absorption per unit volume and not so much the focusing
effects which are responsible for the depth localization of the primary
heat effect. Thi& is obvious ~hen one considers what happens in the
case of an extended image where no "focal point" is formed. No data
about absorption in the chorioretinal pigment are available. The
absorption depends on individual pigmentation and should be very high
in dark pigmented individuals ..
Since from existing data the threshold for chorioretinal lesions
could not be determined, &11 experime:-.t with Slli'1 radiation ws performed.
A detailed report on this experiment will be gi vell later. Only results
pertinent to the present problan will be mentioned here. The experi:I:~nt
vas performed on pigmented rabbits vit~ pupils of 5 mm diwneter ..
The radiation from the sun was concentrated by means Jf a. t\lO
mirror system. The irracUance at the cornea was mea.sured by means of an
irradiation meter devised by Dr. Oakar L. RJtter. The device was calibrated at tho ~iationa.1 Bureau of Standards by Mr. Ralph Stair. The
irradiance at the cornea of the rabbi t~ \18.8 0.478 gm cal/sec cm2. The
exposure was 0.03 sec for t.he 8i!lallest chorioreti:1a.1 leSion, which 'JSS
of 1 rom radius. The aS8Umpticn ws made that this m.a.llest lesion
represented ~st closely the size of the" solar image," used for
rlldiation, and that it showed the least secondary inflammation affee. ... 3.
Such effecta tend in lesions obtained vi th more tha.!1 threshc Id energy
to make the lesion larg~r th~~ the 0ri~lnally irradiated area.

S' , II [ T

Rl!!I T. tf! , ! "

~A,

,.

fur1.ng the 0.03 sec exposure 0.0143 gm cal/an2 \18.8 received at the
ccrn3a. TIle as&unption vas made :hat 4D per cent* of this energy was
transnitted through the media of the eye and that all energy transn!tted
through the media and a 5 :mn pupil W8 concentrated j.n the 1 DI!1 diameter
image. The relation of the area of tb,; pupil to that of the image is
25/1. After applying the factors 0.4 and 25 the energy l'eceived per un! t
area of the retiI".A 1s computed as 0.14 gm cal/cm2 That is far les8 than
the ener~' F~r unit area for the mln.1mal skin leaion and less than reported formerly for eclipse blindness (Eccles and rlynn (46)).
Table b.1 is an estimate 'Jf distances from atomic exploaicns for
0.1 gil c&.1/cm2 in the central 1.mage on the retina which corresponds to
the initial firt:ball (If 1370 ell. No exact data about the Rp8ctral tran:tmission of air during different weather ~ond1tl.ons are a~. .ailable. The
t<ltal air trantlJ1ission data given 1n Effects of Atomic Weapons..L ..!.950 (47)
were used. For the human eye a daylight pupil of 4 mm diameter and t1 night
pupil of 8 llII1 diameter were used fer computation. The time interval vas
from 6%plosion to 0.15 sec. For the rabbit at night tvice the re:ati ve
opening of the human eye and the t1..rae interval from explosion to 0.25 sec
vas taken.
TABLE 6.1 - EatUr.3.ted Threshold Distances for Chorioretinal
Lesions from a Nominal Atomic oowb

Visibility (:!.n Illiles)

i
t===

EXceptionally
Clear Air

=4=

.-::::=f=:

Distance {in miles)

Rabbit

Human Eye
te.y
Night

25
12
74'5

31
16

40
20

10

13
10

Clear Air

Light fu.ze

1.9

t
I
I

~
i

===1

50
24
17
12

..

4
I

Night

f'

r~l.e

_ _ ~_..J,. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~ _ _ _ _ _ _

...J

'::1e high initial irradianc6 c,f the retLli i.ms.ge hag interesting
consequences. If about 35 per cent of the tctal dosage of the central
image arrives in O.()Ol. tree, there is scarcely time to dissipate this
energy by concr.lciioi1. The S8.i7le number of calories arri'ling during a
lont:er interval of time rttises the temperatu...-re les3 because OOr:18 energy
is diSSipated durin..g the heatir"-,. If, ~le to &'1ort dista.nce from the
fireb6.ll t the teeperature in the pigment layer reach~B more tt.8.n. boiling
umpe.rature and there is in~lr!'icient til:e fcr [;Mt dissip&tion (as
du.-ing :.he first m11lisecollu) .. . e.xplo sien of the bcili .g pit;ment epithelil.lIl is the necessary c')nsequer:::-9. Tlss'-o'e ~e exceedL:r the
0ri~inal h'1ll.ge in si.:t8 is then ~..Q be eA~cted.
Furthe.rrnore, it is U)
A

Estimated or. tht: 005i3 0f f5Y8

~'13111sBion

and 7L.

33

.~------~- .

data f'rcm

rere~nce8

:03

,.--------------_.

-.

_ ...

1.0
z

.-- -

0.80

~ 0.60
'i
r.J)
Z

<l0.40
a::
~

O.20

.0 400

500

60'-O~-I..10-0~800

900

1080

'100

1200

\300

~400

1500

1600

vo.AVELENGTH ..~

Fig. 6.3

Spectral t.ran=-1,sion of the hU!l&ll ve, Bl'~_ Ludvigb and

~Carthy, for 400 to 64 m.1.l1m1c')De L. _ f t" the vavelengthl!
longer than 6t() :l1lJ, m1 crt":J.s after Roggelh4u and W'etthauer.
The curve has b6t\.c.. uxl.rapolated 1- the ultraviolet using data
!'rom Kineey. The Q.oggenbe."...-J/qtthaJer data vere recomputed
from the thicknesses of co'"
ey6S :.rom which they vere
meaaured, tv thl ckne sse S C' f 1. 1D&Il eye".

that a lauon due to . . xpJ aiOl! vill differ from a :.e5ion

in vbich explo aion does DO t oceur, be< \US8 destruction of indi V'L.dual
c'lli and tis8U8 &structure occurs \ th the expl.Jaion.
I~ 1s ~,ot possible tv giTe - uaaful estimate of the probab1ll.ty
t.hat. the chorioretin&l lesion dest.rcys a definite pu-t ot the vi sual
fit..:d or of the -normal- visual acui ty.The sue of t.he damaged uaa
vill in genera.:!. be larw-r than Cie size or the ilIage formed by the
incident rad1a~ion. The effect of a ce~.~in sise of G le~ion dependd
')n the locaticD of the J.dsion. A lelrlo.' oJ! the optic disc can ~ause
c.::,na1derable loSe of the visual field or tot&1. blindnes!'l. A 1e8i0n in
t'1'8 macula. v1ll cause 108s of visual acuity; secoDdary
damage, like
i'etir.a1 detachmer+, car. affect large parts of the vio3Ul.l field. If the
appt.Qra."~e of a f'retail vere equa.l.ly probable in all ciL""ections in
spaCb. and i f toe ci1.r'f'Ic~~0n of gaze were complet6ly randomized, then the
probabili t- tha+ 8. cel' "a.L--: structure of the retL~ vera jam,agea hy a
lesion vonld be .;i ven J]
fraction in 'Which the product of the &rea of
the lesion .in 8quare de~e" and the area of }he structure in squa...-i)
degree! forms tOt; n~rauJl', and ..rne"""" 41,25J'::: 18 the de~t0r. Obrloualy tbe di1"ec:.ion o.r gaze is of~n tovard the borl~on and ~L pilots
often 1...:1 the di.NJction 0~ fligh t. At.ornic fL""'ebe.1J.s are more ~ohable
near the horison. For the direction cf the fi~ba1l as veil a~ ~or the
dir&etion of gee .... eigh ting 11lctors are nf:'C6sS'UJ' fa!' the COttIp-\lta tion
of a realistic probability of 'i certair, le~ion. Such 'Wei~hting factors
&r6 presently net available.
(The prohlec: cf ....eightiUt; factors for tbe
gue W8.S eli seussed at length by the Al'tled For--:es - "t~ \. i3ion CoJD..i t tee
in 1953 fo'" !"e&.80Da oot connected \i!. til atOLic ;'i r-eballs. !btl ,~i!. iC"J.8:;ton ci1d not yield r;sne:-ally accepuble wigh+ing facto!"8.:'
be expected

34

"lnlraS OJ" i .ueftli eATIl

-~",,;

'. ,-r'iit8

CHAPTER 7

INSl'RtJo1FlrrATION
While colJiputatione and threshold determinations ind1.cated that
chorloret1nal burns c..',uld be &XP8cted to a distance IIOre than 45 miles
as pl"edict.ed by Roae (104) l i t vas felt lleces8llry to verify thGs8 P"'""
dictions b:v actual exper1~~ntation. For this reason 700 pigmented
r."bbits were obtained. Thea~ were i l l male rabbits veighlng betveen
4 and 6 lb. It vaa essential to util!.r') pigmented rabbits because th"
pig:mEInt in their fundi absorbs radiant energy in the same manner as
<i:>es a htD&Il. These rebh1ts vera exposed (one time each) during six
diffeTe."'t atomic detonations at the Neva.....J. Proving Grounds. Shots ~
ticipe.ted in occurred on 7 March, 2.4 ~ch, 18 April, 25 April, 19 May,
and 4 June. They \:'er-e all detonated 5 mir before dawn under very clt-U
atmospheric condi tiona.

,.
.
r'fl:~~
i --,

....
.
..
: 19.
:"'.1} or',;ot.of-:r&pt
0
~xpo sure .tX1X8S, "s,.mera 1l.l1C Y.,o tct:'..l..e-~trlc
Tir;,ing DevicG a8 Used IAn-ir~ At~c :ests (~ cbc&: ~t
vi e~ hIe)
~

35

...

--.

---

--~-

~ --

-- -- ..........

~'}.,

,
Fig. 7.2

.
.
...

Pbctograph taken by flash of atomic bomb. By this means

animals with closed or shaded eres could be eliminated from
statistical cons1d~ation ~alarm clock not visible). Note
ar,dma1 with head inside box.

The rabbits were pk,C8d in indivi-fual boxes which lWted their

hf"ad motic::l. They were e.ligned so that one visual axis was directed at
th", approximat.e location of the detonation. Since a rabbit moves his
e/es very little, no meth~d of eye fixation ~as required. They were
placed in groups st various distances from the detonation point starting at 2 tiles and going back in one Instance to 42 miles.. Alarm clocks
vere eet to awdken the rabbi t~ just prior to detonation. In addition,
each group ws photographed by the light of the bomb i tseJ..f (see Fig.
7.1). This was done by a photoelectric timin:'" device which snapped the
p1~ture during the fir'st 21 mSr thus recording it t.?fcre the rabbits
could blink. In th1 s manner the e.n.i!Dals vi th clo sed ur shaded eyes
could be e~nate~ from statiatical consideration (see Fig 7~2).
The animals were ';l:nuDinee, ophthalmoscopically within the first few
hours ftfter the SilO t.. Retinal burns were ideI1t1fleu, described, and
photographed 'ilith a fundus camera. Some animals were sacrificed at
once in order to obtain the eyes for study; othera were followed for
longer periods to watch the mlbsequent course.

36

RFSUL'tS

8.1 RABBITS
The typic;al tresh lesion in the rabbit eye as seen vi th the ('phthalmo80ope is almost perfectly round, sharpely circumscribed and C~n
sists of a central and periTJheral zone. In an:lmals 8X!JOsed ne&:r the
detonation flash (tdthin approximately 6 miles) {:one sees a deep central
bole vi th gll stening vhi te base whieh appears to be 8clera (see Fig.
8.1). Elevated volcano-like margins border tbis area. There mayor
may not be ba~orrhage an~or coagulated debris exuding from the hole.
Surrounding the central hole is a 'halo' of dirty gray color, often
twice the diameter of the hole. At greater distances troll the flash the
central area no longer appears to be a hole but 1.8 rather a yellowishvbi te plaque, (see Fig. 8 .2) vbile the 'balo' als> diJDinishes in size
with increasing distance until at the middle and p.xtreme distances it
disappear~ completely, whereas the plaque persists (see Fig. B.3).
The ramainder of the retina appears entirely normal. Not all distances
were utilized on all ehots, and cameras and photoelectric equipnent
were not 3\ailable for each station. In addition the photoelectric
device failed to trip the shutters at some stations.. hom 5 to 50
rabbits were exposed at various stations. The rabbits shown photographically to have closed eyes at tbe time of detonation were eliminated
frI,)lIl statistical consideratione
On at least one of the shots chorioret.ieal burns were produced in 100 per ~ent of the proven exposed
animals at each of the following di&Unces in lliles: 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
10, 12, 13, 14, and 27. Tables 9.1 through9.7 show statistical data
pert.aining to results of clinical e:DJI!i nation of rabbits for eacb shot.

8.2 PATHOLOGICAL FINDINGS

Sections of the eyes frcm a total of 173 pigmented rabbits have

been prepared for the purpose of investigating tbe histopathological
changes producfsd within the eye by atondc fl~8h. In this report a fev
s11des h.lve been delected +.0 correlate with the clinical picture and to

37

SECRET

.- -

1&&&&"'8 8ATA

="=-=-..1:<-

__
z

...

.
,

.......
..
..
... .. .

Fig. 8.1 Atomic Cborioret1nal Lesion in Rabbit Incurred at 10.3 MLles

During Shot 11. Noj'.e elevated margins, deep central hole
vith sclera at base p bemorrhage in'w the vitreous and surrounding co&gl.1lP.ted area. (C-726)

0 ......

.
... ......
.. ...

..... ......
..
..

,' .,

..

....

Chorio~dtiaal Lesion in Rabbit l~curred at 27 Miles

During Sbot li. Typical of middle distances sholfing area of
coagulation necrosis and small halo. (0-753)

Fig. 8.2 Atomic

38

Si,niT

Ill!!' lit I ED

B~TA

elucidate the pathogenesis of both reversible and irreversible tissuE.

changes accompanying atomic flash burns in retina, choroid, and sclera.
8.2.2

Technique

The rabbits vere sacrificed by dec~pitation and the eyes

enucleated immediately. The histological technique routinely EIIlployed
vas al follows: Butfered isotonic 10 per cent formalin solution vas
injected into the vitreous cavity of the freshly enucleated eyes which
vere then allowed to remain .3 weeks in the same fixative. This
for.malin-flxation vas followed b.Y alcohol dehydration. The eyes vere
finally embedded in celloidin under heat and increased pressure (Walls
(129). Microscopic sections were cut 1n a sagittal plane and were
3tained with hematoxylin eosin.
8.2 .3 Morphology
The extent of the microscopic changes in the choroid and retina
of pigmented rabbits exposed to atorlc flash varied greatly, according
to the amount of energy which had been absorbed by the tissues, primarily the retinal pigment epithelium and the choroidal chromatophores.
These histologically visible cbdnges in choroidal and retinal tissues
can be divided into two characteristic types:
1. Lesions characterized by coagulation necrosis with additional
major tissue and cell destruction in retina and choroid. This major
tissue destruction is probably produced by '3xplosive intracellular and
extracellular generation of steam and gaseous expansion.
2. Lesions characterized by coagulation necrosis without major
tissue and cell destruction in the retina.
Both types are best demonstrated by an unusual case in which a
double retinal lesion occu'red at 10 .3 miles from the hypocenter
(Shot ll). In this case, ~wo disciform lesions of type 1 above vere
connected with each other by an opaque linear burn of type 2 (see Fig.
8.4). The diameter of the larger discoid lesion was 1.6 m,; that of
the smaller discoid lesion was Oe5 mm. The lengtb of the linear buJ'D aeasured 6.5 mm; i(,8 width 0.2 rom. These measurements do not incJ.ude the
secondard choroidal reactive changes seen surrounding the lesions.
Ophthakoscopically, both ct: lC01d lesions showed an immediate
rupture of the retina and hemorrhage into the vitreous body. Thi s
vitreous hemorrhage disappeared within 2 days. The tissue around the
necrotic center appeared as a gray milky ring which measured 1.6 mm
in diameter on subsequent sectioning. Arter 2 days the animal was
sacrificed for histopathological investigation of the eyes. The pertinent sections are shown in Figs. 8.5 and 8.6.
The microscopic picture of the larger lesion (Fib_ 8.5) was that
of circumscribed coagulation necrosis measuring 1.6 mm in diameter,
with almost complete disintegration of nerve tissue a~d choroid within
a central area of about 0.4 rom diameter. Hemorrhage from choroidal
vessles had pl"oriuced a circumscribed bulging elevation of retina into
the vitreous with a horseshoe-shaped r.etinal tear. Although the
retinal architecture is seen to be relatively' well preserved over this

39

...... -.,

.~,

~:...-w

A - _ _ .. '----...

.,

...,.

-------

,.~

'

... ..

"

"

......

Fig. 8.3 Atomic Chorioretinal Lesion in Rabbit Incurred at 28.5 Miles

During Shot ll. Typical of extreme distances shoving sharpl,y
circumscribed area ot coagulation necrosis and minimal halo.

(0-717)

area, the lUlderl,ying retinal pigment-epithelium and choroid have eli&-

.. ....
., ...
.....
. ..

integrated. The choroid showed in addition dilatation of vessels,

moderate edena, and minor hemorrhages
The hlstologiC9l section cut vertlcall,y through the linear POl'tion ot the burn ot Fig. 8.4 revealed (Fig. 8.6) marked choroiditis
accCDpa.n1ed by structural changes in the adjacent retinal ~er;
whereas, only minimal alterations occurred in the remainder of the
retina.
Retinal and choroidal. lesions resulting from exposure to energy
levels higher than those whioh produced the foregoing lesions (i.e.,
at closer stations during shots of highest thermal yield) are shown in
Figs. 8.7 and 8.8 as follows: Figure 8.7 is a photomicrograph shoving
marked dectructlon of the retina over a central ar(;.l of 1.1 DlDl, with
choroidal alterations extending to a diameter of about J mm. This
"perifocal" choroidal lesion se~n histologically correlates closely in
area with "oe ophthalmoscopically observed opacity of the retina which
had been seen to surround the central area of retinal destructlon. It
is notable that there is no histologically demonstrable indication of
retinal swelling or retinal edElllS. within this perifocal area. One
might be inclined to assume that the gray retinal opacity surrounding
the central area of retinal disintegration, i.e., the perifocal retinal
opacity, repres~nts coagulation necrosis rather than edema.

"'RET

R!!lIIC f!D DA I A

- _..... -" .

,. .

~..

. ,.,..._.t._
....~

, , , ,
,
, I ,, ,, "
,, , ,, ,, "
, ,, ,
, , , "
,, ", \ 1,'
,, ,
I

I
D
I

I
\

I
I

"

I
I

""

6.5 mm4

Fig. 8.4

. 1

Atomic Chorioretinal Lesion in Rabbit ~e Produced at 10.3

tliles furing Sho t li. Unusual <:.ase of double di aciform
lesions connected b,y linear burn.
Top: 2 hr after exposure (high energy)
Center: 2 days after expo sure
Bottom: Schematic diagram shoving medullated !lerve fibres
in heaV) lines, non-medullated nerve fibres in dotted lines.
The latter have been obtained b,y extrapolation of the couree
of fonner. Magnification of lesion x 10 (USAF SAM R842)

41

SE'AIiT

A'iTAI"'8 8AlA

-+,_

__
If _"'f_~_,-_ _ _ _ _ _ _--_ _ _ _
= _-_._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

'

....

.
.'." ...
'

. ,......
'

I.'"

. ' ...

,,

..
"

Fig. 8.5

Top: Early Stage of Atc~~c Chorioretinal Lesion (larger discif0~ leaion of Fig. 8,4)
Bottom: Microscopic section vertically cut throuch larger
lesion coagulation r.ecrosis vith I!lB.jor tissue and cell dest~c
tioD in choroid and retina. :.xudation and hemorrhaee in Uquifled center of lesion. Bulging a.'1d rupt~ of retina. Artificial
detachment of retina, MagnifIcation to scale of retinal picture.
H&E, x 50 (USAF #842-Cll).

42
~";l['

ReSIRictED

nATA

.
.....
_------~--~===-~-=~~------...:.-r--'
.

,~

,. ... ,1.
;

I'

Fig. 8.6

Early Stage of Atomic ChorioretL1 Lesion. Vertical section

through linear burn effect shown in Fig. 8.3. Notice the well

prest::J.-ved inner layers of the retina. Artificial detachment

of the retina on both sides of lesion. H&E, x ISO (USAF SAM
#842-Cl)

. .. .
.,.' .
"

Fig. -S.7

'

Early Stage of Atomic Chorioretinal Lesion in Pigmented Rabbit

EJe we to High lliergy (6 rni, ~ot 5). Sacrificed 2 days after
expo~. ~&E, x W. Insert at left corr.er sholls ophthalmoscopic
picture of lesion. Magnification x 10 (SAM #309)

Slep ET

It" IR !'IED DATA

_ i~~----------------~.
' ..,

.-.
'-

Fig. 8.8

Farly Stage of AtolUc a,orioretinAI Lesion Due to High Energy

(5 mi, Shot 2). Sacrificed 8 hr after exposure. Notice burn
effect in sclera. ~E, x 50 (USAF SAM #113)

......
"
"

,
>

" to.

...,-.

. .<\..

.~-

:}-,
-.-~-.[

Fig. 8.9

-~

Aseptic Irflammatory Reaction in Early Atomic Chorioretinal

Leaion (10 mi, Shot 11). Accumulation of polymorphonuclear
granulocytes, predomL....antly eosinlJphiles. H&E, x 200 (lGAF
SN-l #84)

S"AT

HE'll'C i ED DA i A

'-_.

Figure 8.8 shows the tissue damage p-rodut''3d by extremely high

levels of atomic flash energy. In such severe atom1.c burns almost
complete destruction of the retina and choroid is found, often associated with a widespread coagulation necrosis which penetrates deeply
into the sclera. Hovever, even in these severe burns no case of perforation of the sclera vas observed.
Figure 8.9, 8.10, and 8.11 illustrate the histologic changes
associated with healing of these lesions. Figure 8.9 shows the appearance of aseptic inflammation which developed early L~ the repair phase.
Polymorphonucle&l" granulocytes are present in the necrotic tissue of
all the cases at this stage of repair. In many ca~s, such as the eye
from which Fig. 8.9 vas made, eo sinophils predominated.
T:'l: final result of the repair process, after liquefaction,
phagocytosis, and digestion of debris had taken place, and exudate had
been absorbed, vas a replacement of the disintegrated nervous tissue by
glial tissue. In the choroid IIl8.IlY of the dila. ted ves~els were obll terated. Figures 8.10 and 8.11 illustrate the conversion of the gran\}1a tion tissue to dense connective tissue which provides a relatl vely
firm connection between retina and choroid.
8.3

ACCIDENTAL CHORIOREl'INAL BURNS IN HUMANS

Although not a specific result of the experiment as planned, the

following in4" rn-mation is pelctinent t.o the study of retinal burns. Four
human cases of chorioretinal burns severe enough to show on a fundus
photograph have been observed during this and previous atomic tests.
There are several more individuals who have looked at atomic detonations with unprotected eyes in the daytime and "'~o have snail other...,tse unt..:-.-plained scotomata.* Irlese cases are not included. Of the
four cases described here,. only one has a serious disability. This
man, S~ H., ws warned by his commanding officer that it would be
dangerous to look at the flash, but he ignored the warning. He vas an
Army officer stationed \Ii. th Ann! troops in trenche s vi thin 2 mile s of
the detonat:on point on Shot 8 (25 April). Furtunately, he did cover
one eye which vas th~reforf- not damaged. Visual Rcuity in the exposed
eye dropped immediately R:'ter eXJX>sure to 20/200. This patient ws
not seen L the ~partment of OpthaJ.:,,01cgy group until 6 weeks after
his exposure. At tr.at time he showed a central retinal lesion, about
a disc diameter in zize, the upper oorder of which bisected his
macula. The area resEIIlbled a healed ~horioretini tis vi th sharply
defined borders. There were p~tJllentary changes surrou.'1dir.r the lesion.
There vas some necva~ulariz5.tion principally below. The central part
of the c.iearly defi:led semicirculB"C" lesicn vas bro.'Ilish i:1 color. The
entire lesion ws depressed b' , .. '::.1'1e level of the currou.'1ding retina
a.I1d showeri marker; cicatrical contrdctio:l vi th a complete rosette of
prominent ..'etinal tension folds. Visval acuIty was 20/70 wi tn a
sLarply circumscribed absolute scotO::la, mOO3'-il"inb 4 degrees Vf'. ically
and 5 degrees horizo;.t.ally and located just aocve the finition 0Jint
ee -t;:,.c.
;;'i ~ ~ .,v.:.j.
1 ') \
~J
( Q

* Human Chorioretina.l Burns from Atomic

Fire~lls,

Archives vi Ophthalnolo!,y.)

45

2~~11I16i1':'
....
_.. -- ... -

" ... TA

(ReJX>rt in press,

,,

Fig. 8.10 Late Stage or !tcm.1c Chorioretina.l Lesion, Pigmented Rabbit,

18 ~a af'ter E%posure to Hedim Energy (4 miles, Shot 8).
Insert ahove ophthalmoscopic picture to scale vi th micro8COpic photograph. Note obliter<'\tio.'1 and cicatrization of
choroid in the c~nUtr of the lesion, reactiVE. hyperemia of
choroidal veseels in StL."'TOunding tiB81..le. Artificial
detachment of choroid on both sides of lesi0n. H&F., x 10
(USAF # 6(0)

., .

Tb"'ee other b\.ln&n cases of retinal burns have been adoc,uat.ely

docur.ented in the serie~ of bot1b ~~Bt8 in this country, i l l of" .hich
occur.ad at approximately 10 tiles. Tn-; first of these, B. V. Go,
ocer .'red in 1952 teste during i~:vest.igB.tion of the changes in visual.
acuity, }..)B~ of dark adaptation ,Uld persistence of BCctcr.-.ata follow-:in,g
atCiZlic flash (tiee rUMILEP.... S~FEF. ~~rt or; 1s.3h Bli!1dncsBL .'7-530).
No protectl ve fil tars 'Were ezr.p1oy"':1, Fcllo'Wb~~ the nAsh, B'unJect: V~
5]l'IIotoms ~r5l5ted for no more tnbJ: 5 mil, ho .... ever, a ne.arly !'Otl::C
at . . .:>lute scotcma "'8.~ 1.A tar mapped ('',It :n the lef~ eye, 3 ~ ~~ the
.. JJation poi "t, aoc,Jt 1/10 disc diar.eter :~ tti~e, 0jXJtDslsc scopic~J.lJ,
a punched -Jut fairly ShB.rply dOO".ar<. !lted !lTeS o:~ blal:chi:;.t of the Nl tina
apr o~.tel;,; :';10 disc dilL'!:eiAr \18.3 ~e~)t: 1" 5. ?Js:tic:r: ccr~~por.ii.:-.~
tc the JOOtoma jl..~t nasal to the rr.8.Clil.1, ,i3l.1<...1 ucui ty ~.~.iii;,:...d t:::irr-~tad
ns' 2u-/l" , (eoe
.,-oc:
..v1~
t. q 11\
........ J. t:!_

"'.;.

,~..J..

L. . / .

Fig. 8.11

-:...... Qat.A
... :c

S~""':'"
~V

-""'er

')~ ;.JQ,JO
:-""7"

a.....L'"

.... t-,:

AdVEL"iCf'd
,.,
..
_: ..~1,",
- Jt".J...J

.,,1
_A

.I,!,,,...,_~.~
n"""--",,iJi..,.l',.

(':"".~.(,~""'f'4.. 1
_ i .. _~~V.g\J""'~.x,_

';;~""P0-""'e
--4t.A."
-~:...;.,.I.

jcar.LficaC0~

it";. . . . .f"~.""."' ....

u..,;.,u.~j,;)

fA
",,--

'.'.
b.l.

~',

4.1 ..... \;) . .

:;~""'i.-'Y
-A-O..I.~.

cf choroid

n~""".,""""
t-..... \ v~~~.

~jd pi~wt atrcphy,

;1 ..
......

T p~O""

... ,

:....-e.,L Q

~,,...,

1.0 ..... ,,-

S"'''''''
1\
............ -.,
Wbe ~ulAted

r,!,,-.~

ChO,....,~4
.. 1
,,"-4
~ v ..... ~

50 (J:SA."" SA."'. *5.3)

.- -- a;,*

::(""Db~...... ~1ro1,

.. ~

-<
a.........,

....
\...,1

cau~ir"t~

\. o'J,.""___ ..

]:>{
-e"~"d
.J,..~
!J.~

""'''55",1<1
\"'V
'0 ............

Fig. 8.12 Ato:m:J,. Cr.orioretinul Lesion in Human (S.H.) 2 Miles fro'!! ~

plo;llcn~ Slot 8. Lesion in the lower right part of pictJre.
Note radial tension folds. ~ dark gpotl:1 and white lines in.
the center ars artifacts. Phot~graph taken 6 veeks after bomb

exposure.

._""",,_~

..

...~,,,;

.f

, .,

FiG .. 0.13

.'

'l"'
\

"

~j~". -~

Healed Atomic Chorioretinal Lesion in Human (B. V.G.) at 10 mi.

from ~losion, TUMBLER,..m~APPER, 1 May 1952. I8rk spots and
whi te lines i.r center of pic.:ture are artifacts. Lesion isola. tad
between macula. and artii"acts .. Photo taken
yr after exposure.

It

/
..
\
Fig. 8.14

Atomic Chorioretina1 Lesion in a Human (M.C.B.) 7 Miles from

~losion (19 May 1953, Stot 8). Lesion: oval area below
macula. Photograph 1 month after exposure.

\1,

/'
....
.. .
......

to<

~.

.,

....
~

i'lg. 8.15

Atomic Chor:ioretinal Lesion (W.I r-;.) in l[uman, Fhotograpb 1

M:>nth after Exposure... Incurred at .ill miles from explNd .::n.,
Shot 7. Arrows point to lesion.

49

_._. .,- '-""'_-_--_-s.y-----

The last two cases occurred during UPSHOT-KNOTHOLE/! C.. B. was an

officer who observed the flash (at 7 miles distance during Shot 7, 19
May) with bis left eye through special ophthalmic filters designed to
transit muah reduced intensit.y in a llmited portion ot the spectrum. A
peripheral scotoma vas no~ed immediately after 'the testa and has pe:tsisted to the present. Corrected visual acuity OD: 20/15; os: 20/15.
Examination showed a horizontally elliptical punched out lesion approximately 1/6 disc diameter in size just below and bordering on the left
macula. Sclera is seen in the depths of the lesion. The center of the
lesion is white in color and is in all respects luiescent. A 3-degree
absolute scotoma persists (see Fig. 8.14).
The final case is that of an airman, W. L. C., who was preraring
to photograph the atomic bomb (at 7 miles distance during Shot 7). He
bad just sighted the target vhenthe flash occurred. He blinked iDIIlediately 8Jld turned away from the flash. The subject noted no symptoms
whatever and vas examined on a routine checkup one month later. EXamination revealed identical bilateral symmetrically placed small
lesions.. The left is half way between disc and macula and slightly
below a line joining them. The lesion of the right eye is later~ to
and just below tbe macula. Lesions have a pale center with slightly
pigmented margin. No edema or depression is seen. Corresponding
scotomata were plotted. Visual acuity OD: 20/20'; os: 20/25 (see Fig.
8.15).

'.

. . ..

.. .
.....
..........
.. ...
...

. ..

""

"

....

I.r

.
...,
.

'

,,

.'

., .....

,.. "

I........
.: ~ :
...
...

-.'

...

50

.-t'9'...,. . ,

.-

CHAPTER 9

DISCUSSlDN AND CONCLUSIONS

9.1

DISCUSSION

The ~l experiments have shown that danger to the retina troll

an atomic- explosion e~t~ exists tar beyond all previou,uy est1llated
distances. While the experiJllents were perfol'lled on rabbi ta, they show,
vi.thin oI!ixper1mental error, agreement with the estimates made !on Table
6.1. It is obvious trom studying the burns in question that they do
not represent the lMXi1DU'!l distance ~.;~ the threshold is being approached.
There is theretore considerable support tor the Department ot Ophthale:o
mology' 8 e8t1ma~s of threshold distances for hla.n eye lesions as
given in Table 6.1. The three hUlll8Jl cases in which lesions occurred at
7 to 10 miles away from the detonation are further proof ot the potential danger to the retina. Ophthalmoscopicall1 these lesiDns vere
reasonably similar to those observed in animals at comparable distances.
Subsequent observation shoved that the healing phase in hUllAll8 aleo
corresponds to that in experimental animals. It is apparent that the
diamettir and severity of the lesion decreases with increasing distance.
Close to the fireball the predicted explosions within the retina were
observed~
Near the est1llated threshold distances no retinal uplosions
vere observed. One must also consider the possibill ty of an atomic
flash burn. occurring d1rect~ on the optic nerve head. This would, it
of sufficient si~e, result in complete blindness ot the aftected eye.
The formation or radial tension folds suggests the possibility or
future retinal detachnlent. In th1.s manner even a I!IIMlll extra.foveal
lesion which in itself would not essentia.ll impair vIsion" will result
in a potential.1.y disastrous loss or vision.
From the series of microscopic sections studied thus far, 1 t can
be inferred that tha pigment of the retinal epithelium and choroid 1s
the principal site of absorption of the energy from atomic flash biob
produCt!8 i'ltl'&.'cular lesions. The lesions are characterised by a .Jagulation necrosis accompanied b.Y central major tissue destruction
involving these 88lle pigmented layers. In lesions caused by low radiation energy, the inner l.&yers of the retina are usually well preserved.
This does not .necesaarlly imply functional integrity in nvo since moderate heat with temperatures belvv the boiling point may ~aU8e

51

SEER"

RESTRle'1!8 .... 'A

...
........
......
"

.'"

.....
..
o

......
I.-

1 : :
o

..
....
I

"

...
o

'.

.0'
~.

,to

,.

. '........
,

..
,
.
'" .
.. :::."
..
".. .
"

"

tI ,

..

."

.,

..

coagul&t.ion necrosis without destr1lction of the ar~nitecture. 31m1lar

cases had been cieoorlbed by Birch-Hirschfelt (13), (14), and by
Verhoef! and associates (U4). These investigators produced rotinal
burns with a carbon light for the purplee <Jf correlating histopathological change" with the clinical picture of solar retinitis. BirchHirechfelt (12), OJ), (14), (15) also observed that tbel'1ll&l damage
produced in the choroid and retine. of pigmented rabbits 1s greater than
that produced in the eyes of albinotic rabbits. He interpreted his
findings as evidence that the anatomic lesionB of eclipse blindness are
a transuaaticn from the choroid, a necrosis of the outer retL"18.l. layers,
and disintegration of the pi~nt epithelium, a conclusion alreaqy made
by CZ8rny (14) Deutschmann (34) and Wi tmark (14). According 'ttl BirchHirschfelt (12~, (13), (14), (16) the inner retinal layers were only
secondarily involved - a conclusion which remains to be proved. There
is strong e~dtance that coagulation necrosis, whenever caused by heat
below the boiling point of tissue, is the cause of th9 milky gray di&coloration of the retina seen with the ophthalmoscope.
Histologically, thifl gray :".etinal tiosue vas distinguished by a
well px-eserverl architecture. This discoloration could be interpreted
not onlY as the result of a direct heat coagulation of the tissue, but
al~ as the result of a delayed autolysib. Such a delay in autolysis
could be explained by assuming that the applied heat destroys the ferm~nts which normally initiate rp~id autolysis.
The histologics.! evolution of the tissue repail'" following these
atomic bomb flash burns does not differ essentially from a repair folloving burns produced by other sources of energy. Remarkable, however,
is the extensive accumulation of eobinophils in some cases. This finding suggests the oocurrence of a hypersensitivity reaction to the denatund ?l"Otein or its derivatlv09S. .Also surprising is the extent of
the reacti va hyperemia in the choroid surrounding the lesion. In some
caSf7S 1t exceeded the area of primary damage by more th8.I: six diameters"
This obvervation suggested a study of the heat effect on the activity
of r'Jertain enzymes in the retina and choroid which i~ presently being
urdertaken. In the final stage of repair, the prominent features of
the microscopic picture were th~ obliteration of initially dilated
vessels, the scarification in the area of the burn, and the solid fusion
of retina, choroid, and sclera at the margin of tbe lesion. These atomic
chorioretinal burT1S are important to the practicing ophthalmologist who
should be aware of the danger of their production for mili tsry and
ci vi. I defense reasons and who should be able to recognize them if they
occur. Certain facts must be emphasized. A large part. of the energy
is dAlivered 90 rapidly that blinking and pupillary contraction have
only limited protection value. Relath-e pupillary aperture is a most
~portant factor, thus atomic chorioretinal lesions will occur much
moTe frequently and at larger distances at night. The darker the pigmentation of the retina, the more susceptible it is to being burned.
Defects produced in the visual fields will be per~phera1 unll')35 the
burn involves the macula or the nerve head, in which case very ScVAX'e
visual defects may result.

52

.... 8.E'

RES i KiCTED OAT A

lIP.,

44

cuuz;

TABLl:. 9.1 -

r---i

Vieibili ty
Di stance

Estimated Threshold Distances for Chorioretinal Lesions from

------- ---r=--

I~sur e Period
after ime Zero
(s c)

i,

Nomir~l

Atomic Bombs

Threshold Distances for Various Diameters of Pupil Opening

2mm

8mm

4mm
mi

km

mi

kIn

36
45

23
28

50

59

31
37

64
73

II

40
47

v,,15

18

11
14

25
)0

16

23

18

32
37

20
23

0.15
3

12

15

17
20

_.. --------.---

mi

.-~--.-~

: ?<. :::

U .. 1; V = 4f..) kID

= 25

mi

---

kIn

0.15
3
i

= O. ~;

V = 20 krn -:

12 mt

ik::O.3; V:];: km=7.2 mi

k -: 0.1.. ;

v = lu

kID -: 6 mi

VI

,-, : k 1 1;'_)_:

~
~

0.15
3

I 9
I
11

2_~_1____ ~015~ ~

10
12

21

13

24

15

16
18

10
12

6
7

13
15

Est.imated maximum distances at which a 20 KT equivalent (nominal) atomic bomb would cause a chorioretlnal bUrn. The distances given with 0.15 sec are to be applied when the lid reflex is prompt. The
distances given with 3 sec are to be applied when the fireball is vieweu during its existence.
The siz~ of the lesion is not given because this depends not only Qn distance but on biological
variables such as chorioretinal pigmentation.. The lesions contain areas of different types and degrees
of damage and their relations to yield, bein6 dependent on several variables, c..mnot be ~stablished from
our preRent infonmation.
k is the attenuation coeffiCient per kilom~~er; V is visibility. The ~able is computed for average
human eyes uaine Gullztrand's data of the eye and UDder the &8SU1I!ption that 'J.l cal/cm2 applied during
Umcs on the order of magnitude of a sec or tenths of a sec produce a minimal burn.

I
I

TABLE 9.2 - Recovery

Ttme, Shot 1, 17 Mar 1953

9ubjects viewed the bomb flash through the filter system described in
the text.

Recovery ot abillty to read red floodlighted and internal.ly red

llghteci Instnaents in protected individuals:

A.

r-----------------~------.------------------------~

Recovery 'rime in Sec

20

Subject

w. K.
C. M.
a. s.
D.
L.
R.
E.
C.

20
17

C.
W.
B.
H.
G.

20

25
25
12
20

AV3rage

B.

19.9 nee
ReCOTe'7 time in seconds of mesopic vision measured on the
nylctomet..ar:
Subject
Visual Acuity 0.1
Visual Acuity 0.5 (20/40)

~------------------~----

J. K.

G. p.
C. C.

53
55
28

W. F"

92-

Averag"
C.

176
*1/5
158
420

**

58 s"e

248 sec

RecoTery tIme in Min of scotopi~ vision IIleasured on the adaptometer:

-rLllDl1n9.nce 0.001 Nit
Luminance 0.00001 Nit
. Distinguish Vitrua1 Acuity
D1 stingui sh - Visu8l Acuity
Subj(lftt Light
0.01
0.01
Light
3:00
3:05
J. K.
4:20
5:25
4:02
G. P.
41.2
5:30
4:50
2:45
3:00
C. C.
4:00
4;52
w. F.
4:10
4:15
5:00
5:20

,- L

... .

*
**

175 seconds is the time required to read 0.4 acuity, 0.5 reading
not possible even at 8 minutes.
175 reading not included in this average.

':iR"

I"'t.e i to

OX tl
iT

,c

TABLE 9.3 - Recovery Time,

~ot

2, 24 Mar 1953

Subjects viewed the bomb flash through the filter system described in
the text.
Recovery of ability to read red floodlighted and internally red
ligbted instruments in protected individuals:

A.

Subject

Recovery Time in Sec

-

W. K.
M.

C.
R.
D.
L.
R.

40

22
21
21
20
15
25
8

s.

C.
W.
B.
E. H.
C. G.

Average

B.

21.5 sec

Recovery time in seconds of mesopic vision measured on tbe

nyktometer:
Subject

.-------------------~----------------------~
I

Visual Acuity 0.1

J. K.

77

G. p.

20
15
35
36.5 sec

C. C.
W. F.

Average

Visual Acuity 0.5 (20/40)

260

56
100

* 125
** 138

sec

Recovery time in min of scotopic vision measured on the adaptometer:

C.

LumLnance 0.001

Distinguish

~ Subject~Llght
J. K.
G. p.
C. C.
L .. W~_I

**

--

Nit~uminance O~OOOOI

Nit
Visual Acui tl
OCstinguish r Visual Acui ty
~___=:::f==' __ ~~t
~--~
I

4:21
1:05

4:22
1: 10

2:40
):05

3:0()

5:10
1: ~5
I
3:30
I 5: 15
i
1___.___
- ___L~4:_00___~

The 125 is 0.4 reading; no reading of 0.5.

This does not inclade the 125 reading.

PI ...r .

I.

4:56
1:40;

55

I.

---.~,--.,

TAJI,E 9.4 - Recovery Time, Shot 5, 18 Apr 195.3

Subjects viewed the bomb flash through the filter system descrlbed in
the text.
Recovery ot abill ty to read red floodlighted and internally red
lighted instl"\lllenta in protected individuals:

A.

Subject
Re~very
~====================F=

W. K.

J. F.

15
12
16
9
25
19
20

F. H.

C. Me

R.

s.

D. S.

L. W.
R. B.
Average

15.1 sec

Recovery time in seconds ot mesopic vision mellsurec on the

nyktometer:

B.

Subject

Visual Acuity 0.1

J. K.
G. P.
C. c.
W. F.

10
11
15

89
65
85
*60

12

** 79.6

. .
......

Average

Visu~

Acuity 0.5 (20/40)

-1

Recovery time in min of scotopic vision measured on the adaptometer:

C.

Luminance 0.00l. Nit

Distinguish Visual Acuity
I Subject Light
0.01
-.,

J. n.. I
G. P.

c. c.
~. F.

:.... :

Time in Sec

*
**

I
I

3:00
0:50

0;45

1:40
1: 50

1:45

-----r
LtIIlinance 0.00001 Ni~
1

I
I

!
I

__ --.l.-_ _ _ _ . _ _---'-

Distinguish
Light

--:-

t
1

-_

3:00,
I

2:25

Visual Acuity \
0.01
_ i

I
I

=1

3:10
2:.3J

-------~---

ThE: 60 is 0.3 raadir~; instrument failed on 0.5.

This ooes not include the 60 reading.

"'A liT

II E' ,'U @, e; 6 0 A , J\

.
'

TABLE 9.5 - Recovery Time, Shot 7, 25 Apr 1953

Subjects viewed the bomb flash through the filter system described in

the text.
A.

Recovery of ability to :read red floodlighted and internally red

lighted instruments in protected individuals:

----------,,------I Rec0ve~" Time in Sec

=======4=+===-

.-..c-.c

-------l

=:.-------cc-=--=

10
14

====-4

I
!

27

25

12
6

23

16.7

Average

B.

sec

Recovery time in seconds of mesopic vision measured on the

nyktometer:

r
I Subject ===ii=V=i_:-c-:::su:U Acuity O~+~V~"''''-l-A~~ t!_O~(20t'40)l
t::===
J. K.
55
- (No 0.5 reading possible)
G. P.
~
V
C.
58
225
[
I
II .. F.
17
170
I
I
I
Average
36
;
147
I
___
._____----1-______________________
.J

l
I

Recovery time in min of scotopic ,,1s10n meamn-ed on the adaptometer:

C.

r-----

~------

-------------------------T

---.- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

I
i -LU}!iIUIlce
0.001 Nit
Luminance G.OOOOl
- - - - - - - .. -,----------------+.--- -------------------,
-'--.

, I

'

Nit;
I
I
i
Distinguish I Visual Acuity 1
DistinguiciJ i ViS1.ul heui ty
.
i Subjoctl Light
:
0.01
fLight!
0.01
!

~.:.-.

==---=4=.:0==---

, J. K.
G. P.
C. c.
,

L.

w.

F.
____

--r=-~'--=o=-__"_'=_=__c-_cc.c::c-=_cc:c_==_==

1: 50
1:04

1:~

3:50
1:20
_____

~.

______

2: 00

3:50
1:31
-..L

1.

57

- =ccJ=-..=.

--

3: 50
4:50

4: 00

4:25

4:4Jj

2:1b

2:19

======1

......

..
TABLE 9.6 - Recovery Time, Shot 8, 19 May 1953
Subjects viewed the bomb flash t!lrough the filter system described in

the text.

-=

TAII.E 9.7 - Sumnary of h-eviouB Tabl"'B

A.

Averages :>f recovery time of ability to read red floodlighted

instruments in protected in1ividuals for each shot:

-------T--.--.-----~~------------~

I D1stan~e

Radiochemical Viaibill ty Recovery Time

t 1.n ~les I Yield(K'I'j +_~~ _Mi~~ i~_Seco~_~~__ ~

Shots

(17 Mar 53)

(4. Mar 53)
(18 APT 53)
(25 Apr 53'

7.5
li.O

16.2
24.5

14.0

23.0

B.O

43.4

Average

8. (19 May 53):

7.0
.....L ____
B.

~._

18.4

50

27.0

__~

* 16.4

_________---'

Average recovery time of mesopic vision measured on the nykton:eter:

r--------T"'
Shot

----------.......,.---- --

Visual Acuity 0.1

Visual Acuity 0.5 (20/40)

58 ~ec
36 sec
1.2 sec**
36 sec

24B sec
138 Bec

~2-~:--~C - :==--~

1
2-

5
7

Average
35.5 sec
- - - ----- - C.

19.9
21. 5
15.1
16.7

50
SO
50
50

-==+-=

***

AverB.e

---------~

80

~c

147

sec

-.=

153 sec

----

- ... _ - - - - - - - - - - -

Average recovery ta-e of scotopic viaior. measured or. the

adaptom~ter

r------~--

Shot

-_._-

------.----~--

Luminance 0.001 ~i t
ViBtiAl
Light
Acuity C.Ol
_

b_md~c~ C'..!OOQ2J~t~__ .
DistiI'--6~sh
ViSUAl

Disti~~Bb
t:,:::.:::-:~ -=.~-~--=-~

::::t_.~.:.__====_=_ _____=_=____==....:...=.._~--=:...

1
2

**
H.

-:-::----=--:~-:---::::--==--..:t='-=-=--===-~---

209.~

218.0

r'9.o

170.7
ill.7*

12 .l'J

....

-------.--- --------

___~~~~ __
~~~~1_<2.C'~
-_ --=t-=:"- - ___ .______

________________

272.5
"""'.'"'~

: ..........

~L}~.\,..

0-

-.

316.8

242. ,

170.0
219.~

132.8

O,,~

:he ti.":l6 r~uired. to rN\:-:: r;.)t}-flD2 ili. ;; '_i:.'-: bter:-.ally 11.Itlnir.a ted instr~r.t s VtlS ::;:p..",m:red.
I!.iicates aver&f-:e OOB8d Cr'. ~es~ th&r_ ~ sub:ec~s.
Thi~ f~glL~ i~ ill:(x,t:.bt.edly"CI:s::h'n<b::; belov the ~r.}e av<.'r:-~:e,
si:;.ce on eacb sht)t. OC:lt' i"_~,"i~\~.~ failec ..~c r~r: t[-,. ,-.s ",-[5:.
Subjects vie\o'Bd thl} Lc~b flHsh t[;!"'C~r: :he !ilt.e~ .:r~. .5:e::
deecribed in tr,e t....~:~

59

..'

TABLE 9.8 - Results of Clinical EXamination ruld Placement Informat.~::>n

0[l

on Rabbits for Shot 1 (17 March 1953)

fSt'Jlti~~rl N;~f Teamer; II ~~n-;-rNo. of Animals'

I(miles
AnimalslCoverage Exposures I-~ vitb
from I Placed I
I (No. of : Retinal Burns

Per cent
Animals with
Retinal Burns**

GZ)

5
5
5

5
6
7
8

5 .
5
10
10

, 9
10

10
15
5
15

I~-ll~'
12

Animals)

4
l-klvle
Still
Still
Still
lob vie

5
4

Jobvie

12
9
7

5
3

5
6
5
7
8
6

Movie
It>vie

100 - 100
60 - 75
50 - ?
60 - 100

I
'II

50
47
53
40

- "1
- 58
- 86

89~J
-

TABLE 9.9 - Results of Clinical Examir..ation and Placement Information

on Rabbits for Shot 2 (24 March 1953)

rs;:uonl

of

N~-. of! Camera Prov~ Ne~

Animal~ I, Per cent of ~I'
I(miles
AnimalS', Coveragei Exposures
with
I Animals with
,
I from
Placarl
I (No. of I Retinal Burns I Retinal Burns**
I
I
i Animals} !
I
!
I GZ) -.l_

I'

r -~-r

J
i 4
I

I 6

7
8
9
10

III

5
5

I'

5
10
10
10
15

I
r

I NoneT----14
I

None

i
I None I

:;

MJvie I
l-bvie I
None
Still
None
S!.!ll

4
8

lJ

l~__J~rJJ!~J _~_ _J

80 - ?
i 100 - 100

I
,

I 100 - 100

I 100 - 100

I
7
,'8
8

__

fiJ - 75
60 - ?
70 - 87

8CJ - ?

53 - 89

iL __l _~: ~___J

* "Proven F.!q>o51:Lre A includes anima.ls with lesions plus those whose

eye~ were QP~m at zero time as bhown by "Jhotograpbs of the rabbits
in situ~
** Per ..:ent of ~m1mals placed showifl retlnal burns is followed b'-J
per cent of proven expoced anima.ll::l showing rfJtinal burns.
60

5EeRET

RESTIU(;T!D DAtA

i.'ABLE tJ.IU - Results of Clinical Examination and Placement Information

on P.abbits for Shot 5 (18 April 1953)

~Station I No.
I(miles

Non&

Nove

Still

5
5
10
10
15
15

I ~

10
11
12
13
I

Iii!
7

of r Camera 1 Proven* 1 -NQ. of Animals r Per cent o~'

A!u....l. Coverage Exposuresl
~'ith
I Animals with

14

15

~~_J ~6

~~~h

60 - ?

3
3
8
8
12
5

8
8

12
13

II

fIj - 75

w -

[
'

~ : ;5

II

(J) - '":

None
I None
I Still
Still
Still
1
Still

?
60 - ?

80 - 100
80 - 100
80 - 100

33 - 3g

:~:~~Jn~~_Ln _J)~ :;

TABLE 9.11 - Results of Clinical Examination and Placemer.t Infomation

on Rabbits for Shot 7 (25 April 1953)

1

I
I

0;--1

Statio~~ c~~~~-r Prov;~*-T-No.~f-An~ls1 Per cent

(miles4A I ~~ls [Coverage Exposures
wi th
Animals vi th
from
__ GZ)

3
4

5
6
7
8
,9
I 10

I~ __ j
*
**

_1_

-- - - -- - -

10
10
10
10
10
15
15
I
20,

R;:t.ina1 Bw:-ns

Retinal Burns**

__ _

'I

Pla~ed I

(No. of

IAnima~~) _

--+---~

None
None
None
None
Still
Still
Still
Still

6
8
10
15

8
7
8
6
8
10

,14

30
80
70
80

J__ I
I

1
?
?
?

. .

fr - 100
53 - 100
67 - 100
70 - 93

_~g_J ~~~ J_12~ __ L_~~ ~L _jJl:_~

n_._ .. l

"Proven Exposure:" includes anim:llS with lesions plus those whose

eye~ were open at zero timo as shown by photographz of the rabbits
in situ.
Per cent of animals placeci showing retinal bur~la j s followed by per
cent of proven exposed animals shnwir~ ~etin~l tnUT1S.

61

...

I
TABLE 9.13 -

ReSU 1tA

of Cltnical Examination and Placement Information

on Rabbits for Shot 11 (4 June 1953)

of

tat10n No.
Camera l-Pr~ve~-T No. of Animals I Pe~ cent of
(miles
Animals Coverage Expo surest
with
An1..als with
from
Placed
(No. of Retinal Burns I Retinal Burns
Extended
kWnals)
I

~)

,I

10-.3

10

18.5
25

15
I 15

~~:~

. ...
,

i;

I
I

Still
None
Still

---~---l

~;.iii i

L 42 5 L~J_ Non~~_

I
10

II

8
7

_1~_2

=t=
I
I

80 - 100

53 - ?
46 - 70

I ~j:

;00

______1_~_ -_~

"Proven Exposures" includes anima1a with ~esions plus those ~h08e

eyes were open at ~ero time as ::tilovn by photogra;~s of th,' rabblts
in Situ.
Per cent of animals placed fihowing retinal burlts is followed by
per cent of proven exposed B.D.imPls shotling retinal burns

*.
. ..

!!tftET

AIii'JAIT!rJ

BA'"

TABLE 9,14- Com}X>site Results

!MilesjNO.

- -.-----.----

of INo. of
*Percen'tage
! An.L:lla1s 1 An1.m.U.e
IPlaced '. vitl! i . - - - - , - - - :
I Retinal,
i
I
Burns I I i
2

I
I
1

Clinical EDm1nation for Entire Series of Six Shots

.J:'

I----~---__r---

of Animals with Lesions :for

Various Shots

~rr-i-t~~T~~-t~ -~ :-~130--~l--'
4

5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13

e;

: 25
'25
25
,30
i
I

4fJ

50
W
55
45
)0

14
15

35
15

16
15
17 i 20
18.5 I 15
23
30
25
10
: 25a
20
25b
20.
25c
15
I

!
1

~~:;: i~

22
20
21
17
26
32

4D
)0
22
21
21

7
9
8
1
1
1
1
7

~ l_~g ---L~_
___

1-----T---~---r---I

100/100 I80
I
i100/1001100/1oo W
1'10
I fiJ/75
lDO/100 60
80
50
I ~/75 f:AJ/1OO
60/100, W
, 40
53/100
5C
70/ 87
f:XJ/75
67/100 70
141/58
80
60
'\70/93
i53/89 53/89 i 60
1 55/ 91
)40/86
50/8) i 80/100 I
I 65/87
I 80/100
I
\45/64 180/100
I

II

i
I

75

80/100

55
57
72

45

45
53
3
10

53
3
II

10/12
I

I5 I

,'i

- L __

5
40

46/70

i i i ' W100

1__.____L ___

I
I
t

~~

~J3~ __ L__._.~~

. .'

..

. :

100

100
87
83
100
87

84
89
90

93

3B

i
I

I
Ii
I

-~--.,.-

Numbers preceding" slAshes" represent per cent o burns before camera a.."lB.lysif.' of station.
Numbers following slashes indicate per cent :If burns after CtlIN!lra e.naly'sis.
,.

.. c=-:-l

82

62
33
47

47

'I

67

I33/38

I'

of consider only Su.

vltr Camera
Coverage

57'
53
I
63
I

i Average

~~ ~==1
<N
82

Average pe:r cent

of all Animals
with Retinal
Dums

-'='=-=::1===

180/100 IlOO/lOO

\60775

. - - . , - - - - - - -..... --

------~-.

12
70

100
_._--.-

..

9 ']

CONCLUSIONS

Pot(mtial dang~r to the retina far beyond previously esUmated

distancet: has been descrieed. In exceptIonally clear air the nominal
atomic bombs (20 KT) can be ~xpectad to produce at.omic chorioretinal
lecions in humans up +'0 36 miJ.es in the daytime J.nd up to 40 mil::.s at
night. The results obtained in the experimental exposure of 700 pigmented rabbi ta to the atomic flash along vi th four humans accidentally
exposed are given. The pathology of the lesions hn.s been briefly
described. The physics of the generation of the ~~thologic process i6
discussed

.
1

'

..

..,
.

.
... ..
"

"

I,

I,

1
J

DEFINIT :LONS
1.

Adaptometer - An instrument used to

tati~n of the human eye.

2.

Fovea - The R.'lB.tomical areEl. of the eye which id tl~.:: 5i te vf the

highest concentration of visual end organs capable of giving the
individual most acute vision.

3.

Scotofic Vision - Vision which an individual eJIlploys (using rods

alone) wilen luminBLce is lov.er than a moonlit night sky. The central portion of the retina cannot funct.i.on at this luminance, so
there .i n C1 scotoma in the visual field.

4.

Mesopic Vision - Vision using both rods and cones.

5.

Infrared Filter - A lens which pennits the passage of almost all

visible light, but absorbs infrared radiations.

me~sure

the state of dark adap-

6. Nyktometer - An instrument designed to determine the rate of recovery of mesopic visual acuity following glare.

7.

Paracelltral Visicn - Vision ol.4tside, but close to the central area

of very acute vision.

8.

r~d Filte~ - A filter transmitting mainly radiation of wavelengths

longer than 600 millimicrons.

9.

Re~ Il~~~rn9.~~

Lighting - lllumiIl!ltioI1 of instrument dials by lights

inside the ir.struments ratner than by e.xLernal flood li~hting.

10.

Luminance - Formerly called brightness, the characteristic property

of an area that makes it appear briGhter or darker to the eye. It
is measured in luminous intensity per U'1i t.

li.

Nit - A unit of luminl:ince equivalent to 1 candle per square meter,

~r=-O.00)14 lambert (J x 1U-4 ) or, 0.292 foot-lambert or 0.0929
candle per squtire foot.

. .

BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Wschr. p. 1883, 1912.

2.

Ask, F'. Om scotoma helieclipticum.

l-iuench. med.

Allm. svenska lakartld."1.

Aubaret t Sur les scotomes par eclipse solaire.

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Arch. Ophthalm.

4.

Barret, L8mage to Vision Caused by Watching an Eclipse of the Sun.

Ophthalm. Rev. 14:80, 1895.

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".

llft++ ........

...... -

-~ ,

--. - .

T_.l,.----

~.LJ

..... J

-~ - v..
a.u "'--UJ C

'---

oJ.]

1"1 _ _ .. 4

........

we.."

(1~'-""'ht

.-'Wl.L.1.g

t. Beauvois, Notes historiques sur les accidents occula~'es consecutifs

a l' obst:;.rvation des ~clipse. F. . .ance ~:ed. p~ 42, 1906.
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29:79S~000, 1946.

Am. J. Ophthal.
:

'.'

StJu.~~~ v~: t.~ .. t!

0.

Berliner, M. L. Cyt,ologic
6:740, 1931.

9.

Birch-llirschfeld, A. Wirkl~ der ultraviolet ten Strahlen auf das

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..

.Letina.

Arch. Opthal.

10.

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11.

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12.

Birch-Hirschfeld, A. Die Wirkung der strahlenden tllergie auf das

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13.

13irch-Hir~Jchfeld, A.
AUt~edkil.k.
28 :324,

Zum K.a.pite1 der So~nerb1endung des Aug'3s.

4/., 509, 1912.

66

ry

l.-..

"1

rr.' -1:1

r~)c',!,('

I d,

It.

l)(:b(~r-

5<)[1: p~lLl! ,J,;~,,' (J"~ rl'."":;.

"\ r

Jr : .:41-;)~, 1') 12.

15.

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16.

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17.

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18.

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24, 1912.

19.

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20.

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'I'll
Auf:enl1el
" } 'K.
'1: 4'7'." lCJ1"
run 17, ,'q::rl
, '} 191~
~...:.:\
)
:7,).
fi ns t ern1S

21.

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22.

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23.

Beobachtu:~g

Brixa, ,T. =1ne Ver~enderI1'1~ des Aw;es durch Bli t;;, schla{:. KHn. MbL
1k I:..c.,
')(). '7c,n
'0
./'7, 1 c.'
---,......;.

A\l"1p~\"el'
b,,-,ru,

r:.

t~J. t

24.

Bru'1n, W. V.R. fall< G"d

reflexe OslIn l".ensc;len.

25.

Bue t tner,

20.

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~~()nrad

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19~~,.

~tcmic

B)!'lo.

Casali, A. A;,,:blivr;ia consecilti va a fis~,.qzi():1P del 0011'. A.rr:~,. i~ ~ talI:l.

Jt;: IF'1, F()".
)

....'

"'-.'

CapaLJi, ~~. r~d id te

1l:5.3t, 194,j.

S,) lure.

JJ.

l!

R!!!'RIT'8 " ..,tt

:1.

Cullins, I'. -

Augenhellk.

32.

2():~,

Cordes, Y. C.

Jormenb1endur,~.

CbI. prakt.

1896.

A type of

foveo18.~ula.r

retintt18 observed in the

Amer. :ournal.. Ophthal. 27:303, 1944.

U. S. Navy.
33,

wuerzentralskotom Mer.

Cordes, F. C.

Eclipse :-atln1tie.

Amer. Journ. Ophthal. 31:101:103,

1948.
3,(,.

35.

Corrus, R.

So nne nblendun g Z. Augenheilk. 27: 511, 1912.

Corda, R.

Augenschat:ldigungen durch Sonnenlicht. Dtsch. med Wschr.

p. 1910, 1912 and Schruiedt's Zb. ges, Med. 317:409, 1913.

A Ca~~ of Solar Blindness.

36.

Crawford, A. B. and p'. H. Ligon,

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.37.

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Amer. Ophthal. Soc. 27:401, 1929.

38.

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Graefes Archiv 28:241, 1882.

39.

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40.

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Sor~enfinsternis

fufour, M.
rorr.

Trana.

Bleibendes zentrales Skotom nach Betracbtung einer

mit einseitiger voruebergebender
Arch. Al.lf;e.uheilk. )1:286, 1895.

Heroia1'.opsie.
~~.

~bbit.

Amer.

Referat ueber einige B1e:lciu.'1gsfae11e.

u~d

eieh

drer.Ande~

Rev. mad. Sl'..ioae

1882:330.

42.

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43.

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A bist~lo6ica1 stu~ on the
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!..4.

Drummond,
reslllv !)f

':'b"

~cl~~, J. C, ~;r:d .l. H. Flynn.

Journ, AU3tralia 1:339, 1944.,

47.

Effects of Atomic .iJllPJn~, :i~.

48.

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Case of d,Ouble cptic a.trophy \lith cereb!"a.l symptoos, the

G~lnG a.t tbe 311'1.
H?d. fre.S8 8.. Cire. 36:6'7, 1383.

;'>t:PArimnu~l. fb~ret ',rd. t:! 8. ~8d.

Combat FOl"co/3 Press,ia,8.hington, D.C.

LondoD :":xford Ked':cal

Publication8. 1920.
I

, I

....'.j-

5(.,.

F~J.i

lct:enfp1d. 'i. A~~'r:3('ht.c'\l':".1~;.,-er. 'J~.J"C!. ',~

fir.:jterrL:s.

DtRCh. med.

'..i:::::~.r.

~.

}~J,

t't:'!. '",:,

:..:n' ..,\1;.nel:-

1.

51.

F\~rentinLS, Sp. lT~ber Schstoeru!1!:,en ijJ'ollP der P:()f.:bad: :1::.r';

Sonnenfinsterni"'. Gphthalr.u. rUn. 1(;: ... , l'10b.

52.

Fisher, 1". p. ar.d H. ll. Foorees.

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53.

Ga1enua,

54.

~rathE:\IOhl.
S. J. and ::. Strw,ho1d. t-btoric responses of the
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55.

Ghsser, O. ),.!eciicaJ. Ftysics - Vol 1 year book publishers t

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t,

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"C6.mp eyes'l and "'olar qctinopatby

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591-596, tony, 1947.

56.

Gonz~lves,

Paiva.

~tomic Explos1o~s.

The :'.L"~cts of 'Iuclea't'" Radiation ':pon ;'ye3 in

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'58.

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57,

Ea"l-mE.,n,
:"'J~~

~~.

B. a..'1d F. ~;ac:::Or.9.'::L :.:BtAC'rzer,t of t,he ~'eti'~a Probnbl,;r

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61.

~irscr.,

C. Scbs !..('erur~:~en :1!l.C~ ?-eo bal.-:;' '_ ':'::; .:e;-.::'..::-r

(3c_-..tora helie01,iptic~) .....:.e:-~" ~l~:;. 'lita('r:;~ ~ ~

t:.2.

~irscr:,

::.

....................~.-,
I

c4.
t;5"

\'

".:l sa.-:u

:~:"!le,

~;

"'"

:.:: .; l~e"\~:~'. '-~.. s:l-:- rt:~::~:~3 ~i5 1\1 :'__':a:,t

~'r:'ll.iD :.\..~ ;:-..ac~:.llir le3:u!:~ 3t?e:: .i~: :,~r~ .~,,::~:: -:-- :~e s......... ::-.ei :. . ~. :,,:~~s.
~~.>Jr. ,"'~)~:1. :=. t-'h tr:a:. :"~': 11~;:: -11:: ~,
'.~..

~,.,

......t"400-

>ll~or,

~~.

c9

. !ttil[l

lsakowi. tz, J. Augenerkrankungen durch Sonnenblendung.

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67.

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68.
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72..

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1920.

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71..

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66.

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Effects of Radiant Energy.

Indust. Med. 15:311-315,

"

1946.
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7h.

Lauber, H. Das Gesiehtsfeld.

J. F. Bergmann-Muenehen and Springer-

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Th~se de Bordeaux,

77.

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78.

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'/9.

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HO.

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d2.

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GlasgoW' Had. Journal 17:73, 1941.

Eclipse Blindness.

Brit. Med. Journal, No. 3150,

70

SEER!'

Ophthalm.

1ti23iiiC'EO DAIA

b3.

r.. Y. and H. :{oenrle, D5.~ i~(:su]:.a'.,e einer C8L'eir:schaftlichen ForscfJ\l!iG ueber Scotoma helieclip:..icum '.Jb.ehl"er.d der
.rIns t er ni s vo!'} 1'7 t r.prl
~
'1 ....
'Q12 ,Jp.l
i' ~.'
1_'~
~\...
S onnen~
c.naJJ
... Jt~s ..Y ope.ulagen,
R.ef. i:lin. M'J1. t\u;enheili:. 42:27, 1913.

84.

Ludvieh. E., a.l1d E. F. ~cCarthy. Absorption of viBihJe liGht. by

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85.

L1.l:"'dsgaard, t:.

McCu1J~ch,

Journ.

30~r

C. Changes at the macula mle to

Ophthal. 28:1115-1132, 1945.

radiation.

A~er.

86.

1vlacko.y, A. en t31inding of the Retina by 1irect ;U:11iGht.

. prcgnosls.
.
0 phtha 1m Rev. (A_
\ ~..,
- y 1.:, 1 U.J,
(rJ
JO()!
In
I\lli. /
.I.): 1
u. "+ >

87.

l-1agaw'ly, Drei Faelle von Zentralsko t,o~ bei Beoba::h tunE der 0onnenfinster-nis, August. Cbl. prcikt. AugerJ1eilk. 13:32, 1839.

68.

l~je",ski, r~.

Scotexna

89.

Mijewski, 1:.
Bli tz schlag.

Ein ....ei terer Beitrag zu leT!

M--~nch. reed. Wse!1:-. /u:51!f

~.

heliop1egicum~

A. study

Oku1ist. Janner, 1909.

Post.

;genverletzungen dUl-..:.,h

l. .

~9f1a

P.eisling, A. Om ferveblL)(lllJd 'led Jlaendj flg.' ft 2.l;::. S",,] sL l\obE r:

havns Forhandl, 1928/29 -;..i..
I

91.

Menacho, M. Trouble~ cc ...1< i.res pro~u: to: par 1 r observa tion de

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ItESillCiED DAiA

J. G.

30:82-84,