Topic 1: EPITHELIUM

*Protoplasm- general term used to describe the living substance of plants and animals
*Cell- the smallest unit of protoplasm capable of independent existence
*Tissue- group of cells having the same function
*Organ- a larger functional unit made up of combination of two or more tissues
*Organ system- a functional unit made up of several organs whose functions are interrelated
PROTOPLASM- CELL- TISSUE- ORGAN- ORGAN SYSTEM
Example:
1. Tissue- muscle, bone, epithelium
2. Organ- heart, liver, brain
3. Organ system- digestive system, urinary system, vascular system
EPITHELIUM- closely aggregated cells that are in apposition over a large part of their surface
and which have very little intercellular substance
ORIGIN:
1. Endoderm
2. Mesoderm
3. Mesenchyme
FUNCTIONS: SEPTAS
1. Secretion
2. Excretion
3. Protection
4. Transport
5. Absorption
6. Sensory functions or Reception
CLASSIFICATION:
Basis
a. Number of cell layers (single layer- simple type ; many layer- stratified)
b. Shape of cells- squamous, cuboidal, columnar, pseudostratified, transitional
Type:
1. Simple squamous
2. Simple columnar
3. Simple cuboidal
4. Stratified squamous
5. Stratified columnar
6. Pseudostratified columnar
7. Transitional
SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM
-thin plate-like cells with polygonal or irregular
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Ear- inner surface of the membranous labyrinth wall -inner surface of tympanic membrane
kidney- parietal layer of the Bowmans capsule, thin segment of the loop of henle
rete testis
smallest excretory ducts of many glands
mesothelium- body cavity
endothelium- lining the innermost of the blood vessel and the heart

SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM

-hexagonal polygons with a square or rectangular profile (TPR-COLD)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

thyroid follicle
pigmented epithelium of the retina
renal tubules
choroid plexus
ovary free surface
lens capsule- inner surface of the lens of the eye
ducts of glands

SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM

-has a rectangular outline but cells are much taller than those of the cuboidal epithelium. Cells
look like columns, nuclei are on the same level may have free surface specialization in the form
of cilia, streocilia, or striae brush border
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

excretory ducts of many glands

uterine glands
oviducts
digestive tract- from the cardia of the stomach to the anus
small bronchi of the lungs
paranasal sinuses
central canal of the spinal cord

STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM (CCEEPP-MVT)

-epithelium is thick, cells vary in shape from base to free surface
- lowermost layer consists of cuboidal or columnar cells
- uppermost layer consists of flat or squamous cells
- on the exposed surface of the body the uppermost layer is composed of KERATIN. (fibrous
protein, lifeless, scale-like structure)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

cornea
conjunctiva
esophagus
epidermis- keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
part of epiglottis
part of female urethra
mouth- non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
vagina
tongue

STRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM SPELL-FCN

-

deeper layers consist of irregular polyhedral cells

superficial cells are cuboidal or columnar
may also contain free surface specialization

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

small area of the anal mucous membrane

pharynx
epiglottis
large excretory ducts of some glands
larynx
fornix of conjunctiva
nasal surface of the soft palate

PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM- PREELLM

one layer of cells and all these cells are in contact with the basement membrane but not
all reach the free surface
nuclei are aligned at two or more levels
may have free surface specialization
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

part of the tympanic cavity

respiratory passages- almost standard
Eustachian tube
Epididymis
Lacrimal sac
Large excretory duct of the parotid gland

TRANSITIONL EPITHELIUM
-

Deeper layers are made up of cuboidal or columnar cells

Superficial layers consists of large cells with a round face surface
Lines the hollow organs which are subjected to great changes brought about by
contraction and distention
Found in excretory passage of the urinary system from the renal calyces to the urethra

SPECIALIZATION OF THE EPITHELIUM (exclusive property of the epithelium)

1.
2.
Blood
-

Specialized for cell attachment and communication- intercellular bridges

To assure firm attachment between cells
Has an important role in regulation of growth and differentiation of cells
Important role in coordination of function among group of cells
Basement membrane or Basement Lamina- found outside epithelial cells
Extracellular supporting layer
Composed of collage or polysaccharide substance
Free surface
Striated or brush border- absorption
Stereocilia- absorption
Cilia- to propel fluid or mucous films
Flagella- for sensory function
vessel and nerve fiber
As a rule, the epithelium is not penetrated by blood vessels
Nutritive materials pass from the underlying connective tissue by DIFFUSION
Terminal branches of sensory nerve fiber pierce the basement membrane and run in the
intestines among the epithelial cells.
(+) regeneration of epithelial cells

Topic 2: CONNECTIVE TISSUE

1. Connective tissue proper
2. Cartilage and bone
3. Blood

Connective Tissue Proper Composition

1. Cells- fixed or wandering
2. Extracellular components- fibers and amorphous ground substance (contains tissue fluid)
CELLS
1. Fixed (FMAM)
a. Fibroblasts- principal cell of the connective tissue (important)
- Responsible for the production and long term maintenance of the extracellular
components
- Fusiform or flat or stellate with several slender processes
b. Mesenchymal cells
- Cells which retain the developmental potentialities in an adult organism
- Smaller than fibroblasts and less highly differentiated
c. Adipose or fat cells
- Cells specialized for the synthesis and storage of lipid
- Cells have thinned out cytoplasm, nucleus is flattened and displaced to outside
d. Macrophages or Histiocytes- stellate or fusiform cells with nuclei that are smaller and
darkly staining than those of fibroblasts
- Difficult to differentiate from fibroblasts
- For phagocytosis
2. Wandering cells (White blood cells, few days) LMMNEP
- Migratory cells that came from the blood
a. Monocytes
b. Lymphocytes
c. Eosinophils
d. Neutrophils
e. Plasma cells
f. Mast cells
EXTRACELLULAR COMPONENTS
1. Fibers- responsible for the tensile strength and resilience
-

a. Collagenous fibers
Present in all types of connective tissues
Fiber run in all directions
Main component is collagen
Flexible but offer great resistance to a pulling force
If collagen is denatured by boiling or chemical treatment, it yields the substance GELATIN

b. Elastic fibers
Fibers branch and anastomose to form networks
Stretch easily and when released they return to their original length just like a rubber band
Main component is ELASTIN which is resistant to boiling and dilute acid or alkali
Abundant in the walls of blood vessels, ligamentum flavum of the vertebral column

c. Reticular Fiber
Very small fibers forming delicate networks rather than coarse bundles
Main component is RETICULIN
Abundant in lymphoid and blood forming organs such as LIVER and areas surrounding
adipose cells, endothelium, sarcolemma, endoneurium of nerves.

2. AMORPHOUS GROUND SUBSTANCE

Viscid solution or gel-like solution containing MUCOPOLYSACCHARIDES like hyaluronic acid

and chondroitin sulfate
Functions:
a.
b.
c.
d.

Formed elements are embedded in the ground substance

Prevent the rapid spread of bacteria in the connective tissue
Act as a lubricant
Contains tissue fluid which is the essential medium through which all nutrients and wastes
must pass between the blood and cells

TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER

1. Loose connective tissue
2. Dense connective tissue
a. Irregular
b. Regular
3. Connective tissue with special properties
LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
-

Develops from the MESENCHYME that remains after the other tissues of the embryo have
been formed
Contains several potential spaces (like a collapsed sponge)
Also called areolar tissue (small space area)

DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

- Has greater number of fibers over the cellular and amorphous components
a. Dense irregular connective tissue- fiber bundles are RANDOMLY ORIENTED, found
in: DONUT
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Dermis of the skin

Organ capsules
Nerve sheath
Urinary tract epithelium
Tendon

b. Dense regular connective tissue- fibers are oriented PARALLEL to one another or
has a consistent pattern, found in: CLFT
1.
2.
3.
4.

Cornea
Fascia
Ligaments
Tendons

CONNECTIVE TISSUE WITH SPECIAL PROPERTIES

1. Mucous (embryonic) connective tissue
-

A form of loose connective tissue found in many parts of the embryo especially under the
skin
Classic example is WHARTONS JELLY OF THE UMBILICAL CORD
Intercellular substance is very abundant and jelly like

2. Elastic Connective tissue

- dense connective tissue with predominance of elastic fibers
Found in:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Ligamentum flavum
Vocal cords
Large elastic arteries
Aorta

3. RETICULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE

-

Predominance of reticular fibers

Found in: liver sinusoids-lymphatic tissues

4. ADIPOSE TISSUE
- made up of adipose cells
Functions of Connective Tissue Proper
S.P.E.R.M.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Storage of energy reserves (adipose)

Protection against infection
Exchange of metabolites between the blood and tissues
Repair after injury (fibroblast and mesenchymal cells)
Mechanical support of tissues

Topic 3: CARTILAGE
-specialized form of connective tissue consisting of cells called Chondrocytes and Extracellular
Fibers in a (Gel-like Matrix)
Characteristics:
Intercellular components predominate over the cells
Absence of nerves and blood vessels (Cartilage- no blood, no pain)
it is the Colloidal property of the matrix which is responsible for nutrition of the cells
Firm yet resilient

 Enclosed in a dense connective tissue covering called perichondrium

Histogenesis
in the site of cartilage formation Mesenchymal Tissue/Cells withdraw their process
then they crowd together,(Bundle of Mesenchymal Cells) in what is called Protochondral
Tissue or Center of Chondrification
then the Nuclei are close together and the cells enlarge and differentiate and Secrete the
Matrix Components Collagen and Chondromucoproteins
then the Amount of Interstitial material increases
and the Cells become isolated inside the compartments called Lacuna and the cells are called
Chondrocytes
Types:
-based on the amount of the amorphous matrix and the abundance of fibers in it.
1. Hyaline Cartilage *protoype
- Most common, semi-transparent, bluish gray, the most CHARACTERISTIC TYPE
- Two types are modifications (other types)
- Found in: ventral ends of ribs, tracheal rings, bronchial plates, larynx, joint surfaces of bones
*VTBLJ
2. Elastic Cartilage
- Yellowish, more opaque, more flexible,more elastic than hyaline cartilage
- Cells are round, surrounded by capsules and scattered singly or in groups (group of 2 or 4 cells)
*same grouping Hyaline
- differs in its interstitial substances, has branching fibers containing ELASTIN obscuring the
matrix.
- Found in: external ear, external auditory walls, Eustachian tube, epiglottis, parts of the
corniculate and cuneiform cartilages *EEEEP
Histogenesis:
- a primitive connective tissue develops with fibroblasts and fibers which are later transformed
into ELASTIC FIBERS
-the cells secrete the matrix around themselves
-then these cells secrete the matrix around themselves
-then these cells are later recognized as chondrocytes
- it has a perichondrium initiating appositional growth
3. Fibrocartilage or Fibrous cartilage
- Closely associated with the connective tissue of capsules and ligaments of joints
- Transitional form between dense connective tissue and cartilage
- Cartilage cells lie singly or in pairs; aligned in rows between bundles of collagenous fibers
Found in: Intervertebral Discs, Articular Cartilages, Symphysis Pubis, Ligamentum Teres Femoris,
attachments of certain tendons to bones *ISLA-A
Histogenesis:
-develops in the same way as the ordinary connective tissue
- first there are fibroblasts surrounded by fibers
- then cells become rounded and transformed into cartilage
Regeneration of Cartilage

May regenerate to some extent

There is connective tissue formation in the injured area
Presence of fibroblasts which are later transformed into CARTILAGE CELLS

Regressive Change In the Cartilage

CALCIFICATION- cartilage cells undergo a sequence of cytological changes plus changes in the
matrix
Calcified cartilage= cartilage bone
CARTILAGE GROWTH
1. Interstitial Growth
Mitotic division of chondrocytes, secretion of new matrix between daughter cells leads
to an expansion of the cartilage from within.
2. Appositional Growth
Growth starts from Perichondrium (Chondrogenic Layer)
Differentiate into Chondrocytes secreting the Matrix around themselves
New cells are added to the surface of the cartilage
Outside growth
Functions of Cartilage:
1. To sustain great weight
2. Allow bones to move easily and smoothly against one another
3. Serve as pliable yet resistant framework that prevents the collapse of the tubular
organs
4. Important in determining the size and shape of bones
5. Good indicator of certain metabolic and nutritional disturbances

Topic 4: Nervous Tissue

Nervous System comprises the entire mass of the nervous tissue in the body
Function:
For Communication depends on the signaling properties of the nerve cells and their
long processes

These properties in turn expresses 2 fundamental Attributes of Protoplasm:

1. Irritability capacity to react to various physical and chemical agents
2. Conductivity ability to transmit the resulting excitation from one locality to another
Composition of Nervous Tissue:
Origin: Embryonic Ectoderm
1. Nerve cell or neuron
a. Dendrites b. Soma c. Axon
2. Nerve fiber
3. Neuroglia
*except for Microglia
NEURON
-Cell body has 2 cell processes:
Dendrites-many or several
Axon-1
*sheath covering related to axon
A. Nucleus:
Large, pale ovoid, and centrally placed within the perikaryon (cytoplasm for nerve cells)
with a single nucleolus and fine chromatin particles
* Human Female Sex chromatin is prominently located either near the nucleolus or at the
periphery of the nucleus
B.Perikaryon
neurofibrils- protein threads
Chromophilic Substances:
Nissl bodies basophilic masses whose main component is ribonucleoprotein
o represent sites of protein synthesis
absent at the axon hillock and axis cylinder
Inclusions pigments like melanin and lipofuschin, lipid, glycogen
o
o

C. Processes:
1. Dendrites
may be direct extensions of perikaryon or remote arborization
several are present in one neuron
- contains Nissl Bodies, mitochondria, microtubules, neurofilaments

Functions:
a. Since they synapse with axon terminals, they receive impulses from other
functionally related neurons
b. Plays a crucial role in the ability of the neuron to integrate information
received from its many inputs

2. Axon (Axis Cylinder)

arise from small conical elevation on the perikaryon called axon hillock, devoid
of Nissl Bodies, contains other cellular organelles
has a sheath or covering called Myelin which is not part of the Neurons
may have axon collaterals or small branches coming from axon
Function: carry the response of the neuron in form of action potential
Nerve Fiber Composition
1. Axon
2. Sheaths
a. Sheath of Schwann (neurolemmal sheath)
envelops the axon from its beginning to near its peripheral termination
made up of flattened cells which form a thin sleeve around the myelin
has Golgi Apparatus and Mitochondria
b.Myelin Sheath
absent in smaller axon
made up of alternating layers of mixed lipids and proteins called neurokeratin
are actually successive layers of plasma membrane of the Schwann Cells
Interrupted at each node called Node of Ranvier
Nerve Fiber axon enveloped by the myelin Sheath which is surrounded by Sheath of
Schwann
outermost covering is called endoneurium which is not a nervous tissue but a
CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER
Neuroglia
nerve glue
non- neural supportive cells consisting of
1. Ependymal lines the ventricles of the brain and spinal cord and epithelial in character
2. Neuroglial cells and their processes found with in the neurons in the CNS and retina
-schwann cells may be considered as peripheral neuroglia
Neuroglial Cells:
Origin: Ectoderm
a. Astrocytes b. Oligodendrocytes c. Macroglia
d.Microglia mesodermal origin
Functions of Neuroglia:
1. mechanical support
2. mediator for the normal metabolism of neurons (supports)
3. prevents contact between processes of nerve cells at sites other than the synapse (sites
of transmission of impulses)
4. actively involved during pathological states; undergo active migration and phagocytosis
a.

actively involved in degeneration and regeneration of nerve fibers

b.
c.

active in vascular and infectious disease

chief source of tumors in the CNS
Response of the Neuron to injury: injury to the axon
1. Degeneration of axon at the proximal and distal portions; Wallerian degeneration
(primary and secondary)
2. At the proximal portion, new axonal sprouts appear as a sign of regeneration
3. Distal portion, axon and myelin degeneration
Surgical approximation of cut ends may be necessary to reverse the distal
degeneration at the cell body, there is a retrograde chromatolysis with apparent
disappearance of Nissl Bodies, swelling of the perikaryon and shifting of the nucleus to
a peripheral location
If the cell survives the injury, changes will revert back to normal
If not, the cell dies
Rate of Nerve Growth 3 4 mm per day or 2 cm per day

Topic 5: BONE, JOINTS, AND SYNOVIAL MEMBRANE

-consists of: cells, fibers, ground substance (extracellular components are CALCIFIED)
Functions:
1. Provides for the internal support of the body
2. Provide for the attachment of muscles and tendons for locomotion--- move body
parts
3. Protects the vital organs of the cranial and thoracic cavities
4. Enclose the blood forming elements of the bone marrow

5. Plays an important metabolic role as a mobilizable store of calcium (low calcium

level in the blood, Parathyroid hormone)
Bone Properties:
1. High tensile and compression strength
2. Some form of elasticity
3. relatively light weight material
BONE MATRIX- interstitial substance
1. Organic matrix- consists of collagenous fibers embedded in an amorphous ground
substance; 95% collagen and the rest are glycoproteins- chondroitin sulfate, keratin
sulfate, hyaluronic acid. * the great toughness and resilience of bone depend on the
organic matrix
2. Inorganic salts (bone minerals) calcium phosphate, citrate ion, carbonate ion,
magnesium, sodium the hardness of bone depends on its organic constituents
TYPES OF BONE BASED ON ITS HISTOLOGIC DESIGN
1. Compact Bone characterized by the presence of Haversian System or Osteon.
Which is made up of the ff structures: *sun and planets (lacunae)
Haversian Canal contains blood vessels
Lacuna contains osteocytes
Lamella contains bone matrix
Canaliculi contains the cellular processes of the osteocyte providing avenues for
the exchange of metabolites between the cells and the perivascular space
Cement Line surrounds the haversian canal, marks the limits of the osteon
2. Spongy (Cancellous) Bone
No haversian system
Has a mosaic of angular pieces of lamellar bone or branching bony spicules or
trabeculae with intercommunicating spaces occupied by the bone marrow
Not penetrated by blood vessels
Bone cells are nourished via diffusion (food comes from the endosteal surface and
passes through canaliculi)
Bone Parts (Macroscopic):
1. Epiphysis
2. Epiphyseal Plate
3. Metaphysis
4. Diaphysis (Shaft)
5. Medullary or Marrow Cavity
Epiphyseal Plate - made up of cartilage
Epiphysis/Metaphysis made up of spongy bone whose spaces are continuous with the bone
marrow but the outer layer is composed of a thin layer of compact bone.
Diaphysis made up of compact bone
Medullary Cavity occupied by the bone marrow
Growth Centers of the Bone:
1. Epiphyseal Plate
2. Epiphysis
3. Metaphysis
Periosteum and Endosteum periosteum lines the outer surface of the bone it is a layer of
specialized connective tissue showing an osteogenic potency or the ability to form new bone.

 Ends of long bones covered with articular cartilage

Sites where tendons and ligaments are inserted
Bones formed within tendons or sesamoid bones (patella, thumb)
Subscapular areas of the neck of the femur and astra galus (foot bone)
Endosteum lines the marrow cavities and cavities of spongy bone and also lined by squamous
cells and has osteogenic property.
Bone Cells:
Osteoprogenitor Cell spindle shaped, undifferentiated cell with the capacity for mitosis
and for further structural and functional specialization. Active during normal growth of bone (may
take temporary rest)
Maybe activated during internal reorganization of bone or in the healing of fractures and
repair of injury. Becomes an osteoblast or an osteoclast. May also develop into an adipose
cell, fibroblast, and hematopoietic cell of the bone marrow. Found on or near the free
surfaces of bone
Endosteum, periosteum, lining the Haversian canals, epiphyseal plates.
Osteoblast- precursor of osteocyte, bone forming cell.
Cuboidal or low columnar with pink granules
Responsible for the formation of bone matrix
Actively engaged in protein synthesis
Found on the advancing surfaces of developing or growing bones
Osteocyte flattened body (squamous), principal cells of fully formed bone wherein the
interstitial substance is calcified, found inside the lacuna, metabolically inert (sleeps inside the
lacunae)
Play an active role in the release of calcium from bone to blood= the
process is called OSTEOLYSIS which is under the control of the parathyroid
hormone.
May modulate to other cell types during bone resorption.
Osteoclast active agents in bone resorption, bone destroying cell, 50 nuclei, giant cell,
secrete hydrolytic enzyme responsible for digestion of matrix components, principal source is the
fusion of osteoprogenitor cells.
Frequently found in shallow concavities of bone surface *howships lacunae
General Characteristics:
1. one type may transform into another type
2. believed to be the same cell in different functional state
*Cell Modulation presence of reversible changes in cell appearance
*Bone develops from the Embryonal Mesenchyme
Types of Bone based on its mode of development ( Osteogenesis )
1. Membrane Bone flat bones of the skull and part of the mandible, these bones
undergo (Intramembranous Ossification) (mesenchymal tissuebone) frequently
found in shallow concavities of bone surface *Howships Lacunae
2. Cartilage Bone bones of extremities, pelvis, vertebral column these bones
undergo (Endochondral Ossification) (mesenchymal tissue--- cartilage bone)

Intramembranous Ossification
1. In the primitive tissue mesenchyme, there appears a richly vascularized layer of
connective tissue when cells are in close contact with one another and the intercellular
spaces are beginning to be filled with collagen fibrils and a gel-like ground substance.
2. Then a gradual change in the appearance of the cells takes place.
3. Deposition of calcium phosphate occurs and the cells gradually become imprisoned
in the matrix to become bone cells.
4. The fully formed bone appears compact bone
In the spongy bone the thickening of the trabeculae stops and the intervening vascular
connective tissue is transformed into Hematopoietic Tissue.
Endochondral Ossification
1. Enlargement of the chondrocytes at the middle of the shaft of the hyaline cartilage
model.
2. Enlargement of the lacunae at the expense of the intervening cartilage matrix.
3. Nests of calcium phosphate crystals begin to be deposited.
4. Regressive changes, death, degeneration of chondrocytes take place.
5. Osteogenesis potencies of cells in the perichondrium are activated and a thin layer
of bone (periosteal band or collar) is deposited in the midshaft.
6. Blood vessels will grow in the diaphysis invading the cavities and will branch out at
the either end of the cartilage model.
7. Cells differentiate into the Hematopoietic elements of the bone marrow and
osteoblasts will congregate on the spicules of the calcified cartilage matrix and begin
to deposit.
Mechanism of Calcification
Crystalline collagen fibers of the matrix act as nucleation catalyst for transformation
of calcium and phosphate in solution on the tissue fluids into the solid phase mineral
deposits.
Crystal Formation: Collagen + Chondroitin Sulfate + other protein polysaccharide
complex
Repair of Bone
Fracture granulation tissue fibrocartilagenous Callus Bony Callus
New bone formation (some distance from the fracture line) by activation of
Osteoprogenitor Cells
Same mechanism as in Endochondral Ossification
Bony union is complete when the new bone from the two fragments meet. (6 months
period)
*osteoprogenitor cells- spindle-shaped primitive cell
Growth in the length of Long Bones
As Endochondral Ossification progresses from the center of the shaft toward either end of the
cartilage model, the chondrocytes at the epiphyseal area undergo the same changes but in a
more orderly manner cells form themselves into Zones.
Zone of Proliferation occurs at some distance from the diaphyseoepiphyseal junction
where small flattened cells undergo division.
Zone of Maturation cells that are no longer dividing gradually enlarge.

Zone of Hypertrophy or ZONE OF PROVISIONAL CALCIFICATION cells appear as

large vacuolated cells and the matrix becomes the site of calcium deposition.
Zone of Cell Degeneration chondrocytes degenerates, the open ends of their enlarged
lacunae are being invaded by capillary loops and primitive osteogenic cells from the
marrow spaces of the diaphysis, the matrix becomes calcified and osteoblasts proliferate.

Growth in the diameter of Long Bones

This growth is the result of the deposition of new membrane bone beneath the periosteum
product of subperiosteal intramembranous ossification.
Deposition of new bone on the outside of the shaft is accompanied by the appearance of
osteoclasts in the subperiosteal trabeculae to enlarge the marrow cavity.
Surface Remodeling of Bones Shape of bone is maintained during growth by continual
remodeling of the surface (involves bone deposition in some areas of periosteum and absorption
in other areas)
Internal Reorganization of Bone
Internal bone destruction and reconstruction continue actively throughout life so at any one
time may see in a bone cross section:
1. Mature osteons (all rebuilding activity has come to an end)
2. Forming of new osteons
3. Absorption cavities are hollowed out for the new osteons
JOINTS AND SYNOVIAL MEMBRANES
Bones are joined to one another by connective tissue structures that permit varying
degrees of movement between the adjoining bones.
These present extreme variations in character which depend primarily upon the type of
bones which are joined and varying degree of motion permitted by the articulation:
1. Immovable joints (skull) bones are separated with a thin connective tissue layer;
the sutural ligaments (sutures in skull).
2. Slightly Movable joints (Intervertebral Articulations) the succeeding vertebrae are
joined by dense fibrous tissue and cartilage
3. Freely Movable joints bones are completely separated by cartilage and the articular
surfaces are surrounded by fibrous capsule
Synarthroses joints in which there is little or no movement.
1. Synostosis bone to bone.
2. Synchondrosis Cartilage
3. Syndesmosis Connective Tissue
Diarthroses joints that permit free movement of the bones.
Diarthrodial joints:

 cavity; walls of the joint cavities are composed of dense connective tissue whose cells
are(irregularly distributed)
Small amounts of cartilage or all transitions between the cartilage cells and the joint
or(synovial cells) can be found
Articular surface of Bones are covered with Hyaline Cartilage where the opposing
cartilages touch, they are (not covered with dense connective tissue) but at their bases a
small area of perichondrium is reflected backward into the membrane of the joint capsule
and at this point, there are many cartilage cells extending into the synovial membrane.
Articular cartilages contain no blood vessels and they are nourished by DIFFUSION from
the joint fluid and surrounding tissues
Layers of the Joint Capsule
1. Fibrous layer external layer; dense fibrous tissue
2. Synovial layer (synovial cells) Inner layer is more cellular; secretes the viscid
Synovial Fluid (colorless)

Topic 6: SKIN
Skin covering of the body surface
2 Main layers:

1. epidermis surface epithelium

2. corium or dermis subjacent connective tissue layer Beneath the two mail layers is the
hypodermis or superficial fascia
this may be transformed into the subcutaneous adipose tissue which in turn is connected to
the underlyin deep fascia or periosteum.
Mucocutaneous junction skin is continuous with the mucous membrane (present in lips,
nares, eyelids, vulva, prepuce, anus) Stratum corneum is thin or absent, the reddish color is due
to the underlying capillaries. Oxygenated blood-pinkish,reddish unoxygenated blood-purplish or
bluish
Skin - makes up 16% of the body weight
Functions:
1. protects the organism from injury and dessication or drying up
2. receives stimuli from the environment
3. excretes various substances
4. takes part in the thermoregulation and maintenance of water balance
5. forms various skin appendages such as hairs, nails, glands
EPIDERMIS
--Cells produce:
1. Keratin fibrous protein essential for the protective function of the skin
2. Melanin pigment that protects the skin against UV radiation
--Gives rise to the main types of glands:
1. sweat glands produces watery secretion called sweat
2. Sebaceous gland produces an oily secretion called sebum
-- stratified squamous epithelium composed of two distinct lineages:
1. malpighian or keratinizing system cells undergo keratinization and form
dead superficial layer
2. pigmentary system composed of melanocytes; found in the deeper layers of
epidermis capable of producing melanin pigment
CYTOMORPHOSIS - Series of changes which takes place in the epidermis
-process of superficial keratinized cells are continually exfoliated from the surface and are
replaced by epidermal cells that arise from the mitotic activity in the basal layer of the epidermis
- as the cells moves upward, they elaborate keratin which will replace the cytoplasm after which
the cell dies and the nucleus and organelles disappear and finally shed off as flakelike, lifeless
residue of a cell
-this takes place in 15-30 days
Types of Skin:
1. Thick skin epidermis of palm and sole
2. Thin skin epidermis of the skin in general
THICK SKIN - Has a well-developed epidermis
- Layers:
1. stratum corneum - horny layer - the most peripheral layer of dried horny cells which are due
to constantly being desquamated is called stratum DISJUNCTUM

2. stratum lucidum - clear layer - cells have no nuclei *stratum corneum and stratum lucidum
are keratinized portions
3. stratum granulosum - granular layer - cells contain keratohyaline granules
4. stratum malpighii
a. stratum spinosum - prickle cell layer or SPINES
b. stratum germinativum or stratum basale -has melanocytes producing melanin
THIN SKIN
1. Epidermis is much thinner and simpler (thinner stratum corneum).
2. Stratum lucidum is seldom seen.
Blood Supply -the epidermis is devoid of blood vessels so it is nourished from capillaries found
in the underlying connective tissue by diffusion through tissue fluid.
The MELANOCYTE SYSTEM
-color of the skin is the resultant of 3 components:
1. tissue has yellowish color partly due to carotene
2. oxyhemoglobin in the underlying vascular bed imparts reddish hue
3. shades of brown to black are contributed by varying amounts of melanin
MELANIN - Produced in the skin by cells called melanocytes found in the stratum malpighii
(stratum basale), containing the enzyme tyrosinase needed for the synthesis of the pigment
Lack of melanin in the epidermis of some areas of the skin may be due to:
1. absence of melanocytes (VITILIGO)
2. absence of enzymes tyrosinase (ALBINISM)
Melanocyte activity is influenced by:
1. hormones (discoloration of the skin due to pregnancy) *caf au lait
2. environmental factors (tanning under the sun increases tyrosinase activity)
DERMIS
-Layers:
1. Papillary layer outer surface of the dermis in contact with the epidermis
2. Reticular layer deeper main portion --made up of dense irregular connective tissue, has
hair follicles, sweat and sebaceous glands which are epidermal in origin but extended down to
the dermis (fully developed skin)
HAIRS -slender keratinous filaments that develop from the epidermal epithelium and present on
the surface of skin EXCEPT on the ff:
1. palms
2. soles
3. sides of fingers and toes
4. side surface of the feet below the ankle
5. lips
6. glans penis
7. prepuce
8. clitoris
9. labia minora
Hairs develop from the tubular invagination of the epidermis called the hair follicle which extends
down to the dermis
PIGMENTATION OF HAIR Due to epidermal melanocytes at the dermal papilla
HAIR RESPONSE TO HORMONES:

Male sex hormones (androgens) - at the onset of puberty, areas of the beard and mustache
produce strongly pigmented thick hairs; in females, with the same number of fair follicles,
develop fine hair
-at the axilla and pubic regions, hairs appear on both sexes at the onset of puberty
BALDNESS -loss of all follicles or a few that remain produce a very fine hairs** one or more
sebaceous glands are associated with each hair follicle
HAIR MUSCLE Arrector Pili -smooth muscle attached to the connective tissue sheath of the
hair follicle at one end and the other end is attached to the papillary layer of the dermis
-contracts in response to cold, fear, or anger
- this muscle moves the hair in a more vertical position depresses the skin at the region of its
attachment and elevates the skin immediately around the hair goose flesh
NAILS -horny plates on the dorsal surfaces of the terminal phalanges of the fingers and toes,
nowhere else in the body
Nail bed surface of the skin covered by nails
Nail wall fold of skin surrounding the nail laterally and proximally *cuticle
Nail groove slit between the wall and the nail bed
Body of the nail visible part of the nail plate
Nail root proximal edge of the nail plate
Lunula whitish color near the root
NAIL PLATE -consist of closely compacted horny scales which are dead residues of cornified
epithelial cells
-below the nail plate (nail bed area) the stratum malpighii is present
-for the rest of the nail wall, all the epidermal layers are present
**Nail is semitransparent and permits the color underlying tissue rich in blood vessels to show
through
GLANDS:
1. sebaceous glands
2. sweat glands
3. mammary glands
SEBACEOUS GLANDS
-scattered over the surface of the skin except in the palms, soles and sides of the feet
- have ducts which open into the necks of the hair follicles or directly in the surface
- secretory portions are round sacs (alveoli) gradually filled by fat droplets **SEBUM
- secretions result from the destruction of epithelial cells
SWEAT GLAND
-found along the surface of the skin except at the margins of the lips, glans penis, and nail beds
- these are simple, coiled tubular glands
-contain myoepithelial cells (spindle shaped branching cells with myofilaments- contractile
filaments) which help in the discharge of secretions when they contract

Types of sweat glands:

1. Eccrine
2. Apocrine
3. Specialized modified- mammary glands

ECCRINE SWEAT GLANDS

1. No connections with hair follicles
2. functions throughout life
3. produce watery secretion
4. do not function simultaneously or under the same conditions on all parts of the body
APOCRINE SWEAT GLANDS
1.
2.
3.
4.

shed the apical portion of their cells in the secretory process

connected with hair follicles and are located deep in the subcutaneous layer
located in the armpit and around anus
function at puberty producing a more viscid secretion

Special types of Sweat Glands

1. Ceruminous glands of the external auditory meatus - produce cerumen which is rich in
pigment granules containing lipid
2. Molls gland -found in the margin of the eyelids
Histogenesis:
Epidermis- develops from the ectoderm, starts as double layered epithelium
Dermis- arises from mesenchyme

Topic 7: MUSCULAR TISSUE

FUNCTION :
for locomotion and for movements of various parts of the body with respect to one another
> the property of contractility is highly developed
> the cells are elongated in the direction of contraction

> the structural unit is called the MUSCLE FIBER

TWO GENERAL CATEGORIES:
1. SMOOTH MUSCLE
2. STRIATED MUSCLE
a. SKELETAL
b. CARDIAC
SMOOTH MUSCLE FIBER
> long, spindle-shaped cells in varying lengths in different organs
< with elongated single nucleus occupying the thickest part of the fiber, midway along its length
> cytoplasm is called sarcoplasm with fine longitudinal striations called myofibrils
Areas with SMOOTH MUSCLE
1. contractile portion of the wall of the digestive tract from the MIDDLE of the esophagus
to the internal sphincter of the anus
2. found in the walls of the ducts of glands associated with the digestive tract
3. found in the walls of the respiratory passages from the trachea to the alveolar ducts
4. found in the urinary and genital ducts
5. found in the walls of the arteries, veins and lymphatic vessels
6. forms the arrector pili muscles responsible for elevation of hairs of the skin ( goose
pimples )
7. AREOLA of the mammary gland which participates in the erection of the nipple
8. subcutaneous tissue of the scrotum
9. found in the eye, forms the musculature of the iris and ciliary body which is concerned
with accomodation
and with constriction and dilatation of the pupil
HISTOGENESIS OF SMOOTH MUSCLES
> smooth muscle cells arise from the mesenchyme
> mesenchymal cells become arranged at regular intervals, multiply by mitosis and produce
myofilaments within the cytoplasm
> myoblast then come in contact with one another laterally forming a continuous layer of
smooth muscle
REGENERATION
> in injured areas, smooth muscle regeneration is minimal, so healing is mostly by scar tissue
formation ( fibroblastic proliferation )
SKELETAL MUSCLE
Muscle fiber
single histological unit of the skeletal muscle
it is long and cylindrical
with alternating dark and light bands
multinucleated cells
nuclei at the periphery or near the sarcolemma (limiting membrane of the muscle)
Muscle fiber
group of muscle fibers form one FASCICLE which is surrounded by a connective tissue
layer called PERIMYSIUM

 groups of fascicles will compose particular muscle which is surrounded by a connective

tissue layer called EPIMYSIUM
made up of several myofibrils and each fiber is surrounded by a connective tissue layer
called the ENDOMYSIUM
Myofibril
show the dark and light bands
dark bands are composed of myosin filaments ( A bands )
light bands are composed of actin filaments ( I bands )
Sarcomere
bounded by 2 Z discs
the functional unit of the muscle because it contains the structures involved in the
contractile mechanism
Skeletal Muscle
* diameter of the muscle fiber increases with age and may further increase in response to
strenuous muscular activity ---> Hypertrophy of Use
* the opposite may happen (decrease in fiber diameter ) if the muscle is immobilized for long
periods of time --->Atrophy of Disuse Skeletal Muscle Composition
MUSCLE
contains lipids, glycogen, the oxygen-binding protein called myoglobin which releases oxygen
during muscle contraction
PURPOSE OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE LAYER:
1. binds together the contractile units to integrate their action
2. allows a certain degree of freedom of motion between the contractile units
3. area where blood vessels pass through in order to supply the individual muscle cells
Effect of intense activity in skeletal muscle
- skeletal muscles increase in volume by enlargement of existing fibers through an increase in
the amount of sarcoplasm and not in the number of fibrils
REGENERATION OF SKELETAL MUSCLE:
- after destruction of skeletal muscle fibers, regeneration always starts from the existing fibers
- successful only if the nuclei and sarcoplasm are alive because these cells may become
myoblasts which will again proliferate to form new syncytial muscle fibers
- a large defect is replaced by a connective tissue scar - connection w/ motor nerve fibers is
needed for maintenance of normal skeletal muscle structure and a successful regeneration

CARDIAC MUSCLE
1. FIBERS are not syncytial but are made up of separate cellular units joined end to end
by special surface specializations called INTERCALATED DISCS
2. fibers are not simple cylindrical units but they bifurcate and connect with adjacent
fibers to form a complex 3-dimensional network

3. the elongated nuclei are located deep in the interior of the fiber instead of immediately
beneath the sarcolemma
4. spontaneous nature of the beat of cardiac muscle with a definite rhythm
5. contraction is not under voluntary control
CYTOLOGY:
- SARCOLEMMA is similar to that of skeletal muscle but sarcoplasm is more abundant
-cross striations are the same nucleus is centrally located
- intercalated discs are present for firm cohesion of cellular units and uniform transmission of
tension along the fibers
HISTOGENESIS
> develops from embryonic myocardium w/c is actually an epithelium (endothelium) whose cells
multiply by mitosis producing myofilaments
REGENERATION
takes place by scar tissue formation
SUMMARY:
SMOOTH MUSCLE
- composed of individual cellular units
- innervated by the autonomic nervous system
- contraction not subject to voluntary control ( involuntary )
SKELETAL MUSCLE:
- exhibits regularly spaced transverse bands along the length of the fiber
- are syncytial
- innervated by the cerebrospinal system of nerves
- contraction is under voluntary control
- makes up the somatic musculature (muscles of the extremities and body wall), head and neck
muscles, tongue and upper and middle third of the esophagus, diaphragm
CARDIAC MUSCLE
- fibers are made up of separate cellular units
- rhythmical contraction is involuntary
- makes up the wall of the heart

Topic 8: Endocrine Glands

Thyroid Gland **Pure Endocrine Gland
-located at the anterior neck area
-consists of two lateral lobes connected by an isthmus
-crosses the trachea just below the cricoid cartilage

Function:
-elaborates, stores and releases into the blood stream
thyroid hormone which is concerned with the regulation of metabolic rate
Histological organization:
-the gland is composed of spherical cyst like follicles lined with simple cuboidal or squamous
epithelium containing a gelatinous colloid which is the stored product of the secretory activity of
the epithelium
-follicles are surrounded by a thin basal lamina and enclosed by a network of reticular fibers and
plexus of capillaries
**gelatinous colloid= homogenous pinkish structure product of secretory activity
** reticular fibers= skeletal framework of the glands
Cells:
1. Follicular epithelial cells or Principal cells
- low cuboidal or squamous, secrete the thyroid hormone
2. Parafollicular cells
- present in the epithelium and interfollicular spaces, larger in size, secrete the hormone
calcitonin which lowers blood calcium level
Parathyroid Gland **Posterior Aspect of the Thyroid
-small, yellow brown, oval bodies intimately related to the posterior surface of the thyroid gland
-has a framework of reticular fibers with a rich capillary network between gland cells and a lot of
adipose cells
-parenchyma consists of densely packed groups of cells forming anastomosing cords or follicles
with small amount of colloid in the lumen
Cells:
1. Principal cells or Chief cells- polygonal cells
2. Oxyphilic cells- less abundant, larger in size
** Product of the gland is the parathyroid hormone (increases calcium release from bone
mineral, increases phosphate excretion)
Adrenal or Suprarenal Glands
-paired triangular, flat organs at the upper pole of each kidney
*Adrenal Cortex (Outer Cortex)
1. Zona Glomerulosa -adjacent to the capsule, consists of closely packed clusters of columnar
cells
2. Zona Fasciculata -consists of polyhedral cells larger than those of the zona glomerulosa,
arranged in long cords separated by sinusuoidal blood vessels, cells contain plenty of lipid
droplets (lipid droplet= clue when looking in the microscope)
3. Zona Reticularis -cells cords form anastomosing network, contain lipofuscin pigments
Functions:
1. Maintenance of fluid and electrolyte balance
2. Maintenance of carbohydrate balance
3. Maintenance of the normal functions of certain cellular elements of connective tissue

Secretions:
1. Zona Glomerulosa- Mineralocorticoid (aldosterone, deoxycorticosterone)
for fluid and electrolyte balance
2. Zona Fasciculata and Zona Reticularis- Glucocorticoids (cortisol, cortisone,
corticosterone)
concerned with metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and proteins
*Adrenal Medulla (AMEN= Adrenal Medulla, Epinephrine, Norepinephrine)
-composed of large epitheloid cells arranged in rounded groups or short cords in intimate
relation to blood capillaries and venules with fine brown granules (catecholaminesepinephrine and norepinephrine)
called chromaffin cells
Function:
-enables the body to respond normally to emergency situation
**Epinephrine- increases heart rate, increases blood flow to organs, increases oxygen
consumption and basal metabolic rate, increases blood sugar level
**Norepinephrine- increase blood pressure, results in vasoconstriction
Supporting framework of the whole organ
reticular fibers
Histogenesis:
Adrenal cortex- mesoderm
Adrenal medulla- ectoderm
Regeneration: + Regeneration for the cortex
- Regeneration for the medulla
Hypophysis (Pituitary Gland) **Master Gland
-located at the base of the brain, 1 cm in length, weighing 0.5 gm
1. Adenohypohysis =DTI
a. Pars distalis (anterior lobe)
b. Pars tuberalis
c. Pars intermedia
2. Neurohypohysis =NI
a. Pars nervosa (infundibular process)
b. Infundibulum (posterior lobe) -infundibular stalk and median eminence
*Pars Distalis -largest subdivision, composed of glandular cells arranged in irregular cords and
clumps, intimately related to sinusuoids -supporting network reticular fibers
Cells:
1. Acidophils (alpha cells)- round granular cells producing growth hormone or
somatotropic hormone and prolactin or luteotropic hormone
2. Basophils (beta cells)- elongated or polygonal granular cells arranged in clusters
producing thyroid stimulatory hormone or TSH and gonadotropic hormone

3. Chromophobes (reserve cells)- small cells which are undifferentiated -produce ACTH
(adrenocorticotropic hormone)
*Pars Intermedia -consists of polygonal cells + granules producing MSH (melanocyte
stimulating hormone) + rich capillary network
*Pars Tuberalis (Pars Infundibularis) -most highly vascularized part of the gland with
cuboidal or columnar epithelial cells arranged in cords with longitudinal pattern, no hormonal
function
*Neurohypophysis
-contains cells called pituicytes and a large bundle of unmyelinated nerve fibers and
spherical masses called herring bodies which are accumulations of neurosecretory
material
-site of storage and release of oxytocin and vasopressin or the anti- diuretic hormone
which are produces in the hypothalamus
Pancreas
-pinkish white organ lying retroperitoneally at about the level of the lumbar 2 and lumbar 3
-divided into 3 portion
head on the right near the duodenum, body, tail on the left near the spleen
*Exocrine Pancreas
- Acinar Tissue -the acinar tissue (acini) form lobules bound together by loose connective tissue
through which run blood vessels, nerves, lymphatics and excretory ducts
-these acini consist of a single row of pyramidal epithelial cells converging toward a central
lumen and resting upon a basal lamina supported by reticular fibers
-between the cells are fine secretory capillaries connected with the central lumen
-the cells may contain zymogen granules or droplets
Products:
Digestive Enzymes
1. Pancreatic proteolytic enzymes
2. Pancreatic amylase
3. Pancreatic lipase
*Endocrine Pancreas
- called the Islets of Langerhans
-scattered throughout the exocrine portion of the pancreas (No separate boundaries,
randomly arranged)
-richly vascularized with fenestrated capillaries
-more numerous in the tail
-clearly demarcated from the surrounding acinar tissue by a thin layer of reticular fibers
-islets are arranged in irregular cords and are paler staining than the acinar cells

3 Types of Granular Cells and 1 Non- granular Cell Type:

1. Alpha cells
- granules are large brilliant red, produce the hormone glucagon which increases blood
sugar levels
-located at the peripheral area of the islet -20% of the cell population

2. Beta cells
- have small brownish orange granules, produce insulin which decreases blood sugar levels
-located at the interior area of the islet -75% of the islet cell population
3. Delta cells
- have small blue staining granules
-5% of the islet cell population
4. C cells- non granular
Regeneration:
+ Regeneration of the islets
Minimal regeneration of the acinar tissues

Topic 9: RESPIRATORY
Function:
Provides for the intake of oxygen and the elimination of carbon dioxide
Divisions:
1. Conducting Portion- nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, respiratory bronchioles
2. Alveolar sacs and Alveoli- air filled vesicles
*Respiratory Bronchioles- smallest, adjacent to alveolar sacs

PHARYNX
-serves as part of the alimentary tract connecting the mouth with the esophagus.
LARYNX
-contains the organ of phonation. Vocal cords located (air passing Vibrate)
NOSE
-hollow organ composed of bone, cartilage, muscle, connective tissue.
-skin is provided with unusually large sebaceous glands and small hairs.
-epithelium is stratified squamous with stiff hairs to help exclude particles of dust from inspired
air (extends from the anterior nares to the vestibule of the nose)
REST OF THE NASAL CAVITY
-lined with mucus-secreting pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium with goblet cells with a
highly specialized form of ciliated epithelium in the olfactory sensory area.
ORGAN OF OLFACTION:
Contains receptors for the sense of smell
-epithelium is tall pseudostratified columnar consisting of supporting cells, basal cells and
olfactory cells.
LARYNX
-elongated structure with irregular shape, wall contains cartilage, connective tissue, striated
muscles, mucosa with glands.
-serves to connect the pharynx with the trachea
-due to changes resulting from the contraction of its muscles, variations in the width of the
opening between the vocal cords are produced.
-the size of the opening and the degree of muscular tension exerted upon the cords determine
the pitch of the sound made by the passage of air through the larynx
FRAMEWORK OF THE LARYNX (TCE ACC)
1. Thyroid cartilage
2. Cricoid cartilage
3. Epiglottis
4. Arytenoid cartilage
5. Corniculate cartilage
6. Cuneiform Cartilage
UNPAIRED CARTILAGES (TCE)
1. Thyroid Cartilage
2. Cricoid Cartilage
3. Epiglottis
PAIRED CARTLAGES (ACC)
1. Arytenoid Cartilage
2. Corniculate Cartilage
3. Cuneiform Cartilage
HYALINE CARTILAGES (TCA) *oid
1. Thyroid cartilage
2. Cricoid Cartilage
3. Arytenoid cartilage
ELASTIC CARTILAGES (ECC)
1. Epiglottis
2. Corniculate cartilage
3. Cuneiform Cartilage
TRACHEA

Thin-walled tube, continuous with the larynx above and ends below by dividing into two main
BRONCHI.
-lining epithelium is pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium with goblet cells.
-Supporting framework 16 to 20 C-shaped hyaline cartilages which encircle it on its ventral and
lateral aspects while the posterior wall is surrounded by a thick layer of muscle bundles.
LUNGS
PAIRED ORGANS occupying a great part of the thoracic cavity.
-RIGHT LUNG is divided into three lobes and LEFT LUNG is divided into two lobes.
-these lobes are further divided into smaller lobules called bronchopulmonary segments
10 segments RIGHT LUNG
8 segments LEFT LUNG
BRONCHI
- Before they enter the lungs they appear similar to the trachea.
- When they enter the lungs, the cartilage rings disappear and are replaced by cartilage plates.
**Clue: bronchus found inside the lungs no c-shaped cartilage
-as they grow smaller, the cartilage disappears and only the muscular tissue remains
LAYERS:
EPITHELIUM
-pseudosratified columnar with goblet cells
LAMINA PROPIA
-consist of reticular, collagenous and elastic fibers with lymphoid cells.
MUCOSA
-has longitudinal folds due to smooth muscle contraction
MUSCLE
-smooth muscle with elastic fibers but does not form a closed ring
OUTERMOST LAYER
- Dense connective tissue with glands
ALVEOLI
-has dense network of capillaries with reticular and elastic fibers, has small opening or alveolar
pores
CELLULAR COMPONENTS:
1. Squamous epithelial cells
2. Septal or alveolar cells (cuboidal)
3. Cytosomes produce surfactant to stabilize alveolar diameter
4. Alveolar phagocytes or dust cells
PLEURA
- serous membrane consisting of collagenous and elastic fibers with fibroblast and macrophages.
=potential space
REPAIR:
Healing is by connective tissue scar formation, NO EVIDENCE OF REGENERATION of PULMONARY
TISSUE
Topic 10: MAMMARY GLAND
Is specialized accessory gland of the skin to provide for the nourishment of the offspring
- Grows along the mammary line which extends from the axilla to the groin on either side of the
midline on the ventral aspect of the thorax and the abdomen
- Structure and development resemble that of the sweat glands
RESTING MAMMARY GLAND

- Tubuloaveolar gland consisting of 15-25 irregular lobes radiating from the mammary papilla or
nipple
- Lobes are separated by layers of dense connective tissue with abundant adipose
- Each lobe is provided with lactiferous duct lined with stratified squamous epithelium which
opens to the nipple
- Each lobe is subdivided into lobules with alveolar ducts and alveoli; the interlobular connective
tissue is dense while the intralobular connective Tissue is loose with more cells, collagenous
fibers but NO FAT. (Inter=dense, intra=loose)
- The alveolar ducts and alveoli (secretory portion) consist of cuboidal or low columnar cells with
MYOEPITHELIAL CELLS
- The sense of engorgement experienced to certain times of the menstrual cycle is due to
hyperemia and edema of the conn. Tissue of the breast
NIPPLE AND AREOLA
-covered by the epidermis with long dermal papilla whose capillaries bring blood close to the
surface (pinkish color) **darkening=hormones
-skin becomes pigmented at puberty and the degree of pigmentation increases during
pregnancy
-an elaborate pattern of bundles of smooth muscle arranged longitudinally along the lactiferous
ducts and circumferentially both within the nipple around its base make it possible for the nipple
to become erect in response to certain stimuli
-skin at the nipple tip is richly enervated with free nerve endings
IF YOU CANT FEEL IT WITH YOUR FINGER, FEEL IT WITH YOUR NIPPLES
-stimulus of suckling is required for maintenance of normal lactation
-sensitive area of the body: lips, nipples, fingertip
ACTIVE MAMMARY GLAND
-associated with pregnancy growth of epithelial structure and glandular tissue with regression of
adipose tissue
-there is an increase infiltration of WBC, lymphocytes, plasma cells, eosinophils
COLOSTRUM
-eosinophilic secretion rich in lactoproteins, poor on lipid, with special laxative properties and
contains antibodies
-first milk that comes from the mother after birth
HORMONAL CONTROL
1. Growth of duct system-estrogen
2. Alveolar growth- estrogen, progesterone, prolactin, somatotropic or growth hormone
3. Minor mammary growth- indirect effect of ACTH & TSH
4. Initiation of milk secretion- pituitary hormones, adrenal cortical hormones
5. Maintenance of lactation- prolactin **milk hormone
6. Removal of milk from the glands oxytocin *stimulate smooth mucles
***stimulus of sucking acts via the hypothalamus to cause release of oxytocin from the
neurohypophysis which in turn stimulates the myoepithelial cells to contact, therefore, ejecting
milk from the alveoli to the ducts
REGRESSION OF THE MAMMARY GLAND -gradual collapse of the alveoli with increase in
perialveolar connective tissue and adipose tissue.
INVOLUTION OF MAMMARY GLAND -secretory portion (alveoli) and the excretory ducts
(lactiferous) undergo atrophy and interstitial connective tissue becomes less cellular with
decrease in the number of collagenous fibers
**menopausal and old age
Topic 11: BLOOD
HEMOPOIESIS the process of formation of blood cells

HEMOPOIETIC or HEMATOPOEITIC TISSUES/ORGANS -sites where blood cell formation

occurs
BONE MARROW principal hemopoietic tissue in ADULTS; produces the blood cells
LIVER, SPLEEN, LYMPH NODES sites of blood cells formation during EMBRYONIC LIFE and
in certain pathologic conditions
BONE MARROW LOCATED IN THE
1. Medullary cavities of long bones
2. Spongiosa of vertebral bodies, ribs, and sternum
3. Flat bones of the pelvis
BLOOD CELLS
1. ERYTHROCYTES or RED BLOOD CELLS (RBC)
FUNCTION:
o vehicle for the transport of hemoglobin which is the vehicle of oxygen and carbon
dioxide.
o Mature form has no nucleus, appears as a biconcave disk (if with
nucleus=pathologic)
o Life span is 120 days then is degraded in the bone marrow **4mos, resused for new
set of RBC
o Normal counts: MALE: 4.2 5.4 million/cubic mm of blood
FEMALE: 3.8 5.2 million/cubic mm of blood
2. THROMBOCYTES or PLATELETS
FUNCTION:
important in maintaining vascular integrity and in blood coagulation
Detached portion/fragments of the cytoplasm of mature megakaryocytes found in the
bone marrow.
- Megakaryocytes largest of all blood cells
- Platelets have no nucleus with rounded or elongated bodies with granules
- May appear singly or in groups
- Normal counts: i. 150,000 450,000 /cubic mm of blood
3. LEUKOCYTES or WHITE BLOOD CELLS (WBC)
Normal counts: i. 4,500 11,000 /cubic mm of blood
Types of WBC
A. Agranulocytes (no cytoplasmic granules)
1. Monocytes
Largest among the WBCs
Kidney-shaped (or U-shape) nucleus with agranular bluish cytoplasm
Spends 1 3 days in the blood then move into the tissues where it matures
or transformed into macrophages (histiocytes).
2% 10% of WBC
Function: Phagocytosis
2.Lymphocytes
Round nucleus with bluish agranular cytoplasm
Function is programmed by the thymus gland
Spend few days in blood then settles in the tissues
Scanty cytoplasm= because of big nucleus
Carries antibodies
20% - 40% of WBC

B. Granulocytes (with cytoplasmic granules)

1. Neutrophils or Polymorphonuclear cells (PMN) or Segmenters
One nucleus with 2 5 lobes (lobulated)
Pinkish, fine granular cytoplasm
Spends 1 day in the blood then enters the tissues
Function: Phagocytosis
50% - 70% of WBC **most abundant
2. Eosinophils
Bilobed single nucleus with larger bright red granules in the cytoplasm **like pair of
eyes
Spend few days in the blood then enters the tissues
Function: phagocytosis and carries histamine **mediator for allergic reaction
1% - 4% of WBC
3. Basophils
Clover leaf-shape single nucleus with bluish coarse granules but may not be seen
because they are soluble in water
Carries histamine and heparin
0% - 1% of WBC
**hard to find
**dark blue, blue-black
** granules dissolve in fixing of the slide

Topic 12: CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

Function:
1. To distribute to the tissue the oxygen, nutritive materials and hormones.
2. To collect from the tissue carbon dioxide and other products of tissue metabolism and
transmit them to the excretory organ.
COMPONENTS: HBL
1. Heart
2. Blood vessels CAVS
A. capillaries
B. sinusoids
C. arteries
D. veins
3. Lymph vessels
Blood capillaries
- Has only an endothelium (simple squamous epithelium)
- It is where the actual exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide and metabolites takes place
- endothelial cells are accompanied by collagenous and reticular fibers (endothelial cell- flat,
plate-like)
Types:
1. Continuous capillaries
-common form of capillary found in muscle, CNS and connective tissue
-have many small vesicular invaginations (caveola) of the surrounding membrane
- Endothelium is uninterrupted and basal lamina is continuous
2. Fenestrated capillaries
-found in the renal glomerulus, endocrine gland, lamina propia of the intestines
-has attenuated areas of endothelium penetrated by circular fenestrae or pores *minute,
molecules pass through
Sinusoids:
-Thin-walled vascular channels of large caliber with irregular outline separated by connected
tissue layer from the organ parenchyma. -best organ LIVER.
-develop by ingrowth of the parenchyma of the organ -characteristic of liver, spleen and bone
marrow
ARTERIES:
-carry blood from the heart to the capillary network in the tissue and organs.
BASIC ORGANIZATION:
-3 concentric layers or tunics
1. tunica intima - inner layer consisting of an endothelial tube whose cells have their
long axis oriented longitudinally. **diseases of Arteries: 1 st involved is intima, cloe contact
with blood.
2. tunica media - intermediate layer predominantly made up of smooth muscle cells
arranged circumferentially with abundance of elastic fibers.
3. tunica adventitia - Outer coat made up of fibroblastic or fibrous element that are
oriented longitudinally

- This layer gradually merges with the loose connective tissue that accompanies all blood
vessels
** Internal elastic lamina (elastic interna) - boundary between the tunica intima
and tunica media
** External elastic lamina (elastic externa) - Boundary between tunica media and
tunica adventitia
TYPES OF ARTERIES:
1. Large, elastic or conducting arteries (aorta, common carotid) -thicker intima and media
but thin adventitia
2. Medium sized, muscular or distributing arteries (radial) - not so thick intima and media
but elastica interna is well developed, adventitia is thick
3. Small arteries and arterioles -thin intima 1 or 2 layers of smooth muscles in the media and
thin in adventitia
VEINS: -carry blood from the capillary network to the heart
CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Caliber is larger (lumen or opening)
2. Walls are thinner
3. Walls are elastic
4. Walls are collapsed
5. Lumen is irregular
6. Lumen slit-like
7. Boundaries among the 3 layers are indistinct
8. Muscular and elastic tissue is not as well-developed
9. Connective tissue component is much more prominent
TYPES OF VEINS:
1. Large veins (inferior vena cava) -thin intima and media -adventitia makes up the
greater part of the wall
2. medium- sized veins (brachial and popliteal) -thinner intima and media but thicker
adventitia
3. Small veins and venules -much thinner intima, media and adventitia
**venules union of several capillaries
**valves pair of semilunar pockets at the inner surface covered by endothelium
- Present in the medium sized vein, prevent back flow of blood
LYMPHATIC VESSELS
- Function as drainage system
- Conducts a clear fluid called LYMPH all the way to the lymphatic duct then to the GREAT VEINS
**varicose. Anal area=hemorrhoids
- Along the course of the lymphatic vessels are encapsulated accumulation of lymphoid tissue
called lymph nodes LYPMH ultra filtrate of plasma containing water, electrolytes and proteins
FUNCTION OF THE LYMPHATIC VESSELS
1. To return to the blood the fluid and plasma protein that escaped from the circulation
2. To return the blood the lymphocytes of the recirculating pool
3. To add to the blood immune globulins (Antibodies) that is formed in the lymph nodes
TYPES:
1. Lymphatic capillaries -thin walled endothelium lined vessels

2. Larger lymphatic vessels -Large-sized lumen, thinner walls with 3 layers or tunics present
-contain a pair of valves - contraction of the lymphatic vessels its wall depend on contraction of
skeletal muscles and movements of neighboring structure **swelling-edema, feet swelling
3. Lymphatic ducts (largest) (right lymphatic duct and thoracic duct) -thicker walls **with 3
tunics
HISTOGENESIS OF BLOOD VESSEL
- First vessels are laid down in the area vasculosa where they developed from the primitive
mesenchymal cells; later new vessels develop by budding
HEART
-thick, muscular, rhythmically contracting portion of the vascular system
-wall contains 3 layers:
1. Endocardium
2. Myocardium
3. Epicardium
Endocardium- inner layer lined by endothelium supported by loose connective tissue with a
small amount of smooth muscles
Myocardium- thickest, middle layer made up of striated muscle with few elastic fibers
Epicardium- outer layer covered by a single layer of mesothelial cells (simple squamous
epithelium)
Mesothelium- supported by a thin layer of connective tissue

Topic 13: LYMPHOID ORGANS (IMMUNE SYSTEM)

made up of:
1. Lymph nodes / lymph gland
2. Spleen
3. Thymus gland
LYMPH NODE
Small organ occurring in series along the course of the lymph vessels
Function:
o For the immune response of the body
Histological organization: A capsule encloses the organ which is divided into CORTEX and
MEDULLA
o CAPSULE
its part which extends into the parenchyma of the organ is called the
TRABECULA which is thickest at the HILUS where blood vessels enter and
leave the organ
this capsule is made up of DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
o LYMPHOID PARENCHYMA
Filled with lymphocytes, plasma cells, macrophages, and lymph sinuses which
are extensions of the lymph vessels all supported by a network of reticular
fibers
o CORTEX
Dense mass of lymphoid cells traversed by lymph sinuses, composed of outer
cortex and inner cortex
o MEDULLA
Composed of medullary cords and sinuses
MEDULLARY CORDS
consist of aggregates of lymphoid tissues organized around blood
vessels;
they branch and anastomose freely with one another and terminate in
the hilus;
they also contain reticular fibers, lymphocytes, plasma cells, and
macrophages
SPLEEN
Abdominal organ situated in the left hypochondrium beneath the diaphragm
Functions;
1. Acts as a filter clears the blood with particulate matter and cells
2. Participates in the immune system against blood borne antigen
Histological organization
1. WHITE PULP OR MALPIGHIAN BODIES
Consist of diffuse and nodular lymph tissue forming the periarterial lymphoid
sheath (PALS)about the arteries containing lymphocytes, plasma cells, and
macrophages supported by a network of reticular fibers
2. RED PULP

 Consists or irregularly-shaped blood vessels of large caliber called VENUS

SINUES filled with RBC
Splenic cords of BILLROTH the tissue occupying the spaces between the
venous sinuses forming a spongy cellular mass supported by a framework or
reticular fibers
3. CAPSULE AND TRABECULA
Made up of dense connective tissue, no cortex medulla but with white and
red pulp. EXTENSION
THYMUS GLAND
Located in the mediastinum anterior to the GREAT VESSELS as they emerge from the heart
Composed of two lobes. Persistence is Pathologic
Attains its greatest size at the time of puberty then undergoes involution and later on is
replaced by adipose cells
Function:
o Programs the activity of lymphocytes
Histological organization;
o Made up of 2 lobes divided into smaller lobes
o Each of the smaller lobes called LOBULES is divided into a cortex and a medulla
o The organ is enveloped by a thin capsule made up of LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
CORTEX composed or reticular cells, lymphocytes and plasma cells
RETICULAR CELLS arranged into concentric arrays of squamous
epithelia cells comprising the HASSALLS BODIES OR THYMIC
CORPUSCLES
MEDULLA
Composed of reticular cells or hassalls corpuscles, lymphocytes,
macrophages but NO plasma cells
PRIMITIVE TISSUE OF ORIGIN
1. Lymph nodes
----------------------2. Spleen
----------------------Thymus glands
----------

mesenchyme
mesenchyme
endoderm

Topic 14: GASTROINTESTINAL SYSTEM

- largest organ system

Composition:
Lips
Mouth
Pharynx
Esophagus
Stomach
Small intestines
Large intestines
Rectum
Anus

The digestive tube is made up of the following:

MUCOSA
o Mucous membrane which lines the inner surface of the digestive tube consisting of
a superficial layer of epithelium and a supporting layer of loose connective tissue
called the LAMINA PROPIA
MUSCULARIS MUCOSA
o Makes the outer limit of the mucosa and is made up of a thin layer of smooth
muscle; may not always be present
SUBMUCOSA
o Located next to the muscularis mucosa and is made up of a layer loose connective
tissue with numerous blood vessels, lymphatics, lymphoid nodules and nerves.
MUSCULARIS EXTERNA
o Layer of smooth muscles ( inner circular and outer longitudinal)
SEROSA ( PERITONEUM )
o Moist serous membrane covering the surface of the stomach and intestines
o Simple squamous epithelium; thinnest layer
Endothelium
Mesothelium
Pleural Space
Potential space
Trauma and certain condition will be filled with air, blood, etc.
Allows the organs to slide freely over one another within the peritoneal cavity during
peristalsis

ORAL CAVITY
Entrance part
o Epithelium of the mucous membrane : STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS; NON-KERATINIZED
o Lamina propia loose connective tissue, fibers are mostly collagenous and elastic
with many lymphocytes, several plexuses of blood vessels, many nerve ending
o Submucosa well developed in oral cavity
Hard palate NO SUBMUCOSA and the mucous membrane is firmly bound
to the periosteum of the bone
Soft palate consists of layers of striated muscle and fibrous connective
tissue covered by mucous membrane
PHARYNX
Shared by the Gastrointestinal Tract System and Respiratory System
o Posterior continuation of the oral cavity
o Parts:
nasal
oral
laryngeal
o upper part: resembles that of the respiratory system (pseudostratified ciliated
columnar epithelium)
o lower part: corresponds to the general plan or histologic design of the digestive
tube
epithelium of the lower pharynx: STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS
lamina propia dense connective tissue with a lot of elastic fibers
o muscularis mucosa instead of this, the mucous membrane is provided with a
thick dense elastic layer
o submucosa well developed only in the lateral wall of the nasal part and at the
area where the pharynx continues into the esophagus
o GLANDS: pure mucous and mixed gland
TONGUE
epithelium is STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS, NON-KERATINIZED
o consist of thick interlacing bundles of striated muscle covered by a tightly adherent
mucous membrane
o has a lamina propia
o submucous layer present ONLY on the ventral portion
o dorsal portion (anterior, 2/3) is covered by numerous excrescences called
PAPILLAE
o posterior, 1/3 is covered by irregular bulges of larger site
o boundary line is the V-shaped structure and of the apex of the angle is the angle is
the FORAMEN CECUM (caecum) - rudiment of the thyroglossal duct which
connects the thyroid gland with the oral cavity
o Papillae:
o Filiform sides and midline
o Fungiform tip
o Circumvallate numbering 10 12:; present in the v-line
o Foliate paired; present in the dorsolateral aspect of the posterior part of the
tongue
Associated with presence of taste buds which are receptors for taste sensations
(sweet, bitter, acid, salty):
Fungiform
Circumvallate

SALIVARY GLANDS
Parotid

Submandibular
Sublingual
Small salivary glands in the mucosa and submucosal areas **secrete saliva continuously
Secrete saliva only in the presence of mechanical, thermal, chemical stimulus, psychic,
olfactory stimulus
Parotid
Submandibular
Sublingual
SALIVA
o Mixture of the secretion of various salivary glands
o Viscous, colorless, opalescent liquid which contains:
Water
Mucoproteins
Immunoglobulins
Carbohydrates
Inorganic components:
Calcium
Phosphate
Sodium
Potassium
Magnesium
Chloride
Iron
Iodine
o ENZYME: Salivary Amylase / Ptyalin
o Desquamated squamous epithelial cells
o Salivary corpuscles degenerating lymphocytes / granulocytes
Glands may contain:
Only mucous cells cuboidal cells elaborating a viscid secretion consisting almost
exclusively of mucin
Only serous cells cuboidal cells elaborating a watery secretion, lacking in mucus but
contains salts, Proteins and ptyalin
Mixed cells both serous and mucous cells are present and the secretion is a viscid liquid
containing mucin, salts and ptyalin
o Parotid gland purely serous
o Submandibular gland mixed gland with more serous alveoli
o Sublingual gland mixed gland with more mucous alveoli
TONSILS
o Lymphoid orangs in the oral area; covered by stratified squamous, nonkeratinized epithelium
TEETH
o Derivatives of the oral mucous membrane
o Modified papillae whose surface is covered by a thick layer of calcified substance
originating in the part from the epithelium and connective tissue
o 2 sets:
Primary or deciduous
Secondary or succedaneous
o 2 types:
Incisors for biting
Molars for crushing and grinding the food
2 portions:

Crown - projects above the gingiva

Root - fits a socket of maxilla or mandible

Hard and Soft parts:

o HARD
Enamel - hardest substance in the body; covers the outer surface in the region of the
crown; composed mostly of Ca salts
Dentin - forms the bulk of the tooth surrounding the pulp chamber; harder than bone;
contains collagen and hydroxyapatite crystals
Cementum - covers the root of the tooth; closest bone in physical and chemical
characteristics
o SOFT
Pulp - fills the pulp chamber (cavity) - composed of connective tissue with ground
substance similar to that of mucoid connective tissue; has connective tissue fibers and
cells (odontoblasts and other connective tissue cells) blood vessels, nerves and
lymphatics; tooth ache. ** Wharton jelly
Periodontal membrane - connects the cementum; covered surface of the root with the
bone; made up of the collagenous fibers.
Gingiva (gum) - portion of the oral mucous membrane surrounding the tooth; mainly
stratified squamous keratinized epithelium with numerous connective tissue papillae
Esophagus:
-muscular tube about 10 inches long that conveys food from the pharynx to the stomach
Epithelium: stratified squamous non-keratinized but at the junction of the esophagus with the
cardia of the stomach the epithelium is simple columnar. **standard design of tubular organs
Lamina Propia: consists of loose connective tissue with thin collagenous and elastic fibers,
connective tissue cells, numerous lymphocytes and lymphatic nodules and esophageal mucous
glands
Muscularis mucosa: contains elastic fibers with smooth muscles
Submucosa: contains dense connective tissue
Muscularis externa: upper 1/3 is made up of striated muscle **skeletal
Middle 1/3 has smooth muscle gradually replacing striated muscle, lower 1/3 contains only
smooth muscle
Outer surface of the esophagus: has tunica adventitia made up of loose connective tissue
which connects the esophagus with the surrounding structures
Glands: esophageal glands secreting mucus found in the lamina propia and submucosa
Stomach
-organ concerned with both storage and digestion of food **storage of food
Parts:
1. Cardia
2. Fundus
3. Corpus
4. Pylorus
Mucosa: has simple columnar epithelium, forms numerous longitudinal folds or rugae with
invaginations called "gastric pits", contains 3 types of glands
***gastric glands are composed of 4 types of cells

1. Chief or Zymogenic cells- contain granules of pepsinogen which is the antecedent of

enzyme pepsin
2. Parietal or Oxyntic cells- pyramidal cells scattered among the zymogenic cells producing
HCl and the intrinsic factor
3. Neck Mucous cells- located between the parietal cells in the neck of glands, secrete mucus
4. Argentaffin cells- small granulated cells scattered singly in the epithelium, synthesize
and store serotonin and the hormone gastrin
Cardiac glands: contain mucous cells and few Argentaffin cells
Pyloric glands: contain mucous cells, few parietal and Argentaffin cells
Lamina Propia: has loose connective tissue which occupies the narrow spaces between the
glands, may have strands of smooth muscle in the pyloric region
Muscularis Mucosa: consists of an inner circular and outer longitudinal layers of smooth
muscle and sometimes an additional outer circular layer
Submucosa: made up of dense connective tissue, has large lymph and blood vessels and
venous plexuses
Muscularis externa: consists of 3 layers of smooth muscle, inner oblique, middle circular and
outer longitudinal
-in the pylorus, this forms a thick, circular sphincter called "Pyloric Sphincter".
1. Serosa: outermost layer, has thin layer of loose connective tissue and the outer aspect is
covered with mesothelium
CELL REGENERATION: rapid regeneration of the superficial portions of the mucosa
Small Intestines
Divided into:
1. Duodenum
2. Jejunum
3. Ileum
Functions:
1. To move forward the chyme that it receives from the stomach
2. To continue its digestion with special juices secreted by its own intrinsic glands and its
accessory glands (such as liver and pancreas)
3. To absorb into the blood and lymph vessels in its mucosa the nutrient materials releases by
digestion
Mucosa: has structural specializations needed to increase the absorptive area of the small
intestines
1. Plicae circularis or valves of Kirckring- crescentic folds that extend half two thirds of the way
around the lumen, involves both the mucosa and submucosa
2. Intestinal villi - fingerlike projections of the mucosa, may invaginate to form tubular glands
called "crypts" of Lieberkuhn or intestinal glands
Epithelium: simple columnar epithelium with striated or brush border
Types of cells present:
1. Intestinal Absorptive cells- columnar cells with striated border, increase absorptive area,
have a protective role and active participation in digestive process
2. Goblet cells- irregularly scattered among the absorptive cells, shaped like a wine glass,
secrete mucus to lubricate and protect the surface epithelium, play a role in protein synthesis
from amino acid precursors and in polysaccharide formation

3. Argentaffin cells ( basal granular cells or enterochromaffin cells)

-rounded or pyramidal cells at the base of the epithelium containing granules
-endocrine cells found in stomach and small intestines, abundant in the appendix
-secrete serotonin which causes vigorous contraction of smooth muscles (important in the
generation of peristaltic movements that propel food and wastes through the gut
4. Paneth cells- pyramidal cells occuring in small groups in the crypts, have granules, function
unknown
Lamina Propia: fills the spaces between the intestinal glands and forms the cores of the
intestinal villi
-has elastic and reticular fibers
- highly cellular with strands of smooth muscle *
-has lymphoid tissue (called Peyer's patches in the ileum)
Muscularis Mucosa: has inner circular and outer longitudinal smooth muscle layers
Submucosa: dense connective tissue with abundant elastic tissue and adipose tissue
-in the duodenum, it is occupied by a thick layer of duodenal glands or BRUNNER'S glandstubular glands whose cellular secretions (clear, viscous, alkaline fluid) protect the duodenal
mucosa against the erosive effects of the acid gastric juice.
Muscularis Externa: internal and external smooth muscle layers and between these layers is
the sympathetic
(myenteric nerve plexus - Auerbach's plexus
Serosa: mesothelial cells resting on loose connective tissue
LARGE INTESTINE
Characteristics features:
Mucosa does not form folds except in the rectum.
Intestinal villi are absent above the ileocecal valve.
Interior surface is smooth and lined with simple columnar cells with thin striated border.
Intestinal glands are straight tubules and they attain their greatest lengths.
Has greater abundance of goblet cells.
No Paneth cells.
Well-developed muscularis mucosa.
Muscularis externa differs in the arrangement of its outer longitudinal layer wich is not a
continuous layer but is localized in 3 thick, longitudinal bands - Taeniae Coli
Serosa in its free portion forms the Appendices Epiploicae - pendulous protuberance
consisting of adipose tissue and accumulations of cells similar to those in the omentum
ANAL REGION
Mucosa is thrown into longitudinal folds - rectal Columns of Morgagni
Crypts become short and disappear. *crypts of lieberkuhn
2cm above anal opening, there's an abrupt transition from simple columnar to stratified
squamous epithelium (transition zone between the mucosa and skin )
At the level of the external muscular sphincter of the anus, the surface layer assumes the
historical structure of the skin.
Lamina propria contains plexus of large veins which when abnormally distended and
varicosed, present at the anus as HEMORRHOIDS.
APPENDIX
blindly ending evagination of the cecum
well-developed lymphoid tissue
no villi
has intestinal glands
epithelium is simple columnar with few goblet cells, paneth, argentaffin cells
poorly developed muscularis mucosa

 thick layer of submucosa with blood vessels and nerves

muscularis externa is reduced in thickness but with 2 layers as in the rest of the
gastrointestinal organs
similar serosa to the rest
Origin of GI Organs
Salivary glands, lining of palate, anterior 2/3 of tongue - ECTODERM
Tooth enamel - NEURAL CREST
Dentin and pulp - MESENCHYME
Tonsils, posterior 1/3 of tongue, rest of GIT associated glands - ENDODERM

Topic 15: LIVER AND GALLBLADDER

largest gland in the body,

Second largest organ of the body
Weight: 1.5 kg
Situated in the abdominal cavity beneath thediaphragm.
Blood supply: portal vein (70-80%), hepatic artery

Functions:
gathering, transforming and accumulating metabolites
for neutralizing and eliminating toxic substances.
Producing plasma proteins: albumin and other carrierproteins
Elimination occurs in the bile, an exocrine secretion of the liver that is important for lipid
digestion
Liver stroma
Glisson's capsule: thin connective tissue capsule that covers the liver, becomes thicker at
the hilum, where the portal vein and hepatic artery

 enter the organ and where the right and left

hepatic duct and lymphatics exit
Liver lobule
Hepatocyte: basic structural component of the liver (Greek hepar: liver ; kytos: cell)
Liver lobule: formed of polygonal mass of tissue and are separated from each other by a
layer of connective tissue and portal spaces on its corners
Human liver: contains 3-6 portal spaces per lobule each with a venule (a branch of portal
vein) an arteriole ( a branch of hepatic artery) a duct and a lymph vessel.
Hepatocytes
Polyhedral, with 6 or more surfaces, and have a diameter of 20-30 um
H and E staining: cytoplasm is eosinophilic, mainly because of large number of
mitochondria and some smooth ER
Has both endocrine and exocrine functions, example of its. Exocrine function: Bile
secretion
Arranged like bricks in the liver lobule, these cellular plates are directed from the
periphery of the lobule to its center and anastomose freely, forming a spongelike structure
Liver Sinusoids
capillaries found in the spaces between liver cells,
irregularly dilated vessels composed solely of continuous layer of fenestrated endothelial
cells
also contain macrophages --Kupffer
cells-- found on the luminal surface of endothelial cells
Surrounded and supported by a delicate shealth of reticular fibers
Kupffer cells
Account for 15 percent of the liver cell population
Most of them are located in the peri portal region of theliver lobule, where they are very
active in phagocytosis.
Function of Kupffer cells

Metabolize aged RBCs

Digest hemoglobin
Secrete proteins related to immunologic process
Destroy bacteria that enters portal blood

Space of Disse

subendothelial space that separates endothelial cells from the underlying hepatocytes.
contains microvilli of hepatocytes
Where Ito's cells are found
Fat-storing cells
Contain vit A-rich lipid inclusions
Functions: uptake, storage, and release of retinoids; synthesis and secretion of several
extracellular matrix proteins and proteoglycans; secretion of growth factors snd cytokines;
and regulation of sinusoidal lumen diameter in response to regulators

Liver's Blood supply

Receives blood from 2 sources:
80 percent: portal vein: which carries oxygen-poor, nutrient-rich blood from the
abdominal viscera
20 percent: hepatic artery: which supplies oxygen-rich blood
Gallbladder
Is a hallow, pear-shaped organ attached to the lower surface of the liver.
Can store 30-50ml of bile
Its wall consists of a mucosa composed of SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM and LAMINA
PROPRIA, a layer of smooth muscle, a perimuscular connective tissue layer, and a serous
membrane
The mucosa has abundant folds that are particularly evident when the gallbladder is
empty.
The epithelial cells are rich in mitichondria
All these cells found in Gallbladder are capable of secreting small amounts of mucus.
Tubuloacinar mucous glands near the cystic duct are responsible for the production of
most of the mucus present in the bile
Function of the gallbladder
Main function: store bile
Concentrates bile by absorbing its water
Release bile when necessary into the GI tract
Contraction of the smooth muscle of the gallbladder is induced by CHOLECYSTOKININ: a
hormone produced by enteroendocrine cells (I cells) located in the epithelial lining of the
small intestine
Release if cholecystokinin is stimulated by presence of dietary fats in small intestine.
Mucosa: -it includes the lining epithelium of simple columnar variety.
- Lamina propria rich in elastic Fibers and blood vessels
- Presence of microvilli gives brush border appearance to the epithelium under light
microscope, which facilitates absorption of water.Mucosa thrown into small folds when the
bladder is empty
Muscularis- this layer consists of circularly arranged smooth muscle fibers intermixed with
connective tissue rich in elastic fibers
- The neck of the gallbladder, the lamina propria houses simple tubuloalveolar glands, which
produce a small amount of mucus.
Serosa or Adventitia: fundus and lower surface of body of gallbladder is covered by
peritoneum.
- Upper surface is attached to the fossa for gallbladder by means of connective tissue.
Topic 16: URINARY SYSTEM
Consists of:
kidneys
ureters
urinary bladder
urethra
FUNCTIONS:
to clear the blood of waste products of metabolism
to regulate concentrations of body fluid constituents

ENDOCRINE FUNCTION: produces hormones

Erythropoietin which affect blood cell formation in the bone marrow
Renin which affects blood pressure

KIDNEYS
- paired organs
- 10-12 cm long
- Located retroperitoneally at the posterior wall of the abdominal cavity on either side of the
vertebral column.
- surrounded by a capsule of dense collagenous (connective) fibers
URINIFEROUS TUBULES
2 Principal Portions:
Nephron - 1st portion ; called SECRETORY PORTION; concerned with urine
formation; FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF KIDNEY
Collecting Tubule - 2nd portion; Carries out the final concentration of urinary solute
to form a hypertonic urine and serves as a secretory duct, conveying the urine to
renal pelvis
NEPHRON
1. Renal Corpuscle
a. Bowmans capsule

Parietal layer composed of simple squamous cells and visceral layer

composed of podocytes which are stellate cells with processes and
interrupted by slit pores
b. Glomerulus

Composed of interlacing networks of capillaries *fenestrated

2. Proximal tubules - Lined with simple cuboidal epithelium with brush border free surface
specialization
3. Loop of Henle - Change from simple cuboidal to simple squamous epithelium with
microvilli
4. Distal tubule - Simple cuboidal with NO BRUSH BORDER; Appear similar to proximal
tubule, no absorptive functions
COLLECTING TUBULE
Smallest tubules are lined by simple cuboidal epithelium
As they grow larger especially in the papillary duct area, the epithelium becomes simple
columnar
Excretory passages of urinary tract lined by transitional epithelium:
Renal calyx
Renal pelvis
Ureter
Urinary bladder
Urethra- small tubule
URETHRA
lined by stratified squamous, stratified/ pseudostratified columnar layers of excretory
passages:
1. Epithelium
2. Indistinct submucosa
3. Smooth muscle layer:
Thin: urethra
Thick: urinary bladder
Topic 17: MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
COMPOSED OF:
Testis

 Duct System
Accessory glands
TESTIS enclosed by a capsule called TUNICA ALBUGINEA (extends into the parenchyma of
the testis to divide into smaller lobules and each lobule is further divided into smaller pyramidal
compartments by septula testis (around 4 lobules))
The testis is both an EXOCRINE and ENDOCRINE GLAND
Exocrine: secrete the cell called SPERMATOZOA (Sperm cell)
Endocrine: produces the hormone TESTOSTERONE (Leydig cells)

SEMINIFEROUS TUBULE
A. Sertoli cells
B. Spermatogenic cells
Surrounded by loosed connective tissue with all of the connective tissue components plus
the interstitial cells of LEYDIG (polyhedral cells) which produce TESTOSTERONE
lined by stratified epithelium composed of 2 major cell categories:
A. Supporting Cells SERTOLI CELLS (columnar cells)
provide mechanical support
protection for the developing germ cells
participate in their nutrition
play an active role in the release of mature spermatozoa
b. Spermatogenic Cells

STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

Composed of:
Head carries genetic trait

 Tail responsible for motility and appropriate orientation for ovum penetration
DUCTUS SYSTEM
Tubuli recti
Rete testis
Ductus efferens - lined by alternating tall and low cells with cilia and microvilli; has a thin
layer of smooth muscles
Ductus epididymis - lined with pseudostratified columnar epithelium with stereocilia; has
a thin layer of smooth muscles; site of accumulation and storage of spermatozoa while
undergoing maturation
Ductus deferens - lined with pseudostratified columnar epithelium with stereocillia; thick
layer of smooth muscles and lumen is larger; receives the duct of the seminal vesicles
Ejaculatory duct - lined with pseudistratified or simple columnar epithelium with
surrounding connective tissue layer; with abundant elastic network; pierces the body of
the prostate gland
ACCESSORY GLANDS
Seminal vesicles - saccular organ with numerous lateral out pocketing from an irregularly
branching lumen; arises as an evagination of the ductus deferens; cells contain yellow
pigments (rich in fructose, ascorbic and citric acid, and prostaglandin); lined with
pseudostratified columnar epithelium followed by the middle layer of smooth muscles then
by the external connective tissue layer rich elastic fibers.
Prostate Gland - surrounds the urethra at its origin from the urinary bladder; made up of
30-50 small, compound, tubulosaccular glands with 16-32 excretory ducts; lined with
simple or pseudostratified columnar epithelium followed by dense connective tissue and
smooth muscle layer; glands may contain spherical lamellated bodies (PROSTATIC
CONCRETIONS - condensation of secretions); Secretion is thin, opalescent liquid containing
diastase, B-glucuronidase, proteolytic enzymes, fibrinolysin, citric acid, acid
phosphatase.
***prostate and seminal vesicle secretion serve as diluents and vehicle for sperm transport
Bulbourethral gland - compound tubulosaccular gland with cuboidal or columnar cells;
ducts are lined with pseudostratified columnar epithelium; ducts and gland are irregular in
size and shape with elastic tissue network and smooth muscles; secretion is clear, viscid,
mucus-like lubricant rich in SIALOPROTEIN (plays an important role in the gelation of
seminal plasma).
Penis formed by 3 cylindrical bodies of cavernous or erectile tissue.
2 corpora cavernosa (penis)
1 corpus cavernosum urethrae / corpus spongiosum
-made up of a vast spongelike system of vascular spaces fed by the afferent
arteries and drained by the efferent veins; each cavernous body is surrounded by a
fibrous capsule (TUNICA ALBUGINEA) with some smooth muscle fibers; skin
covering is devoid of adipose tissue but contains smooth muscle; skin at the distal
part is devoid of hairs but has sweat glands; sebaceous glands are present in the
glans penis portion (GLANDS OF TYSON).

Topic 18: FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Organs
ovaries
uterus
fallopian tube
vagina
external genitalia
OVARIES
one on each side
lined by simple cuboidal epithelium
parenchyma is divided into the cortex & medulla
A. Cortex - highly cellular with fibroblast like cells with collagenous fibers; has the ovarian
follicles with wide range of sizes
B. Medulla - paler staining; has loose connective tissue with more elastic fibers; with some
smooth muscles; has numerous arteries and veins
OVARIAN FOLLICLES found in the cortex of the ovaries
(1) PRIMORDIAL FOLLICLES - at birth, these are the only kind present; consist of a large
spherical oocyte enveloped by a single layer of squamous/low cuboidal cells
(2) PRIMARY FOLLICLES - oocyte enlarges and follicular cells become cuboidal/columnar >
undergo mitosis > become the granulosa cells forming a stratified epithelium
-Amorphous material will become deposited on the surface of the oocyte
forming the Zona Pellucida- a gel like glycoprotein
-sheath of stromal cells develop around the follicle forming the Theca
Folliculi (Theca Interna- vascular portion // Theca Externa- connective
tissue portion)
(3) SECONDARY FOLLICLE or ANTRAL FOLLICLE - becomes oval in shape; oocyte attains it
full size; there will be appearance of irregular spaces with fluid (Liquor
Folliculi) > later become confluent to form a single crescentic cavity
(Antrum).
-granulosa cells will form a local thickening on one side (Cumulus Oophorus)
with the oocyte in its center.
-presence of some accumulations of densely staining material among the
granulosa cells (Call-Exner Body).
(4) MATURE FOLLICLE or GRAAFIAN FOLLICLE - the follicle may occupy the full thickness of
the cortex and bulge from the free surface of the organ
-a prominent basement lamina will form separating the granulosa cells from the
theca cells
-then intercellular spaces will form separating the ovum from the granulosa
cells but 1 or 2 layers of granulosa cells will remain attached to the ovum
(Corona Radiata)
-then the theca folliculi will reach its full development forming the:
Theca Interna- made up of polyhedral cells with a network of reticular fibers; produces
estrogen
Theca Externa- made up of fusiform cells with characteristic of smooth muscle cells;
plays an important role in the post ovulatory collapse of the follicle
(5) CORPUS LUTEUM - after ovulation and discharge of the liquor folliculi, the wall of the folliculi
collapses and the granulosa cell lining is thrown into folds
-there will be some bleeding from the theca interna capillaries forming a central
clot
-cells enlarge, accumulate lipid and are transformed into pale staining polygonal
cells (Lutein Cells)
-the follicle is now Corpus Luteum- produces progesterone

-connective tissue elements penetrate the developing corpus luteum and will
convert the blood clot in the central cavity into a fibrous core
-if the ovum is not fertilized, the corpus luteum is reduced to a white scar,
Corpus Albicans, which will sink into the infundibulum of the ovary and
gradually disappears over a period of many months or years
-if ovulation is followed by fertilization, the corpus luteum will enlarge further
and persist for about 6 months then gradually declines, forming a white scar
after delivery
-late in pregnancy, the lutein cells produce Relaxin which:
Inhibits contractions of myometrium in pregnancy
Promotes dilatation of cervix
Loosens the symphysis pubis
(6) ATRETIC FOLLICLES - follicles which didnt reach maturity and have degenerated
*INTERSTITIAL TISSUE OF THE OVARY- made up of reticular fibers and spindle shaped cells
FALLOPIAN TUBE or OVIDUCT
Functions:
receives the ovum
provides appropriate environment for fertilization
transports the fertilized ovum to the uterus
-muscular tube; 12 cm long
-the lumen communicates with the uterine cavity on one end and is open to the peritoneal
cavity on the other end
WALL
Mucosa - thrown into folds, lined with ciliated simple columnar epithelium with non-ciliated
cells producing nutritive material for the ovum, NO GLANDS
Muscularis Layer - 2 layers of smooth muscle
Serosa- connective tissue layer
UTERUS pear-shaped organ with a thick muscular wall
Functions:
receives the fertilized ovum from the oviduct
provides the ovum attachments
establishes the vascular relations needed to sustain the embryo
Divisions:
Body/Corpus Uteri
*FUNDUS- site where the oviducts join the uterus
Isthmus
Cervix
Layers:
Endometrium- glandular mucosa lined with simple columnar epithelium with ciliated and
secretory cells
-glands: Uterine Glands
- Stromal cells are stellate cells with reticular fiber framework
- Also contains other connective tissue cells and blood vessels
Functions:
prepares for the implantation of the fertilized ovum
participates in the implantation
participates in the formation of the maternal portion of the placenta

Myometrium - cylindrical bundles of smooth muscles separated by a thin septa of

connective tissue and with presence of large blood vessels

-in the cervix, smooth muscles are with dense collagenous and elastic fibers with cervical
glands producing mucus
VAGINA - distensible muscular tube extending from the vestibule of the female external
genitalia to the cervix of the uterus
-Lower end contains transverse semi-circular fold - HYMEN
WALL
Mucosa- lined with stratified squamous epithelium, dense connective tissue, no glands
Muscular coat- has circular and longitudinal muscle bundles
Adventitial coat- has thin layer of dense connective tissue

EXTERNAL GENITALIA
Clitoris - has 2 small erectile corpora cavernosa
Labia minora - lined with stratified squamous epithelium with a core of spongy
connective tissue; numerous large sebaceous glands with NO HAIRS.
Labia majora - covered by folds of skin with large amounts of subcutaneous fat and a
thin layer of smooth muscle; numerous sebaceous and sweat glands; OUTER SURFACE:
COVERED WITH HAIR.
Vestibule
Bartholins glands - tubulo-alveolar type; secrete lubricating mucus; COUNTERPART OF
COWPERS GLANDS in MALES

Topics:
1- EPITHELIUM
2- CONNECTIVE TISSUE
3- CARTILAGE
4- NERVOUS TISSUE
5- BONE, JOINTS AND SYNOVIAL
6- SKIN
7- MUSCULAR TISSUE
8- ENDOCRINE GLANDS
9- RESPIRATORY
10-MAMMARY GLANDS
11-BLOOD
12-CARDIOVASCULAR
13-LYMPHOID AND IMMUNE SYSTEM
14-GASTROINTESTINAL
15-LIVER AND GALLBLADDER
16-URINARY
17-MALE REPRODUCTIVE
18-FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE