IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, VOL. PAS-89, NO.

5/6, MAY/JUNE 1970

932

Discussion

The authors are to be congratulated for this fine work and their
valuable contribution to the industry.

A. Beloff and D. 0. Proctor (Sargent and Lundy, Engineers, Chicago,

Ill.): The authors have presented a mathematical method combined
with their programming method that should provide the equipment designer with a valuable tool for the investigation of electrical
fields around and inside insulator bodies.
The two-step program requires that the boundary shift matrix
be calculated only once and made readily available to use over and
over again for different insulator shapes. This fact (as well as the
methods mentioned for rapid conversion) shows a clear effort toward
economy of machine time.
The computer plots of equipotential lines are especially important
for the evaluation of field stresses in the dielectric materials and
for the study of different insulator shapes and connecting hardware.
Is it possible to improve the representation of the insulator contour
lines that are apparently plotted by the computer?
Also important is the capability of the method to study the effect of
contaminants on insulators, a matter that has focused so much
attention on present EHV transmission line insulation design and
performance.
The method presented by the authors is limited, however, to
bodies with two conductive members. If the method can be expanded to accommodate more than two conductive members, the
electrostatic field of insulator strings can be studied, thus providing
an even wider application to transmission line insulation problems.

Ivan A. Cermak and P. Silvester: The authors wish to thank the

discussers for their interest in their work. As they quite correctly
point out, the program described here suffers from two limitations:
comparatively crude modeling of insulator shapes, and restrictions to
two conductive bodies.
The primary objective in this work has been to remove what has
so far been the most serious difficulty in the way of solving insulator
problems by numerical methods-that is to say, the error-free
representation of an infinitely extending space surrounding the
problem proper. This, the authors feel, has been satisfactorily
achieved. The two shortcomings of their method of solving the
interior problem clearly require attention next. Much more accurate
representation of boundary shapes is possible if variationally derived
methods are employed for thesolution of the interior problem. The
inclusion of many conductive portions in finite difference techniques
is not straightforward, and can lead to poor convergence; hence it
becomes of interest to consider direct solution techniques, again
suggesting that the interior problem be set up variationally. Work is at
present in progress on some variational techniques that have proved
useful in waveguide problems [15], and that will very likely be useful
for low-frequency fields as well.

REFERENCES
"A
P.
general high-order finite-element waveguide
Silvester,
1151
analysis program," IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory and Techniques, vol. MTT-17, pp. 204-210, April 1969.
Manuscript received August 13, 1969.

Manuscript received July 17, 1969.

Overvoltages Due to Line Energization and

Reenergization Versus Overvoltages Caused by
Faults and Fault Clearing in EHV Systems
ALESSANDRO CLERICI,

MEMBER, IEEE AND

Abstract-One of the main problems in EHV and UHV systems

is the control of transient overvoltages of internal origin. The first
part of this paper investigates different approaches to limit overvoltages due to line energization and reenergization; the second
part deals with fault and fault-clearing overvoltages. Finally, the
relative severity of the former type of overvoltage versus the latter
in EHV and UHV systems is compared.

Paper 69 TP 704-PWR, recommended and approved by the

Transmission and Distribution Committee of the IEEE Power
Group for presentation at the IEEE Summer Power Meeting,
Dallas, Tex., June 22-27, 1969. Manuscript submitted February
18, 1969; made available for printing April 14, 1969.
A. Clerici is with the Centro Elettrotecnico Sperimentale Italiano
(CESI), Milan, Italy.
A. Taschini is with the Ente Nationale per l'Energia Elettrica
(ENEL), Milan, Italy.

ACHILLE TASCHINJ

INTRODUCTION
IN designing system insulation, consideration must be given
to all the voltages that can stress insulation during the
operation of the system: power frequency voltage under normal
operating conditions, temporary overvoltages at or near power
frequency, and transient overvoltages arising either from switching operations and faults or from lightning discharges. However, as is well known, above the 345-kV level, transient
overvoltages arising from switching operations become the controlling factor in the design of EHV air-insulated structures if no
measures are taken to control them [1].
In the majority of systems the predominant switching overvoltages are those due to line energization and reenergization,
if restrike-free breakers are used. Therefore, to reduce the

CLERICI AND TASCHINI:

OVERVOLTAGES FROM VARIOUS CAUSES IN EHV SYSTEMS

93.3
to
T

Either
Source
A
or

Breaker

350 km

218mi

Receiving

735 kV

line

Pole A

Total shunt compensation 72%

_Ii

(a)

Short-circuit power at the735 kV

bus-bars 18000 MVA (X1/Xo= 0.9 )

Short-circuit power at the 735 kV

bus-bars 10 000 MVA (X,/Xo= 1.2 )

350 km= 218mi

380kV
380 kV

735 kV

/~~~~____

i~~~~~~~~~~~~~-

380 kV

735 kV

Pole

oe-

toc
_~~~~~~~~~~
3cr
_
0 =6 C

I-

Po

le
I

(b)

(c)
Fig. 1. Single-line diagram of system studied. (a) Litne studied ont
TNA. (b) Source A. (c) Source B.

level of the transient internal overvoltages (switching surge

plus fault surge) of a system to the order of 2 pu it is generally
sufficient to limit the overvoltages arising from closing and reclosing operations. If it is desired to reduce the level of the transient internal overvoltages below 2 pu, other overvoltage causes,
in particular faults [2] and fault clearing, must be taken into
consideration. Furthermore, lightning, as at the lower voltages, or 50-Hz voltage (minimum leakage distance) may become the determining factor.
The purpose of this report is only to compare the overvoltages
caused by faults and fault clearing versus the overvoltages due to
line energization and reenergization, when the latter are controlled
by suitable means, as is required in EHV and UHV networks.
Lightning and pollution requirements are disregarded in this
report.
The first part of the report is devoted to the comparison of a
number of alternative approaches to the control of energization
and reenergization overvoltages. As in previous reports [3]-[6],
only the possibility of reducing closing and reclosing overvoltages by means of circuit breakers of special design has
been investigated. The other possible alternative (control by
means of lightning arresters- [4]) is not now feasible, since,
apart from any consideration of the discharge duty required, the
ratio of the switching-surge protective level to the rated voltage
of presently available lightning arresters is in the range of 1.41.6 at best.
In the second part of the report, consideration is given to the
overvoltages caused by faults and fault clearing. The influence of
the breaker characteristics on the value of the overvoltages
caused by fault clearing is also briefly investigated.
Finally, the severity of fault and fault-clearing overvoltages
versus line closing and reclosing overvoltages in EHV and UHV
networks is discussed in respect to both line and bus-bar insulation.
SYSTEM PARAMETERS
The basic system configurations studied are shown by the
single-line diagram of Fig. 1. Two different source configurations
were considered: the first, represented by Fig. l(b), is relevant
to a bus fed only through transformers or generators, whereas
the second, shown in Fig. 1(c), is relevant to a bus fed by overhead lines too. The line constants were based on a fully trans-

Fig. 2. Probability dernsity of closinig time t - to of poles of conventional-type breaker.

posed line with bundled conductors (four subconductors) and

ground wires earthed at each tower. These are the 50-Hz line
constants:
Z, = 0.0109 + j0.277 Q/km, C, = 13.15 nF/km
Zo = 0.103 + j0.634 Q/km, Co = 9.12 nF/km.
The shunt reactors at the two ends of the line were assumed
to be equal and to have losses (at rated voltage) of 0.3 percent of
their rated power. It must be emphasized here that the characteristics of the feeding systems and of the line are such as to give
almost no power-frequency overvoltages following the energization of the unloaded line.
The system is representative of the 735-kV interconnections
that might be planned between European countries in the near
future.
OVERVOLTAGES DUE TO LINE ENERGIZATION
AND REENERGIZATION
A switching overvoltage level of 1.8-1.9 pu is considered
generally satisfactory for the nominal voltage of 735 kV. Overvoltage control far below this value was investigated in this
report with a view to future development of UHV transmission
[7], [8]. The reduction in overvoltage level that can be achieved
by suitable design of the breakers was evaluated on the transient
network analyzer (TNA) and is given in terms both of maximized
values and of overvoltage probability distributions. The alternative approaches described below were considered with respect
to the breaker characteristics.
Breaker Parameters

Conventional-Type Breaker: A conventional-type breaker

may be defined here as a breaker without preinsertion resistors
or opening resistors capable of draining trapped charges, in
which (Fig. 2) the close coils of all the poles are energized simultaneously (to)-at random in respect to the source or line
voltages-and the contacts of the three phases close (tcA, tcB,
tcC) with a certain spread around an average time T.
In the evaluation of the maximized overvoltage values
and of the overvoltage probability distributions, it was assunmed

94

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, MAY/JUNE 1970

Itc

Bus Voltage

Voltage across the

Fig. 3. Equivalent single-phase schematic of multistep resistor

breaker.
Protective

g2a

Resistor

S
Fig. 5. Closing

sequence

of controlled single-step resistor breaker.

Auxiliary switch

Source
- I
-

Conventional
Type

Rui5tor

~ ~ ~

I,to0

Breaker

Fig. 4. Single-phase schematic of convenitional-type breaker and

auxiliary resistor switch connected between shunt reactor and
line.

that the closing time (electrical closing) of each pole follows a

Gaussian low, with mean value T, truncated at 43a [4]. The
maximum pole spread in this case is equal to D 6or (Fig. 2).
In the evaluation of the probability distributions of reclosing
overvoltages, opening of the three poles was assumed at three
successive current zeros. Dead time was assumed to vary at
random with a uniform probability density in a range of approximately 0.3-4 seconds.
The conventional-type breaker was studied for comparison
purposes only, and it is not desired to imply that this type of
breaker is suitable for 735-kV networks or above.
Single- or Multiple-Step Resistor Breaker: A single- or multiplestep resistor breaker may be defined here as a breaker that
approximates to the ideal concept of energizing the line through
a resistor varying gradually from infinite resistance to zero
resistance, and in which the close coils are energized simultaneously and at random in respect of the source and line voltages, as in the previous case. One-, two-, and three-step resistor
breakers were considered following the equivalent circuit in
Fig. 3. Actual connections between contacts and resistors, as
used by different manufacturers, may differ from those of the
equivalent circuit in Fig. 3.
In the evaluation of the maximized overvoltage values and of
the overvoltage probability distributions, assumptions similar
to those mentioned above for the conventional-type breaker
were made for the first contact to close in each phase (contact 1
in Fig. 4), opening sequenee, and dead time. Resistor insertion
times were generally considered constant, except when otherwise
specified.
Conventional-Type Breaker and Auxiliary Resistor Switch
Connected Between Shunt Reactors and Line: This alternative approach to surge control was suggested in a recent paper [9], to
which the reader is referred for further details. The scheme of the
circuit is given in Fig. 4. During the closing operation, the
resistor is inserted in the same manner as in the case of a singlestep resistor breaker. During the reclosing operation the resistor
is also inserted for an appropriate time interval, following the
opening of the conventional-type breaker, to damp the oscillations between the line and the reactors and reduce to zero the

v,

*i

Tl
__

IIPoleAA

tCA

O-e--

~~~~~~Pole

''
A

--

T2

Ki

Ti

T3

tcc
e

Pole C

.. _

Fig. 6. Probability density of the closing time t, to of contact

of each phase of controlled single-step resistor breaker.
-

residual charges on the line before reclosing. Then the resistor

is inserted again during reclosing. With respect to the insertion
of the resistor for damping and charge-reducing purposes, it
should be noted that in shunt-compensated lines, the normal
opening resistors built into the design of the circuit breakerand therefore on the source side of the reactors-are only
slightly effective in reducing trapped charges [10].
Controlled Single-Step Resistor Breaker: Controlled or synchronous closure has been investigated by many authors [4], [51.
The basic concept is to close the contacts of the individual
poles when the bus voltage equals the voltage on the line and to
short the preinsertion resistors, if there are any, when voltage
across them is zero. This means feeding the line voltage into a
control device with a suitable degree of accuracy in all cases
(dc trapped or oscillating charges). The difficulty of achieving
such an aim is emphasized by many authors [5], [6].
The concept of controlled closing studied in the TNA tests
reported here differs from the ideal case described above and is
more similar to another method described in [6]. A controlled
single-step resistor breaker may be defined here as a breaker,
equipped with a preinsertion resistor, that performs the following
sequence (see Fig. 3).

935

CLERICI AND TASCHINI: OVERVOLTAGES FROM VARIOUS CAUSES IN EHV SYSTEMS

TABLE I
TNA TESTS ON CLOSING AND RECLOSING OVERVOLTAGES, PHASE-GROUND OVERVOLTAGE
VALUES AT RECEIVING END OF LINE (PU)*

Test
1
2
3
4

5
6

7
8
9
10
11
12

13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38

Breaker Parameters
Characteristics Controlled
Source of Resistorst Closing
A
No
A
No
A
No
550 (13)
A
No
550 (13)
A
No
550 (13 2)#
A
1100 (15) +
No
500 (10)
A
No
1800 (15) +
800 (10) +
400 (6)
B
No
B
No
B
No
550 (13)
B
No
550 (13 4 2)#
B
No
1100 (15) +
500 (10)
B
No
550 (10)
B
No
450 (12)
B
No
450 (7)
B
No
450 (7)
B
No
450 (7)
A
550 (15)
Yes
A
550 (15)
Yes
A
550 (15)
Yes
A
550 (15)
Yes
A
550 (15)
Yes
A
550 (15)
Yes
A
550 (15)
Yes
A
550 (15)
Yes
A
550 (15)
Yes
A
550 (15)
Yes
A
550 (15)
Yes
A
550 (15)
Yes
A
550 (15)
Yes
B
550 (15)
Yes
B
550 (15)
Yes
B
550 (15)
Yes
B
550 (15)
Yes
B
550 (15)
Yes
B
550 (15)
Yes
B
550 (15)
Yes
B
550 (15)
Yes

D or
K$
6
6
6
6
6
6

Switching
2
Operation M\Iaximum Percent
En.
2.45
Redl.
3.80
3.05
En.
1.22
1.44
1.32
Recl.
1.32
Reel.
1.34
1.26
Recl.

Recl.

1.26

6
6
6
6
6

En.

Reel.
En.
Reel.
Reel.

2.54
3.65
1.26
1.50
1.27

Reel.
Reel.
Reel.
Reel.
Recl.
En.
En.
En.
En.
En.
En.
Reel.
Reel.
Recl.
Recl.
Reel.
Reel.
Recl.
En.
En.
En.
En.
Recl.
Reel.
Reel.
Reel.

1.81
1.54
1.98
1.92
1.70
1.07
1.12
1.25
1.34
1.35
1.36
1.08
1.17
1.27
1.33
1.40
1.46
1.51
1.05
1.08
1.20
1.27
1.05
1.10
1.32
1.37

6
6
6
2
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
0
I1

t2
2, 5
3
4
5

0
1
2
3
0
1

Overvoltage Value
10
50
Percent Percent

a-ol

50 Percent
+ 3ro

2.82

2.10

0.530

3.68

1.25
1.26
1.23

1.17
1.16
1.16

0.061
0.064
0.048

1.35
1.36

1.30

1.34

1.27

1.18

0.064

1.37

1.22

1.15

1.10

0.040

1.22

* Overvoltages are in pu of \/2/\/'3 .735 kV. In all tests the phase-to-ground voltage at the bus bar before closing and before reclosing
(following opening of line) was fixed at this value.
t First number refers to value of resistor (ohms); number in parentheses to insertion time (ms). More resistor steps are indicated as follows:
1100 (15) + 500 (10) + .
t D = maximum pole spread; K = maximum deviation from voltage zero at bus bar.
Maximized values or values having given probability of being exceeded. Probability distributions are those of overvoltages in all three
phases and refer to 100 switching operations.
1- = standard deviation of overvoltage probability distribution.
# Insertion time was considered variable as described in Section Single- or Multiple-Step Resistor Breaker. Maximum deviation from average
value is indicated in parentheses after nominal insertion time.
-

1) Contact 1 closes around a zero of the bus voltage and

prevents closing with a high phase-to-ground voltage on the bus
in opposition to the line voltage. This implies monitoring of the
bus voltage only, which can easily be achieved.
2) Contact 4 closes with a delay S (function of the resistor
value and of the line characteristics) such as to short circuit the
resistor when the voltage across it is close to zero (Fig. 5).
In the evaluation of the maximized overvoltage values and
of the overvoltage probability distributions, the electrical
closing instant of each pole was assumed to follow a Gaussian
distribution located around a zero of the bus voltage and truncated at i3a (Fig. 6). The maximum deviation of the closing
instant from the voltage zero on the bus bars was therefore K =
3ar. The time delay S was assumed constant, except when otherwise specified.

Results of Tests on Line Energization and Reclosing

The results of the more interesting tests are summarized in
Table I. The study, as will be seen from column two, was based
essentially on source A. The study was restricted to phase-toground overvoltages. Furthermore, since the overvoltages at the
receiving end were always higher than at the sending end (530-percent), only the former values are given in Table I.
Since the characteristics of the system were such as to give
almost no power-frequency overvoltages following the energization of the line, the results in Table I cannot be extrapolated
to other systems without great care.
Single- or Multiple-Step Resistor Breaker: On the basis of a
systematic series of tests, values of the resistors and of the
insertion times were determined that can be regarded as
the optimum for one-, two-, and three-step resistor breakers in the

936

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, MAY/JUNE 1970

case of the line of Fig. 1 and source A. They are, with reference
to the equivalent circuit in Fig. 3, as follows:
Resistor Steps
Single step
Two steps
Three steps

Resistor Values
(ohms)
Ri = 550
Ri = 1100
R2 = 500
RB = 1800
R2 = 800
R3 = 400

TABLE II
COMPARISON OF MAXIMIZED CLOSING AND RECLOSING OVERVOLTAGES FOR CONVENTIONAL-TYPE, SINGLE-, AND
MULTIPLE-STEP RESISTOR BREAKERS*

Insertion Times

(ms)
t4- tl =
t2- tl =
t4-t2=
t2- tl =

13
15

10

15
t4-t24 = 10
4-t3 = 6

A number of European manufacturers are able to achieve these

values for the resistors and the insertion times, although the
addition of resistors may be more or less costly in relation to the
breaker design. For many breaker types it can be assumed that
the additional cost of an auxiliary preinsertion resistor, built
into the breaker design, varies from 10 to 20 percent of the
breaker cost, depending on the resistor value and on the insertion time.
Table I gives the maximized overvoltage values and some of
the most significant points of overvoltage probability distributions, obtained in the case of single- and multiple-step resistor
breakers (tests 3-7). For comparison purposes the overvoltage
level without any switching-surge control is also given (conventional breaker-tests 1, 2). To make the comparison easier,
the maximized values obtained with conventional, single-, and
multiple-step resistor breakers are summarized in Table II.
A change of the feeding system from source A to source B,
although the optimum values of the resistors and of the insertion
times obtained for source A were maintained, did not cause
appreciable changes in the overvoltage distributions and maximized overvoltages (tests 4, 6, 11, 12).
For system structures like the ones considered here, it therefore seems possible to limit the overvoltage level due to line
closing or rapid reclosing to somewhere near 1.5 pu, if resistor
and insertion times approaching the optimum values are chosen.
To be sure of keeping the overvoltages below 1.5 pu more
than one preinsertion resistor is needed; and to achieve the limit
of 1.3 pu, which some utilities consider desirable for UHV systems, a three-step resistor breaker may be needed.
For the system considered here, and, more generally, in all
known cases of lines compensated by shunt reactors, the required insertion times of the resistors were higher than in the
case of uncompensated lines, and a reduction of these times gave
rise to a rapid increase in the overvoltages. Tests 11 and 13-15
in Table I are examples of this. On the other hand, the poleclosing span-at least, above 2 ms-did not appear to be very

significant (see tests 15-17).

The probability distributions become more and more saturated
as overvoltage control increases. The ratio of the maximized
value to the value having a 10-percent probability of being
exceeded is 1.3 in the case of the conventional-type breaker and
1.1 in the case of the two-step resistor breaker (tests 2, 4, 6).
This fact can be stated also by saying that the standard deviation
of the overvoltage probability distributions decreases with the
increase in overvoltage control (see column 11 of Table I).
To ascertain the effect of assuming the insertion times to be
constant in obtaining probability distributions, a distribution
was also evaluated assuming the insertion time to follow a
Gaussian distribution, located around a mean value, and truncated at 2c (-= 1 ms). No appreciable difference exists between this last case and the case in which the insertion time was
considered constant (tests 4 and 5).

Reclosing
Overvoltage (pu)
3.80

Resistor Steps
0

1.44
1.34
1.26

2
3

*
System of Fig. 1, source A, receiving
values and insertion times optimized.

Closing
Overvoltage (pu)
2.45
1.22

end overvoltages,

resistor

rSC;
1 sl

r* fi
,/
1.1 1

())
(t)

,JI/

Source A - Line reclosing

Source A-Line closing
Source B - Line reclosing
Source B -Line closing

,
3
,
+4
*2 ,4
3
4-2

(m,
KtmS)

Fig. 7. Maximized overvoltage as function of maximum deviatioln

K of instant of closing of each pole from voltage zero at bus bar.

Conventional-Type Breaker and Auxiliary Resistor Switch,

Connected Between Shunt Reactors and Line: No trapped charge is
left on the line at the instant of reclosing with this type of
scheme if the resistor is left inserted between the line and the
reactors after the opening of the breaker for an appropriate
time interval. The fact that the resistor is on the line side of the
reactor does not influence closing overvoltages to any great
extent; therefore, the overvoltages due to line energization by
means of single-step resistor breaker may be considered representative of the overvoltages due to line reenergization by the
aforementioned means.
In the system under consideration, a conventional breaker
and an auxiliary resistor switch connected on the line side of the
reactor are thus as effective in controlling the overvoltage level
as a multiple-step resistor breaker (see Table II).
Controlled Single-Step Resistor Breaker: The value of the
preinsertion resistor was assumed to be equal to the value
chosen for the resistor of the single-step resistor breaker. The
insertion time of the resistor (.15 ins) was determined on
the basis of the line characteristics and according to the concept
of the controlled single-step resistor breaker described in the
section so titled.
In Fig. 7 the maximized closing and reclosing overvoltage
value is given as a function of the maximum deviation K from
the voltage zero at the bus and the instanit of closing of each pole
(tests 18-38). From Fig. 7 the conclusion may be drawn that a
controlled single-step resistor breaker as defined here can be
considered equivalent to a two-step resistor breaker if the
maximum deviation K is kept below 2.5 ms, and to a three-step
resistor breaker if the maximum deviation K is kept below 2 ms.

937

CLERICI AND TASCHINI: OVERVOLTAGES FROM VARIOUS CAUSES IN EHV SYSTEMS

OVERVOLTAGES DUE TO FAULTS

AND FAULT CLEARING
Overvoltages due to faults and fault clearing, apart from
lightning and 50-Hz voltage, may impose limitations on the
economic incentive to reduce overvoltages due to line energization and reclosing. This problem was dealt with in [2], and interesting proposals were made for the control of overvoltages
arising from single line-to-ground faults. Costly terminal equipment would be needed, however.
The overvoltages caused by single line-to-ground faults,
fault clearing, and loss of load were evaluated for the system
previously considered in order to achieve a broad indication of the
lowest reclosing overvoltage level at which it seems reasonable to
aim, if no special measures are taken to control the other causes
of internal overvoltages.

Overvoltages Caused by Single Line-to-Ground Faults

For the line in Fig. 1(a), and taking into consideration the
various possible combinations of feeding networks A and B at
the ends of the line, the maximum overvoltages were evaluated
at the sending end, at one-quarter, one-half, and three-quarters of
the line length, and at the receiving end. The load flow on the line
at the instant of the fault is given in Fig. 8. The overvoltage was
maximized by varying the time and the location of occurrence
of the fault, and the results of this are summarized in Fig. 9.
In the system under consideration the highest overvoltage on
the line was 1.5 pu and the highest overvoltage on the bus bar
was 1.4 pu. However, it has been suggested [2] that the overvoltages on the line may reach 2 pu.

Overvoltages Caused by Clearing of Single Line-to-Ground and

Double Line-to-Ground Faults on Unloaded Line
The clearing of both single and double line-to-ground faults
was considered, even though, in EHV systems, nearly all the
faults are single phase. However, from [2] and from the previous
section it appears that single-phase faults are very likely to
develop into double line-to-ground faults if the line insulation is
based on the overvoltages caused by energization and reenergization and if these are strongly reduced. The overvoltages were
in this case evaluated on the bus bar only, assuming the line to be
unloaded. The study was restricted to source B, since source A
is of minor interest, no other lines being connected to the bus
except the faulty one. Opening of the breaker was assumed to
take place on three successive current zeros.
The overvoltages at the bus due to fault clearing are influenced,
to a certain extent, by the existence of a resistor inserted during
the opening sequence. In Fig. 10 the overvoltages on the bus bar
corresponding to the worst opening sequence are given as a
function of the opening resistor for a fault close to the sending end.
This is the fault location that gives the highest overvoltages.
Examples of oscillograms are shown in Fig. 11. Fig. 10 shows that,
although, a certain reduction in the overvoltage values can
always be expected if there are any opening resistors, a substantial
reduction can be achieved only if the resistors are in the range of
300-600 ohms. Therefore, if resistors are to 1) achieve the
desired distribution across the interrupting elements, 2) damp
switching surges when breaking small inductive currents, or
3) switch capacitive currents, they will not be effective in
limiting overvoltages, since they are in the range above 5000
ohms [9]. Only resistors to damp transient recovery voltage
(TRV) in the event of short line fault, and preinsertion resistors
to control closing and reclosing overvoltage, if inserted during

V=1.04
Sending 2020
-, 2020
End
200
100

V=1.03
Rcwn
1980 j11980
2w2
Receiving

-*

r * -.

End

2921

A 3X0

Fig. 8. Load flow on line at occurrence of fault: voltages at bus

bars in pu of V22//3. 735 kV. Solid lines-active power (MW);
dashed lines-reactive power (Mvar).
Sending E nd
(SE.)
Feeding
Network IO

Receiving End
(R.E.)
Feing
Network

350km m210 mi

I/Ij

1j

CD==I

1.5-

1.5

(p.U.)'
-1

1 -I

-0.5
Feeding Network:
Curve (D - Source Bat both S.E. and R.E.
Curve (2) - Source B at S.E. and Source A at R.E.

0.5-

n-

1/4

3/4

1/2

Line length

Fig. 9. Maximized overvoltage in various sections of line due to

single line-to-ground fault on line; overvoltage in pu of v'2/V3
.735 kV.
Sending End
(S.E.)
Source

Receiving End
(R.E.)

2-

(p.u,

1.5-

1-

0.5Curve

Curve

10
0

(I)-Single

O-Double

line-to-ground

10

450 900

fault

line-to-ground fault

2000

3000

Insertion

330 I time (ms)

4000
5000

Resistor value(nI)

Fig. 10. Overvoltage at sending bus following clearing of single or

double line-to-ground fault at sending end of unloaded line as
function of opening resistor characteristics; overvoltage in pu
of bus voltage before opening aV2//V3 735 kV.

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, MAY/JUNE 1970

Sending End

(S. E.)

Source
B

Receiving End

2000 MW

x.

(R.E.)
ISnurce
B

2-

Overvoltages

(p.U.)

at R.E

1.51-

0.5-

(a)

(b)

Fig. 11. Examples of oscillograms of overvoltages on sending-end

bus. (a) Overvoltages due to single line-to-ground fault clearing.
(b) Overvoltages due to double line-to-ground fault clearing.

the opening sequence, may help substantially to reduce the

overvoltage due to fault clearing.
Obviously, in the case of a conventional-type breaker and an
auxiliary resistor switch installed on the line side of the reactors,
no reduction of the overvoltage can be achieved if protective
gaps (Fig. 4), that spark when opening a faulty line, are connected across the resistor, as suggested in [9]. Furthermore, this
technique is liable to increase the overvoltages. With no opening
resistors, a maximum overvoltage of 1.6 pu was obtained on the
bus when clearing a single line-to-ground fault and 1.7 pu
when clearing a double line-to-ground fault. Simulating the
sparkover of the protective gap during fault clearing, overvoltage values equal to 1.7 and 1.9 pu, respectively, were reached.

Overvoltages Following Load Rejection Due to Fault on Line

Only source B was considered for the reasons mentioned
in the previous section. The load flow on the line at the occurrence of the fault is the same as in Fig. 8. Fig. 12 gives the overvoltages at the sending and receiving bus bars due to a single
and a double line-to-ground fault at the receiving end of the line
in respect of different values of the opening resistors. The
breaker at the receiving end was assumed to open first. This
sequence of events may be considered one of the most critical
in respect of the overvoltages caused on a bus-bar system by load
rejection following a fault on the line. Although the effect on
overvoltage of the insertion of low ohmic resistors during opening was not investigated, it may be expected to be similar to
that described in the case of clearing a fault on the unloaded line.

Reclosing Overvoltages versus Fault and

Fault-Clearing Overvoltages
In the examination of the relative importance of reclosing
overvoltages versus fault and fault-clearing overvoltages, different considerations may apply to different systems.
For transmission systems consisting of a line connecting two
type-A feeding networks (where no actual EHV bus systems
exist and where low-side switching would probably be adopted),
it might be economical to reduce the closing and reclosing
overvoltage even below the value of the overvoltages caused by

0*

- ,

'* Overvoltages at CE

Curve 6(D) -Double line-to-ground Fault:

Curve (24 -Single line-to-ground fault'

10 10

450 900

2000

3000

10

4000

Insertion
time lmsl

5000

Resistor value

(Qi)

Fig. 12. Overvoltage at sending and receiving buses following

clearing of single or double line-to-ground fault at receiving end
of fully loaded line as function of opening resistor characteristics;
735 kV.
overvoltage in pu of

d/d/v'3.

single line-to-ground faults, fault clearing, etc. Naturally, there

would have to be a strong economic incentive to justify adopting
this policy; furthermore, no objections should exist to single lineto-ground faults developing into double line-to-ground faults.
However, for transmission systems including type-B bus bars,
to which more lines are connected, and which are not effectively
protected by lightning arresters against switching surges, the
air-insulated structures of the bus bars must be designed to
withstand the highest overvoltage that may arise from line faults
and fault clearing. As noted previously, such protection by
lightning arresters against switching surges is difficult to achieve
for switching surge insulation levels below 1.8-1.7 pu.
Furthermore, the insulation level of the terminal sections of
the lines should also be of the same order as that of the bus bars,
since these sections are stressed by practically the same overvoltages as the bus bars, and it is certainly unacceptable that a
fault on a line or the opening of a faulty line should cause the loss
of other lines connected to the same bus bars.
To assess fully the influence of fault-clearing overvoltages,
found to be of great importance in the system under consideration
on the insulation of the entire line, the overvoltages caused by
the opening of a faulty line should be evaluated, not only at the
bus bar, but also in the various sections of the other lines connected to the bus bar. This study is now under way.
However it can already be stated that fault-clearing overvoltages may impose limits on the usefulness of reducing closing
and reclosing overvoltages. Nevertheless, from the small number
of tests carried out, it seems that this limit can be substantially
lowered by the use of low ohmic resistors during opening.
CONCLUSIONS
1) The overvoltages arising from switching operations, faults,
and fault clearing in a 735-kV system were studied, and a
comparison was made of the relative severity of fault overvoltages versus energization and reenergization overvoltages, when
the latter are controlled by suitable breaker design.

CLERICI AND TASCHINI:

OVERVOLTAGES FROM VARIOUS CAUSES

IN EHV SYSTEMS

2) In systems similar to that considered here (shunt-compensated line, negligible power-frequency overvoltage following
the energization of the unloaded line), it seems possible to
reduce the overvoltages due to line reenergization to a value of

about 1.5 pu by means of a single-step resistor breaker, if the

resistor value and the insertion time are optimized. If it is
desired to limit overvoltages to a lower value, various alternatives have been shown to be suitable: two- or three-step resistors, single-step resistor breaker, and a reasonably simple
form of controlled closing, or, lastly, a separate auxiliary resistor
switch, connected on the line side of the reactors and inserted
during both the opening and closing sequence of a conventional
breaker. However, tests presently being carried out and tests
reported elsewhere show that these results cannot be extrapolated
to uncompensated lines and that in this case overvoltage control
may require more resistor steps, the overvoltage level aimed at
being the same.
3) The usefulness of reducing closing and reclosing overvoltages was shown to be limited by the overvoltages due to
fault clearing, with or without load rejection. In the system
considered in this report, overvoltages up to 1.7 pu were found
possible in the case of breakers without opening resistors. However, by means of low ohmic resistors inserted during the opening sequence, it may be expected that these overvoltages can be
reduced to about 1.4 pu.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to express their appreciation to ENEL
for the permission to publish the results of the study and to Mr.
M. Cazzani and Mir. R. Manara of CESI for their essential
help in conducting the study.

REFERENCES
[1] E. W. Boehne, "Basic switching surge insulation levels-a
proposed philosophy for EHV insulation coordination," presented at the 1968 Region III "Gateway to the Future" Convention, New Orleans, La., April 22-24, 1968.
[2] E. W. Kimbark and A. C. Legate, "Fault surge versus switching
surge-a study of transient overvoltages caused by line-toground faults," IEEE Trans. Power Apparatus and Systems,
vol. PAS-87, pp. 1762-1769, September 1968.
[3] D. E. Hedman, I. B. Johnson, C. H. Titus, and D. D. Wilson,
"Switching of extra-high-voltage circuits, pt. II: surge reduction
with circuit-breaker resistors," IEEE Trans. Power Apparatus
and Systems, vol. 83, pp. 1196-1205, December 1964.
[4] L. Paris, "Basic considerations of magnitude reduction of
switching surges due to line energization," IEEE Trans. Power
Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-87, pp. 295-305, January
1968.
[5] E. Maury, "Synchronous closing of 525- and 765-kV circuit
breakers: a means of reducing switching surges on unloaded
lines," CIGRE, Rept. 143, 1966.
[6] R. G. Colelaser, C. L. Wagner, and E. P. Donohue, "Multistep resistor control of switching surges," IEEE Trans. Power
Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-88, pp. 1022-1028, July 1969.
[7] J. G. Anderson and L. 0. Barthold, "Design challenges of
transmission lines above 765 kV," Paper 10, presented at the
IEEE EHV Transmission Conference, Montreal, P. Q.,
Canada, October 1969.
[81 G. Catenacci, G. Carrara, G. Furioli, and L. Dellera, "1500kV ac lines: a first look at the main electrical design problems,"
Paper 11, presented at the IEEE EHV Transmission Conference, Montreal, P. Q., Canada, October 1969.
[9] P. A. Baltensperger and P. Djurdjevic, "Damping of switching
overvoltages in EHV networks-new economic aspect and
solutions," IEEE Trans. Power Apparatus and Systems,
vol. PAS-88, pp. 1014-1022, July 1969.
[10] A. Clerici, G. Ruckstuhl, and A. Vian, "Influence of shunt
reactors on switching surges," Paper 69 CP 116-PWR, presented
at the IEEE Winter Power Meeting, New York, N. Y., January 26-31, 1969.

939

Discussion
E. W. Kimbark and A. C. Legate (Bonneville Power Administration,
Portland, Ore.): Some readers may wonder why the authors observed a lower maximum overvoltage (1.5 pu) caused by a single
line-to-ground fault than we did (2.1 pu) in [2]. The differences in the
circuit that might cause such a difference in results appear to us
to be the following. 1) We used a low impedance (L = 40 mH) at
both ends, whereas the authors used a higher impedance (L - 92
or 166 mH, calculated from the given short-circuit powers). 2) In
some cases, they used different terminations A and B at opposite
ends.
Curve 1 of Fig. 9, which is for equal terminations of type B,
has its maximum at the middle of the line in conformity with our
results, whereas Curve 2, which is for different terminations (type A
at one end and B at the other), has its maximum at the receiving
end.
The value of the paper is that it shows that fault clearing may
become the kind of switching that causes the greatest overvoltage,
not only on the faulted line but also-and this is more serious-on
the bus bars and on other lines connected to the same bus bars.
The transient overvoltage due to the occurrence of a fault may
be of little importance except when single-pole switching is employed for clearing single line-to-ground faults. If such a fault, which
is the most frequent type, should develop into a double line-toground fault, not only the more severe fault but also the consequent necessary opening of a second pole of each circuit breaker
would more seriously impair the stability of the power system than
would the initial single fault. There is some doubt of the feasibility of
employing single-pole switching on lines of higher voltage than 500
kV.
For reducing the overvoltages caused by fault clearance, the
authors suggest that circuit breakers be provided with opening
resistors in the range 300 to 600 ohms, a value much lower than that
used for several other purposes. All these purposes could be achieved
by the use of two steps of opening resistance, which, it is hoped,
might have values that would also be eff ective as closing resistances.
With the advent of highly compensated EHV lines with large
conductors there appear also high-Q oscillatory circuits that may
cause overvoltages unless means are devised for hastening the decay
of transient oscillations. We should seek ways of introducing resistors
of appropriate resistance at such times and places that will cause
strong damping of transient oscillations without significant increase
in losses under steady-state power-frequency positive-sequence conditions.

Manuscript received July 11, 1969.

Lance A. Kilar (Westinghouse Electric Corporation, East Pittsburgh, Pa.): The authors are to be commended for demonstrating
the effectiveness of various alternatives for limiting transient overvoltages caused by energizing and reenergizing EHV transmission
lines. The possibility that fault and fault-clearing overvoltages may
become the limiting factor in reducing switching surges is indeed an

important consideration.
It was surprising to see that switching surges associated with
source A were not markedly different from those associated with
source B. Generally the source type and size influence the magnitudes of surges to a considerable degree. This phenomenon was
seen in a lengthy ANACOM computer study undertaken by Westinghouse to evaluate different means for controlling switching surges on
future 1100-kV transmission systems. In this study, two different
sources were used to supply a 200-mile 70-pereent shunt compensated
line. One source was representative of a generator feeding the line
through a step-up transformer as illustrated in Fig. 13(a). The other
source consisted of four parallel 1100-kV lines, 150 miles long,
supplying the switched line as shown in Fig. 13(b). Both sources

Manuscript received July 14, 1969.

940

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS,

MAY/JUNE 1970

20,000 M VA
XO

Ab4>

2.0

1100 KV

(a)
20,000 MVA
4 -150 Ml.

XO/X,* 2.0

1100 KV

(b)
Fig. 13. Sources used to supply 1100-kV line. (a) Inductive.
(b) Line.
4.4

4.0
3.6
3.2

2.8 tiNDUCTIVE SOURCE

2.48
2.I-

OR SOURC~LIE SOURCE00KV)

1.2 0

1.6
C.' 1.2

OR

A
~~~~~~SOURCE
SOURCESB

201
1100 KV

70% COMPENSATION

00

1400
1200
1000
800
600
PREINSERTION RESISTOR SIZE (OHMS)
Fig. 14. Maximum overvoltage versus resistor size for reclosing with one-step resistor breaker from
inductive source and from line source.
200

400

1600

941

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, VOL. PAS-89, NO. 5/6, MAY/JUNE 1970

have a three-phase fault capability of 20 000 MVA and an xo/xi

ratio of 2.0. Fig. 14 is a plot of the maximum receiving-end overvoltage from reclosing the line with a one-step resistor breaker as a
function of preinsertion resistor size, for both the inductive source
and the line source. The curves clearly show the effect of source
type on the maximum possible voltage. For the optimum resistor
size, the line source produces a maximum overvoltage of 1.8 pu and
the inductive source limits surges to 1.5 pu. Therefore, results gained
from switching with an inductive source or a combination of an
inductive and a line source might be erroneously optimistic if line
sources occur on the system.

Alessandro Clerici and Achille Taschini: We wish to thank Dr.

Kimbark and Mr. Legate, and Mr. Kilar for their valuable discussions.

We fully agree with Dr. Kimbark and Mr. Legate that overvoltages
of the order of 2 pu can be caused by single line-to-ground faults in
systems similar to that given in [2]; we also agree on the reasons
suggested by Dr. Kimbark and Mr. Legate to explain the different
values given in [2] and in our paper. Indeed for the line given in
Fig. l(a) the maximum overvoltage value caused by single line-toground faults increases from -1.5 pu to -1.7 pu if the source
inductance at both ends is decreased from 166 to 55 mH.
Further explanations for the difference in overvoltage value found
in the two cases appear to us to be the following.
1) The zero-sequence constants (at power frequency) of the line
studied in [2] were: Lo = 5.76 mH/mile and C0 = 13.8 nF/mile,
whereas the constants of the line considered in our report, the ground
wires being steel-aluminum, were: Lo = 3.25 mH/mile and C0 =
14.7 nF/mile. Further tests have shown that the maximum overvoltage on the line of Fig. 1, terminated at both ends with type-B

Manuscript received August 29, 1969.

Effectiveness

sources, increases of approximately 10 percent if the following zerosequence constants, based on the assumption of insulated ground
wires, are used: Lo = 5.25 mH/mile and Co = 14.7 nF/mile.
2) Different "load flow" conditions, and therefore a different phase
displacement of the voltages at the ends of the line, may cause
differences in overvoltage value. For instance, the overvoltage
value on the line of Fig. l(a), terminated at both ends with type-A
sources, increased of about 10 percent in passing from the load flow
conditions of Fig. 8 to the unloaded condition.
Regarding the overvoltages caused by clearing of asymmetrical
faults, it might be of interest to point out that for the system given
in Fig. 10, overvoltages up to 1.85 pu have been recorded in further
tests along the two lines feeding the bus bars (i.e., overvoltages higher
than those on the bus bars).
Regarding the comments by Mr. Kilar, we agree that the source
configuration may have a considerable influence in certain cases.
According to our experience, however, differences of about 20 percent for sources having the same short-circuit power seem quite
exceptional, if optimum resistor values and insertion times are
selected. In any case it does not seem possible to state the influence
of the source in a general way on the basis of the results obtained in
particular cases.
In addition we would like to point out that the maximum surges
when reclosing source of Fig. 13(b), in both cases of very small and
rather high values of preinsertion resistors, present generally very
sharp peaks if a distributed parameter representation of the lines is
considered. In our experience more than 30 7r sections per line are
required at TNA to give correct peaks in this case. If a lower number of Xr units is considered, the comparison of maximum peaks
between sources of Fig. 13 could be affected by the representation.
With respect to the tests discussed in our report, we would like to
point out that only an inductive source or a combination of an
inductive and a line source were considered. The study is therefore
restricted to the first category of sources according to the classification given by Mr. Kilar in his last statement, and these are the
most common ones.

of Series Capacitors in
Transmission

Long

Lines

BELUR S. ASHOK KUMAR, K. PARTHASARATHY, F. S. PRABHAKARA,

Abstract-The effectiveness of series capacitors used with long

distance transmission lines in improving system stability is analyzed.
Compensation efficiency is defined as the effectiveness of series
capacitors. The influence of various factors on compensation efficiency such as capacitor location, line length, and degree of series
compensation is investigated. Proper use of shunt reactors with
series capacitors, in addition to limiting power frequency overvoltages, increases the maximum power transfer. Analytical ex-

Paper 69 TP 705-PWR, recommended and approved by the

Transmission and Distribution Committee of the IEEE Power
Group for presentation at the IEEE Summer Power Meeting,
Dallas, Tex., June 22-27, 1969. Manuscript submitted February 19,
1969; made available for printing April 24, 1969.
The authors are with the Department of Electrical Engineering,
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 12, India.

Distance

AND

H. P. KHINCHA

pressions are included to aid in the calculation of compensation

efficiency for a few typical cases. Curves are also presented indicating the critical value of shunt Mvar required for various degrees of
series compensation and line lengths.

INTRODUCTION
THE stability requirement limits the permissible power on
EHV lines, which decreases with increasing line lengths.
Of late, the use of series capacitors in conjunction with (extralong-distance-extra-high-voltage) lines has become common,
since series capacitors offer an effective and economical means of
improving stability limits and thus permit the lines to carry
more power. The study of various problems such as stability
[1], protection of series capacitors [21, system relaying [3], and