Principles of Work Design

Machines and Equipment | Tool Design

Marella Auditor
Angelica Barrera
Mharby Bragado
Jericho Buensalida
Yves Alvin Carolasan
Roxette Cortes
Nichole Gugol
Veronica Laurel
Ergonomics

manipulate with maximum proficiency and

minimum fatigue

Ergonomics refer to designing the work place, tools,

equipment and work environment to fit the human
operator (1). Mac hines and equipment should be
designed properly in a manner easier to the operator
or employee to perform his job efficiently, with
increased productivity and decreased injury.

Frequently used control should be positioned

between elbow and shoulder height

Seated operators can apply maximum

to levers located at elbow level

and

Standing operators can apply maximum force

to levers located at shoulder level

1. Tak e multiple cuts whenever possible by combining

two or more tools in one, or by arranging
simultaneous cuts from both feeding devices.

Handwheel and crank diameters depend on

the torque to be expended and the mounting
position

Maximum diameter of handgrips depend on

forces to be exerted

The diameters of knobs should be increased

as greater torques are needed (1).

Principles of
Equipment

Work

De sign:

Machine

Tools can be combined to perform multiple cuts and

simultaneous cuts in order to obtain the most efficient
production process through adva nced production
planning. This requires knowledge of the type of work,
production quantity and desirability of combining cuts
(1).
2. Use a fixture instead of the hand as a holding
device.

force

4. Use shape, texture, and size coding for controls.

Fixture, as defined by Merriam-Webster, is a device

for supporting work during machining. It is use to hold
a devic e or a material during the processing of a part
so that the hands can do ot her work increasing the
work ers productivity. With the use of fixtures, the
processing time of a product will be decreased.
Moreover, the quality of products being proc essed will
be improved since the fixture can hold the material or
product more firmly and accurately (1).

Cont rols can be coded using shape, size, texture,

location, operational methods, colors and labels.
Shape coding can give access to both visual and
tactual identification. This make use of tactual
sensitivity of a human to differentiat e and discriminate
the shapes of the controls. Moreover, this coding
minimizes errors in way that it is useful under working
conditions requiring double-quality control and those
with low illumination. The table below shows
commonly mistaken control shapes [1].

3. Locate all control devices for best operator

accessibilty and strength capability.
To ensure smooth flow and effective operation,
machine tools and other devic es must be designed in
consideration of various human factors. The following
are the guidelines for designing a facility:
Handwheels, cranks, and levers should be of
size and place in a position that operators can

Cont rol size, control resistance and control to

response ratio have a major impact on performanc e.
Cont rol which are too large or too small cannot be
triggered in an efficient manner.
Minimum and
maximum cont rol measurements for different control
devices are shown below.

Figure 1. Examples of knob designs for three classes of use that

are seldom confused by touch. The diameter or length of these
controls should be betw een 0.5 and 4.0 in (1.3 and 10 cm), except
for class C, w here 0.75 in (1.9 cm) is the minimum suggested. The
height should be betw een 0.5 and 1 in (1.3 and 2.5)

This shows knob designs for three different types of

uses often mistaken by the operator. The height of
these controls should be between 0.5 and 1 in (1.3
and 2.5 cm) and the diameter or length of should be
between 0.5 and 4. 0 in (1.3 and 10 cm), except for
class C, where 0.75 in (1.9 cm) is the minimum
suggested.
For discrete settings, detent positioning knobs are
used, while for continuous controls with ranges of
adjustment containing turns of more than one,
multiple rot ation knobs are used. Those with
continuous controls having adjustment ranges less
than one full turns are referred to as fractional rotation
knobs [2].
Surface texture coding are identified as
suitable for ease control identification of which three
textures are sometimes confused: smooth, fluted and
knurled. Safety equipment, such as use of gloves
limits shape coding to only visual discrimination and
tactual discrimination to only two to four shapes [1].

Figure 2. Maximum and minimum control dimensions for varying

control size mechanisms

Adequate discriminability between different sizes is

the main consideration when coding by size. This
allows both tactual and visual identification of contr ols
and is used mainly where the controls are cannot be
seen by the operators. Limits of size categories
ranges from three to four, with a difference of at least
0.5 inches.
Cont rols which should not be
inadvertently activat ed make use of operational
coding or for those with unique movement [1].
5. Use proper control
resistance

size,

displacement,

Figure 3: Maximum and minimum control dimensions for varying

displacement criteria

The amount movement in a control divided by the

amount of movement in a control divided by the
amount of movement in the response is referred to as
the control-respons e ratio. A high C/ R ratio indicat es
low sensitivity while a low C/ R ratio means high
sensitivity. An example of the former is the
micrometers fine adjustment while an example of the
latter is the micrometers coarse adjustment [2[.
Movement times are dependent on the main travel
time to achieve estimated time setting and the

and

secondary adjust time to achieve the exact target

setting. The type of control and task conditions affect
the optimal C/R ratio and
reduces the overall movement time. Range effect
which is defined to be the capability of the movement
time to undershoot long distances and overshoot
shoot distances must also be taken into
consideration. Another important consideration is the
control resistance whic h provides feedback for users.
Manipulation of controls involves bot h the amount of
displacement of the control and the amount of force
applied to the control. The first provides displacement
with no resistance can cause less fatigue while the
second returns to zero after release [1].

feedback, which indicates the accomplished work or

task to the operator [1].

Defective controls such as excessive viscous

damping, deadspace, which is the amount of control
movement around the null position that doesn't
activate the control and high initial static friction impair
tracking and use performance [1].
Figure 5. Relationship between C/R ratio and movement time
(travel time and adjust time).

Direct drive action, scale readings moving from left to

right and clockwise movement which increas es
settings, indicate the compatibility movement.
Warricks Principle indicating that the points
controlling its movement in a unified single direction
and located near the display provides the best
compatibility for vertical and horizontal displays.
Circular displays on the other hand, comprises of a
moving display points and fix ed scales. Lastly,
displays of varying planes indicate a clockwise
direction for inc reasing movement and the right -hand
screw rule whic h means that display on the direction
of the right handed screw increases [1].

Principles of Work Design: Tools

Figure 4. This shows the minimum and maximum dimension for the
control resistance criteria

1. Use a power grip for tasks requiring force and

pinch grips for task s requiring precision

6. Ensure proper compatibility between controls and

displays

Prehension is the variations of grip between t wo

extremes: a power grip and a pinch grip (1). Digging
in further with these two, it is important to effectively
distinguish power grip and pinch grip. Power grip is
the way a cylindrical handle is held with a clamp using
the partly flexed fingers and t he palm. With this
position, pressure is applied by the thumb, which
slightly overlaps the middle finger (1).This grip is used
for tasks requiring force.

Compatibility is defined as the relationship between

controls and the responses of the systems with which
the human interaction is evident [2]. Basic principles
of compatibility are as follows: Mapping, which is the
definite relationship existing between the inputs and
the responses, affordance, which is the perceived
property yielding the actions desired and lastly, the

Next, pinch grip differs from power grip in a way that

the tool is held bet ween distal ends of one or more
3

fingers and the opposing thumb. With this grip, the

position of the fingers are important because they
dictate the amount of force the person can exert. This
grip is used for tasks requiring precision.Figure 1
shows the four basic types of pinch grips and a
couple of variation for the power grip.

operator must be at a greater distance when the

elbows are not bent.
4. Maintain a straight wrist
Moving wrists while working is complet ely normal but
as the wrist is moved from its neutral or straight
position, a loss of grip strength occurs (1). Extremes
in the range of movement place extensive pressures
upon tendons passing through the carpal tunnel. The
following are some of the effects of awk ward hand
positions when doing work (1):

Soreness of the wrist,

Loss of grip, and
Occurrence
of
carpal
tunnel
syndrome if sustained for extended
periods.

Figure 6. Four basic variation of pinch grip and other variation

for pow er grip

2. Avoid prolonged static muscle loading

When the posture or position is held throughout the
exertion,
increased
loads
or
forces
on
the muscles and tendons contribute to fatigue. When
the posture or position is held throughout the ex ertion,
increased loads or forces on the muscles and tendons
contribut e to fatigue Rearranging the workplaceso as
to keep the elbows at 90 eliminat es most of the
problem. Figure 2 shows different scenarios where
operators are holding a position throughout the
process.

Figure 8. Poor and Good postures in maintaining straight

w rists in the w orkplace.

Figure 3 displays the poor and good postures

in maintaining straight wrists in the workplace.
To give an example, when working with
computers, maintain straight wrist postures by
installing the proper height for the keyboard,
mouse, or other working surfaces (2). Another
good example is to use tools that allow the
wrist to remain in a straight posture if manual
operations must be performed (2). When
doing work, the use of "T" handles instead of
straight handles can help to maintain straight
wrists. Other tools that help in maintaining
straight wrists are bent plier handles and a
pistol-grip knife (1).
Figure 7. Hammering and drilling as examples of static muscle
loading.

5. Avoid tissue compression

3. Perform twisting motions with the elbows bent

Compression of soft tissues may obstruct blood

circulation, resulting in numbness and tingling (1).
Handles must be designed to have large contact
surfaces so that the force will be distributed over a
large area which will lessen tissue compression.
Figure 4 shows how tools are originally designed with

Fatigue is much great er when the elbows are not

bent. When the elbow is extended, tendons and
muscles in the arm stretch out and provide low force
capability. Aside from being stretched, rigid elbows
reduce the force that can be applied. Lastly, the
4

Figure 10. Tools designed for right-handed people like

the mouse and drill press machine.

simple handles vs. the improved version of the tools

with handles that are ergonomic.

However, manufacturers still design power

tools that are suitable for both left-handed and
right-handed people. Figure 6 shows a few
examples.

Figure 9. Tools w ith conventional handles vs. modified

handles

6. Design tools so that they can be used by either

hand and by most individuals
It is important to design tools that can be used by both
hands to lessen the stress and fatigue that the hand is
experiencing. However, a lot of tools today cater to
people who are right-handed since about 90% of the
population consist of right-handed people and the
10% are left -handed. Most tools are only designed for
use with the right hand, hence left-handed operators
tend to adapt. Some examples of tools designed for
right handed people are shown of Figure 5.

Figure 11. Pow er tools that have interchangeable

support handles to fit both right-handed and left-handed
users.

7. Design a 3 in grip span for two handled

Grip strength and the resulting stress on finger flexor
tendons vary with the size of the object being
grasped. The percent grip strength is defined by the
function:
%Grip strength = 100 - 0.28*S -65.8*S

Where S is the given grip span minus the optimum

grip span (3 in. for females and 3.2 in. for males ).
Because of the large variation in individual strength
capacities, and the need to accommodate most of the
working population (i.e., the 5th percentile female),
maximal grip requirements should be limited to less
than 20lb.

truncated cones joined at the largest ends. Such a

shape fits the cont ours of the palm and thumb best, in
both precision and power grips, and it yielded the
highest torques in comparison with more conventional
handles.
9. Design grip surf ace to be compressible and
nonconductive
In the past, wood has been mainly used as the
material for tool handles. It has good resistance to
shock and thermal and electrical conductivity, and it
has good frictional qualities, even when wet. It is also
easily worked and readily available. But since wooden
handles can break and stain with grease and oil, there
has recently been a shift to plastic and even met al.
But metal should be covered with rubber or leather to
reduce shock and electrical conductivity and increase
friction.Such compressible materials also dampen
vibration and allow a better distribution of pressure,
reducing fatigue and hand tenderness (1).

Figure 12. Grip strength capability for various population

distributions as a function of grip span.
(From: Greenberg and Chaffin, 1976)

10. Avoid repetitive finger

Studies show that muscle-tendon disorders are found
in workers exceeding 10,000 motions per day.
Symptoms of trigger finger develop when index finger
is excessively used for operating a task. In order to
reduce the load on the index finger, it is preferred to
design a tool which uses two or three fingers for
operation. A power grip bar is a good tool since it
requires the use of more fingers, thus making the grip
stronger (1). Another one is a spring loaded ret urn for
a two-handled tool since it saves the fingers from
having to return the tool to its starting position.
Repeating the action is reduced.
Figure 13 Pulp pinch strength capability for various spans.

11. Use the strongest work ing fingers: the middle

finger and the thumb

8. Design appropriately shaped handles

When work is associated with speed, the index finger

is usually more effective to use. But when it comes to
strength, it is not very reliable. When the load is
relatively heavy, the middle finger, or the combination
of both the middle finger and the index finger, is
usually more efficient to use (1).

For a power grip, design for maximum surface contact

to minimize unit pressure of the hand. Typically, a tool
with a circular cross section is thought to give the
largest torque. However, the shape may be
dependent on the type of task and the motions
involved (1). For example, the maximum pull force
and the best thrusting actions are actually obtained
with a triangular cross section. For a rolling type of
manipulation, the triangular shape is slowest. A
rectangular shape (with corners rounded) with width
to height ratios from 1:1.25 to 1:1.5 appears to be a
good compromise. A further advantage of a
rectangular cross section is that the tool does not roll
when placed on a table. Also, the handles should not
have the shape of a true cylinder, except for a hook
grip. For screwdriver-type tools, the handle end
should be rounded to prevent undue pressure at the
palm; for hammer-type tools, the handle may have
some flatteni ng curving, to indicate the end of the
handle. Solf (1979) proposed a more radical design
using a hexagonal cross section, shaped as two

12. Design 1.5 in handle diameters for power grips

When dealing with a cylindrical tool in power grips, its
circumference should be entirely surrounded where
the fingers barely touch the thumb. This can be done
by designing a tool that has a handle diameter of
approximately 1.5 inches for power grips, and 0.5
inches for precision grips (Freivalds, 1996). This
results to minimum grip endurance deterioration and
maximum thrust forces (1).
13. Design handle lengths to be a minimum of 4
inches

For every tool, there must be enough space for all

fingers in its handle. For this to be possible, the
minimum length of the handle should be 4 inches (1).
Larger openings are rec ommended when grip is
closed or gloves are used. Tool shaft must be long
enough for external precision grip such as holding a
pen. For internal precision grip, the length should
extend past the palm but not long enough to touch the
wrist. (1)

White finger syndrome - reduction in blood flow to the

fingers and hand due t o vasoconstruction of the blood
vessels.
17. Use the proper configuration and orient ation of
power tools
The major function of the operator is to hold, stabilize
and monit or the tool against a workpiece, while the
tools perform the main effort of the job. (1) In short,
the operators main function is to effectively grasp and
hold the tool.

14. Keep the weight of the tool below 5 lb

A hand drill is comprised of a head, body, and handle,

with all three ideally being in line. The line of action is
the line from the extended index finger. (1)

The time it takes for a hand tool to be bearable to hold

and the precision where it can be manipulated is
proportional to the weight of the hand tool. The tool
should be well balanced as to avoid the occurrence of
torque that will require the operator more effort to
handle the tool. A telescoping arms or tool balancers
should be used to mount heavy tools to absorb impact
or vibration (1).

Handle Configuration

15. Use gloves judiciously

pistol grip - tightening on a vertical surface,

handle with angle of approximately 78 with
the horizontal
in-line or right-angle - tightening downward on
a horizontal surface

E ven though gloves provide safety and comfort when

used with hand tools it can also decrease
performance by reducing the grip strength of the
work er by 10 to 20 percent. The following are types of
gloves with their corresponding decrease in
performance
as
compared
to
bare-handed
performance (1):
Type of Gloves

Percent
decrease
relative to bare
handed work

Neoprene

12.5 %

Terry Cloth

36%

Leather

45%

PVC

64%

Figure 14. Proper orientation of power tools in the workplace

(Source: Armstrong, 1983) (1)

Center of Gravity
16. Use power tools such as nut and screw drivers
instead of manual tools

Muscles of the operators hand and forearm must

overcome the turning moment caused by the center of
gravity that is too far forward in the body of tool. This
requires additional muscular effort from the operator.
(1)
Primary handle is placed directly under the
center of gravity
For heavy drills, secondary support or handle
is needed

Power hand tools provide faster work and less fatigue

for the operator. But using powered hand tools can
induce white finger syndrome that can later develop to
carpal tunnel syndrom e because of the vibration
produced by the power t ool. Using especially
designed vibration damping handles or vibrationabsorbing gloves can help by reducing the driving
force.(1)

18. Use a power tool with the proper characteristics

https://www.osha.org/SLTC/etools/electricalcontractors/sup
plemental/solutions/tasks_hand.html

Power tools vary in handle configurations, spindle

diameters, speeds, weights, shutoff mechanisms, and
torque outputs.
Spindle mechanisms power can be shut off quickly
once the nut or other fastener is tight.

direct drive simplest and cheapest

airflow shutoff - automatically senses when to
cut off the air supply; good at reducing
reaction torque
automatic mechanical clutch shutoff
hydraulic pulse system
electrical pulse system

Torque varies depending on the properties of the

tool, the operator, and properties of the joint.

larger reaction torques : electrical tools at

lower
than
normal
rpm
level/
or
underpowering pneumatic tools
lowest reaction torques : Pulse-type tools

Other potential problems:

noise from the pneumatic mechanism

reaching levels as high as 95 dB(A),
vibration levels exceeding 132 dB(V)
dust or oil fumes emanating from the
exhaust

19. Use reaction bars and tool balancers for power

tools.
Selecting the right torque tool for the job is crucial, but
operator safety is the key priority when operating a
high torque or high speed tool. To protect the operator
from any potential injury and make them feel
comfortable and secure in operating tools, devic es
such reaction bars and tool balancers are used when
using power tools.
Reaction torque bars should be provided if the torque
exceeds (1):

6Nm for in line tools used for downward

action
12Nm for pistol grip tools used in a horizontal
mode
50Nm for right angled tools in a downward
or upward motion

References
(1)
(2)

Freivalds, A. 2009. Niebels Methods, Standards, and work

Design. Mc graw Hill Intl. New York
Ergonomics eTool: Solutions for Electrical Contractors.
Retrieved
April
28,2016
from