CHAPTER 5 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS

5.1

How are metal alloys made by the casting process?

Alloying elements are added to the molten (basic) metal and allowed to melt. The molten
metal is subsequently mixed to achieve uniformity and then cast into solid ingots or castings.

5.2

Distinguish between wrought alloy products and cast alloy products.

Wrought alloy products are produced using a working process such as rolling, extruding or
forging.

5.3

Why are cast metal sheet ingots hot-rolled first instead of being cold-rolled?
Hot rolling is applied first because it is more efficient in reducing ingot sheet thickness than
cold working.

5.4

What type of heat treatment is given to the rolled metal sheet after hot and warm rolling?
What is its purpose?
In most cases, the rolled metal slabs are reheated to a relatively high temperature which allows
for further hot rolling without excessive oxidation of the metal. Once all hot and warm
rolling is complete, the metal is reheated or annealed to remove cold-work induced through the
hot-working.

5.5

Calculate the percent cold reduction after cold rolling 0.040-in.-thick aluminum sheet to 0.025
in.
initial thickness final thickness
% cold reduction =
100%
initial thickness

0.040 in. 0.025 in.

=
100%
0.040 in.

= 37.5%

5.6

A 70% Cu30% Zn brass sheet is 0.0955 cm thick and is cold-rolled with a 30 percent
reduction in thickness. What must be the final thickness of the sheet?
t0 t f
% cold reduction =
100%
t0
0.0955 cm t f
0.30 =
t f = 0.0669 cm
100%
0.0955 cm
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5.7

A sheet of an aluminum alloy is cold-rolled 30 percent to a thickness of 0.080 in. If the sheet is
then cold-rolled to a final thickness of 0.064 in., what is the total percent cold work done?
t0 t f
% cold reduction =
100%
t0
t 0.080 in
0.30 = 0
t0 = 0.114 in.
100%
t0

The total cold work is therefore,

0.114 in. 0.064 in.

total % cold work =
100% = 43.9%
0.114 in.

5.8

Describe and illustrate the following types of extrusion processes: (a) direct extrusion and (b)
indirect extrusion. What is an advantage of each process?
The direct and indirect extrusion processes are shown below in Fig. (a) and (b) respectively.

(a) In direct extrusion, the billet is forced directly through the die of the extrusion press
by a solid ram.
(b) Whereas, in an indirect extrusion process, a hollow ram holds the die and forces it against
the billet.
Higher loads can be applied with the direct process while advantages associated with the
indirect process include lower frictional forces and lower power requirements.
5.9

Which process in Prob. 5.8 is used most commonly? Which metals and alloys are commonly
extruded?
The direct extrusion process is most commonly used. Aluminum and copper alloys are the
metals most typically extruded but stainless steels, carbon steels, and other metals are also
extruded.

5.10

Describe the forging process. What is the difference between hammer and press forging?
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In the forging process metal is hammered or pressed into the desired shape. In hammer forging
a hammer repeatedly strikes the work piece to shape it. In press forging, a slow compressive
force is used to shape the metal.
5.11

What is the difference between open-die and closed forging? Illustrate. Give an example of a
metal product produced by each process.
Open die forging is carried out with two flat dies or with two dies of simple shapes. Closed die
forging is accomplished with a single or multiple impression set of dies with the shaped metal
being entirely surrounded by the die. Examples of these die types are shown below
schematically.

Examples of dies for open-die forging.

Closed forging dies used to

produce an automobile
connecting rod.

An example of a forging made by the open-die process is a long shaft for turbomachinery
applications such as a turbine. An automobile connecting rod is an example of a closed die
forging.
5.12

Describe the wire-drawing process. Why is it necessary to make sure the surface of the
incoming wire is clean and lubricated?
In the wire drawing process a starting rod or wire is drawn through one or more tapered dies to
reduce the cross section of the wire. It is important to have the wire surface clean so that
defects are not introduced into the wire. Lubrication is also necessary to prevent tearing of the
metal being drawn through the die and to reduce friction.

5.13

Calculate the percent cold reduction when an aluminum wire is cold-drawn from a diameter of
5.25 mm to a diameter of 2.30 mm.
initial area final area
% cold reduction =
100%
initial area

( 4)(5.25 mm) 2 ( 4)(2.30 mm)2

=
100% = 80.8%
( 4)(5.25 mm)2

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5.14

A 0.15-in.-diameter 99.5% copper wire is to be cold-drawn with a 30 percent cold reduction.

What must be the final diameter of the wire?
A 0 Af
% cold reduction =
100%
A
0

2
2
4 (0.15 in.) 4 d f
30.0 =
100%

(0.15 in.)
4

d f = 0.1255 in.

5.15

A brass wire is cold-drawn 25 percent to a diameter of 1.10 mm. It is then further cold-drawn
to 0.900 mm. What is the total percent cold reduction?
A 0 Af
% cold reduction =
100%
A
0

2
2
4 d 0 4 (1.10 mm)
Initial reduction 25.0 =
d 0 = 1.23 mm
100%

(1.10 mm)

2
(0.90 mm)2
(1.23
mm)
4
4
total % cold reduction =
100% = 46.5 %

(1.23 mm) 2

5.16

Distinguish between elastic and plastic deformation.

Elastic deformation of metal takes place when the metal is able to return to its original
dimensions once the deforming force is removed. Plastic deformation takes place if the metal
does not fully recover its original dimensions after the deforming force is removed.

5.17

Define engineering stress. What are the U.S. customary and SI units for engineering stress?
Engineering stress = =

average uniaxial tensile force F

=
original cross-sectional area
A0

where the units are expressed as:

lb/in2 or psi
N/m2
5.18

(pounds per square inch)

(newtons per square meter)

U. S. Customary
SI

Calculate the engineering stress in SI units on a 2.00-cm-diameter rod that is subjected to a load
of 1300 kg.
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First, the load must be converted to a force, F = ma = (1300 kg)(9.81 m/s 2 ) = 12, 753 N . The
engineering stress is then,

5.19

F
12, 753 N
=
= 40.6 106 Pa = 40.6 MPa
A0 (0.02 m) 2
4

Calculate the engineering stress in SI units on a bar 15 cm long and having a cross section of
4.25 mm x 12.0 mm that is subjected to a load of 5000 kg.
First, the load must be converted to a force, F = ma = (5000 kg)(9.81 m/s 2 ) = 49, 050 N . The
engineering stress is then,

=
5.20

F
49, 050 N
=
= 962 106 Pa = 962 MPa
3
A0 (4.25 10 m)(12.0 103 m)

Calculate the engineering stress in SI units on a bar 25 cm long and having a cross section of
9.00 mm x 4.00 mm that is subjected to a load of 3500 kg.
The load is given as, F = ma = (3500 kg)(9.81 m/s 2 ) = 34, 335 N . The stress is thus,

=
5.21

F
34,335 N
=
= 954 106 Pa = 954 MPa
3
3
A0 (9.0 10 m)(4.0 10 m)

Calculate the engineering stress in U.S. customary units on a 0.400-in.-diameter rod that is
subjected to a force of 1500 lb.
1500 lbf
F
=
= 11,937 lb/in 2 = 11.9 ksi
A0 (0.400 in.) 2
4
What is the relationship between engineering strain and percent elongation?
Engineering strain and percent elongation are related as,

5.22

% engineering strain = engineering strain 100% = % elongation

5.23

A tensile specimen of cartridge brass sheet has a cross section of 0.320 in. x 0.120 in. and a
gage length of 2.00 in. Calculate the engineering strain that occurred during a test if the
distance between gage markings is 2.35 in. after the test.
engineering strain =

Smith

l l0 2.35 in. 2.00 in.

=
= 0.175
2.00 in.
l0

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5.24

A 0.505-in.-diameter rod of an aluminum alloy is pulled to failure in a tension test. If the final
diameter of the rod at the fractured surface is 0.440 in., what is the percent reduction in area of
the sample due to the test?
A0 A f
% area reduction =
A0

d 2f

Af
100%
1
100%

=
1 2 100%

d0

A0

(0.440 in.) 2
= 1
100% = 24.1%
2
(0.505 in.)
5.25

The following engineering stress-strain data were obtained for a 0.2% C plain-carbon steel. (a)
Plot the engineering stress-strain curve. (b) Determine the ultimate tensile strength of the alloy.
(c) Determine the percent elongation at fracture.

Prob. 5.25: Stress vs. Strain

80
70
Stress (ksi)

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

Engineering
Stress

Engineering
Strain

Engineering
Stress

Engineering
Strain

(ksi)

(in./in.)

(ksi)

(in./in.)

0
30
55
60
68
72
74
75

0
0.001
0.002
0.005
0.010
0.020
0.040
0.060

76
75
73
69
65
56
51

0.08
0.10
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.18
0.19
(Fracture)

0.20

Strain (in./in.)

(a) See stress-strain plot above.

(b) The ultimate tensile strength, based on the stress-strain curve, is 76 ksi.
(c) % elongation = engineering strain 100% = 0.19 100% = 19% .
5.26

Plot the data of Prob. 5.25 as engineering stress (MPa) versus engineering strain (mm/mm) and
determine the ultimate strength of the steel.

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Engineering
Stress

Engineering
Strain

Engineering
Stress

Engineering
Strain

600.0

(MPa)

(mm/mm)

(MPa)

(mm/mm)

500.0

0
206.7
379.0
413.4
468.5
496.1
509.9
516.8

0
0.001
0.002
0.005
0.010
0.020
0.040
0.060

523.6
516.8
503.0
475.4
447.9
385.8
351.4

0.08
0.10
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.18
0.19
(Fracture)

Stress (MPa)

Prob. 5.26: Stress vs. Strain

400.0
300.0
200.0
100.0
0.0
0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

Strain (mm/mm)

The ultimate tensile strength, based on the engineering stress-strain curve, is 524 MPa.
5.27

The following engineering stress-strain data were obtained at the beginning of a tensile test for
a 0.2% C plain-carbon steel. (a) Plot the engineering stress-strain curve for these data. (b)
Determine the 0.2 percent offset yield stress for this steel. (c) Determine the tensile elastic
modulus of this steel. (Note that these data only give the beginning part of the stress-strain
curve.)

(a)

Prob. 5.27(a): Stress vs. Strain

80

Engineering
Stress

Engineering
Strain

Engineering
Stress

Engineering
Strain

(ksi)

(in./in.)

(ksi)

(in./in.)

0
15
30
40
50

0
0.0005
0.0010
0.0015
0.0020

60
66
70
72

0.0035
0.0040
0.0060
0.0080

70

Stress (ksi)

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.000

0.004

0.008

0.012

Strain (in./in.)

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(b) The 0.02 % offset yield stress was found graphically as 66 ksi.
(c) The modulus of elasticity is found from the slope of the 0.2% offset curve as:
E=
5.28

(50 103 ) (12 103 )

=
= 25.3 106 psi

0.002 0.0005

Plot the data of Problem 5.27 as engineering stress (MPa) versus engineering strain (mm/mm)
and determine the 0.2 percent offset yield stress of the steel.
Engineering
Stress

Engineering
Strain

600

(MPa)

(mm/mm)

500

0
103.4
206.7
275.6
344.5

0
0.0005
0.0010
0.0015
0.0020

Stress (MPa)

Prob. 5.28: Stress vs. Strain

400
300

Engineering
Stress
(MPa)

Engineering
Strain
(mm/mm)

413.4
454.7
482.3
496.1

0.0035
0.0040
0.0060
0.0080

200
100
0
0.000

0.004

0.008

0.012

Strain (mm/mm)

(b) The 0.02 % offset yield stress was found graphically as approximately 450 MPa.
(c) The modulus of elasticity is found from the slope of the 0.2% offset curve as:
E=
5.29

(450 103 ) (0.0)

=
= 180, 000 MPa = 180 GPa

0.0025 0.0

A 0.505-in.-diameter aluminum alloy test bar is subjected to a load of 25,000 lb. If the
diameter of the bar is 0.490 in. at this load, determine (a) the engineering stress and strain and
(b) the true stress and strain.
d2
Area at start A0 = 0 = (0.505 in.) 2 = 0.200 in 2
4
4
d2
Area under load Ai = i = (0.490 in.)2 = 0.1886 in 2
4
4
Assuming no volume change during extension, A0l0 = Ai li or li / l0 = A0 / Ai .

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Engineering stress =

F 25, 000 lb f
=
= 125, 000 psi
A0
0.200 in 2

Engineering strain = =

li l0 A0
0.200 in 2
=
1 =
1 = 1.0604 1 = 0.060
l0
Ai
0.1886 in 2

True stress = T =

F 25, 000 lb f
=
= 132, 600 psi
Ai 0.1886 in 2

True strain = T = ln
5.30

A
li
0.200 in 2
= ln 0 = ln
= ln(1.0604) = 0.0587
l0
Ai
0.1886 in 2

A twenty-cm-long rod with a diameter of 0.250 cm is loaded with a 5000 N weight. If the
diameter of the bar is 0.490 at this load, determine (a) the engineering stress and strain and (b)
the true stress and strain.

d 02
= (0.25 cm) 2 = 0.04909 cm 2 = 4.909 106 m 2
4
4
2
d

Area under load Ai = i = (0.21 cm)2 = 0.03464 cm 2 = 3.464 106 m 2

4
4
Area at start A0 =

Assuming A0l0 = Ai li or li / l0 = A0 / Ai ,
Engineering stress =

F
5000 N
=
= 1019 106 Pa = 1019 MPa
A0 4.909 106 m 2

li l0 A0
4.909 106 m 2
=
1 =
1 = 1.417 1 = 0.417
l0
Ai
3.464 106 m 2
5000 N
F
True stress = T =
=
= 1443 106 Pa = 1443 MPa
2
6
Ai 3.464 10 m

Engineering strain = =

True strain = T = ln
5.31

0.04909 cm 2
li
A
= ln 0 = ln
= ln(1.418) = 0.349
2
l0
Ai
0.03462 cm

Define the hardness of a metal.

Hardness is a measure of the resistance of a metal to permanent deformation.

5.32

How is the hardness of a material determined by a hardness testing machine?

Hardness is measured by forcing an indenter into the metal surface. The hardness measurement
is made either from the depth of penetration of the indenter or by the size of the indentation.

5.33

What types of indenters are used in (a) the Brinell hardness test, (b) Rockwell C hardness, and
(c) Rockwell B hardness?
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(a) The Brinell test uses a 10 mm sphere of steel or tungsten carbide for its indenter.
(b) The Rockwell C test uses a diamond cone type indenter.
(c) The Rockwell B test uses a 1/16 in. stainless steel sphere indenter.
5.34

What are slipbands and slip lines? What causes the formation of slipbands on a metal surface?
Slipbands are visible step markings on a metal surface which are caused by the shear
deformation, or slip, of metal atoms on slip planes. While slipbands are separated by
approximately 10,000 atom diameters, clusters of microscopic slip lines exist between
slipbands. These finer steps, approximately 50 to 500 atoms apart, also occur on slip planes.

5.35

Describe the slip mechanism that enables a metal to be plastically deformed without fracture.
In the metal slip mechanism, dislocations move through the metal crystals like wave fronts,
allowing metallic atoms to slide over each other under low shear stress. The metal can thus
deform without fracture.

5.36

Why does slip in metals usually take place on the densest-packed planes?
Slip usually takes place on the most densely packed planes because the atoms on these planes
are in close proximity and hence require less shear energy for displacement.

5.37

Why does slip in metals usually take place in the closest-packed directions?
Slip typically occurs along the closest-packed directions because minimal energy is required to
force the atoms to change positions.

5.38

What are the principal slip planes and slip directions for FCC metals?
The principal slip planes and slip directions for FCC metals are {111} and 1 1 0 ,
respectively.

5.39

For the FCC crystal lattice, what are the four principal slip planes and three slip directions?
The four principal slip planes are: (111); (1 11); (1 1 1); (11 1 ).
The three slip directions are: [ 1 1 0 ] ; [ 0 1 1 ]; [ 1 0 1] .

5.40

What are the principal slip planes and slip directions for BCC metals?
The principal slip planes and slip directions for BCC metals are {11 0} and 1 11 ,
respectively.

5.41

What are the principal slip planes and slip directions for HCP metals?

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The principal slip planes and directions for HCP metals are (0 0 0 1) and 11 2 0 .
5.42

What other types of slip planes are important other than the basal planes for HCP metals with
low c/a ratios?

The prism planes, 1 0 1 0

11 2 0 , and the pyramidal planes, 1 0 1 1

11 2 0 , are also

important planes having low c/a ratios.

5.43

What is the critical resolved shear stress for a pure metal single crystal?
The critical resolved shear stress, c , for a single crystal is the minimum shear stress required to
initiate the slip process. This minima is essentially the yield stress of a single crystal.

5.44

Why do pure FCC metals like Ag and Cu have low values of c?

Pure FCC metals like Ag and Cu have low c values because they have twelve slip systems
which include three slip directions.

5.45

What is believed to be responsible for the high values of c for HCP titanium?
The high c values associated with HCP titanium are attributed to the limited number of slip
systems and to the mixed covalent and metallic bonding within the atomic lattice structure.

5.46

A stress of 75 MPa is applied in the [0 01] direction on an FCC single crystal. Calculate (a) the
resolved shear stress acting on the (111) [ 1 0 1] slip system and, (b) the resolved shear stress
acting on the (111) [ 1 1 0 ] slip system.
The resolved shear stress is calculated as: r = cos cos = 75cos cos . We must therefore
determine the values of the angles for and .
(a) The slip plane and direction of the (111) [ 1 01] slip system are shown on the next page in
Figures (a) through (c). Specifically, Fig. (a) illustrates the (111 ) slip plane, , the angle
between the [ 1 01] slip direction and the applied axial stress direction, [0 01] . Referring
to Fig. (b), the (001) plane is bisected by line AE and thus, =  EAD = 45o .
Since we are concerned with the cubic crystal system, the direction normal to the slip
plane is simply the Miller indices of that plane. For the present case, the direction normal
to the (111 ) is thus [111]. Referring to Fig. (c), rectangle ABCD shows between the
[111] normal and the applied axial stress direction, [0 01] . By geometry,
cos =

a
1
=
= 0.5774, = 54.7o
3a
3

r = (75 MPa)( cos 45, )(cos 54.7, ) = 30.6 MPa

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[1 01] Slip Direction

Slip Plane

[111] Normal

(111)

[0 0 1]

to Slip Plane

[1 01]

45

(b) on (001) Plane

E

[0 0 1]

(a) Slip System

[111]
B

3a
2a

(c) on (110) Plane

(b) Referring to Fig. (d), the slip plane and direction of the (111) [ 1 1 0 ] slip system are
shown. As depicted by this sketch, the direction indices of the direction normal to the
(111) plane are [111], and the angle is 90. The angle is shown below in Fig. (e) to
lie between the axial [0 01] direction and the normal to the slip plane, [111]. From
rectangle ABCD, this angle is calculated as: cos = a / 3a = 1/ 3 = 0.5774,
= 54.7o. Thus, r = (75 MPa)( cos 90, )(cos 54.7, ) = 0.
[0 01] Axial
Stress Direction

[111] Normal
to Slip Plane

z
(111)
Slip Plane

[11 0] Slip
Direction

[111]
B

[0 0 1]

3a
2a

(e) on (110) Plane

C

x
(d) Slip System
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A stress of 55 MPa is applied in the [ 0 0 1] direction of a BCC single crystal. Calculate

5.47

(a) the resolved shear stress acting on the (101) [ 1 11] system and
(b) the resolved shear stress acting on the (110) [ 1 11] slip system.
(a) First, the direction normal to the (101) plane is shown below in Fig. (a) to be the [101]
direction. From Fig. (b), the value of angle , between the applied stress direction [ 0 0 1]
and the [ 1 11] slip direction, is dictated by the geometry of rectangle ABCD:
cos = cos a / 3a = 0.5774, = 54.7 o. Finally, the angle lies between the
[ 0 0 1] stress direction and the [101] normal and is thus equal to 45. Substituting into
Eq. (5.15), r = (55 MPa)(cos 54.7, )( cos 45, ) = 22.5 MPa.
(b)

(a)

[0 0 1]

[0 0 1]
[1 11] Slip Direction

z
E

[1 0 1]

3a

Normal

(c)

2a

[ 1 11]
B

[0 0 1]

[1 0 1]

x
(101)

= 45

Slip Plane

(b) The direction normal to the (110) slip plane, [1 1 0 ] , and the [ 1 1 1] slip direction are
shown below in Fig. (d). From Fig. (e), the value of angle is calculated as:
cos = cos a / 3a = 0.5774, = 54.7 o. Finally, the angle lies between the [ 0 0 1]
stress direction and the [1 1 0 ] normal, and is thus equal to 90. Substituting into Eq.
(5.15), r = (55 MPa)(cos 54.7, )( cos 90, ) = 0.

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[0 0 1]

(d)

[1 11] Slip Direction

(e)
[0 0 1]

[ 1 11]
B

(110)

Slip Plane

3a

y
2a

[11 0] Normal

5.48

Determine the tensile stress that must be applied to the [1 1 0 ] axis of a high-purity copper
single crystal to cause slip on the (1 1 1 )[0 1 1] system. The resolved shear stress for the
crystal is 0.85 MPa.
Referring to Fig. (a) below, the angle between the [1 1 0 ] stress application and the [0 1 1]
slip direction is = cos 1[(cos 45, ) 2 ] = 60,. The angle , as depicted in Fig. (b), lies between
the [1 1 0 ] stress direction and the [1 1 1 ] normal and is calculated as: cos = 2a / 3a
= 0.8165, = 35.3,. Thus, the tensile stress is:

(a)

r
0.85 MPa
=
= 2.08 MPa
cos cos (cos 60, )(cos 35.3, )

[0 1 1] Slip
Direction

(b)

[1 1 1 ]
Slip Plane

3a

a
D
[1 1 0]

2a

[1 1 1]

D
[1 1 0]
[1 1 1]
Normal

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5.49

A stress of 4.75 MPa is applied in the [0 0 1 ] direction of a unit cell of an FCC copper single
crystal. Calculate the resolved shear stress on the (11 1 ) plane in the following directions: (a)
[ 1 0 1 ], (b) [ 0 1 1 ], (c) [ 1 1 0 ].

(a) For slip system (11 1 ) [ 1 0 1 ], can be calculated based upon the geometry depicted
within rectangle ABCD of Fig. (b): cos = cos a / 3a = 0.5774, = 54.7 o. From the
(001) plane indicated in Fig. (c) as square ADEF, is equal to 45. Thus, the resolved
shear stress is: r = cos cos = (4.75 MPa)( cos 45, )(cos 54.7, ) = 1.94 MPa
(b)

(a)

[0 0 1]

[1 0 1]
Slip Direction

(11 1 )
Slip Plane

3a

C
2a

[11 1 ]

(c)

[0 0 1]

[0 0 1]

[ 1 0 1]

[11 1]
Normal

= 45

(b) For slip system (11 1 ) [ 0 1 1 ], can be calculated based on the geometry depicted below
in Fig. (e): cos = cos a / 3a = 0.5774, = 54.7 o. Referring to Fig. (f), by geometry
is equal to 45. Thus, r = cos cos = (4.75 MPa)( cos 45, )(cos 54.7, ) = 1.94 MPa.
(c) For slip system (11 1 ) [ 1 1 0 ], can be calculated based on the geometry depicted below
in Fig. (h): cos = cos a / 3a = 0.5774, = 54.7 o. Referring to Fig. (i), by geometry
is equal to 90. Thus, r = cos cos = (4.75 MPa)( cos 90, )(cos 54.7, ) = 0.

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(e)

(d)
[0 1 1]
(11 1 )
Slip Plane

Slip Direction

z
A

2a

3a

[11 1 ]

[0 0 1]

(f)
[0 0 1]

[0 0 1]

[11 1]
Normal

[0 0 1]

F
[0 1 1]

(h)

(g)
(11 1 )
Slip Plane

[0 0 1]

z
A

A
[1 1 0]

Slip Direction

3a

C
F
B

y
(i)
[1 1 0]

C
[0 0 1]

[0 0 1]

[11 1 ]

[0 0 1 ]

2a

[11 1]
Normal

= 90

2a

[0 0 1]

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5.50

A stress of 2.78 MPa is applied in the [ 0 0 1] direction of a unit cell of an FCC silver single
crystal. Calculate the resolved shear stress on the [1 1 1] plane in the following directions: (a)
[ 1 0 1], (b) [ 011], (c) [11 0].

(a)

[0 0 1]
Stress Direction

(b)

[1 0 1]
[0 11]

[0 0 1]

[1 1 1]

[1 1 1]
Normal

a
D

3a

2a

(1 1 1)
Slip Plane

H
[11 0]

(c)

(d)

[0 0 1]

[ 1 0 1]

(e)

[0 0 1]

[ 0 11]

a = 45

[0 0 1]

= 45

a
F

[0 0 1]
Stress Dir.

= 90

[11 0

2a

The direction of the applied stress, the slip plane and each of the three slip directions are shown
in Fig. (a) above while Fig. (b) depicts the (110) plane with the directions of the applied stress
and the normal to the slip plane. For all three slip systems, can be calculated based on the
geometry depicted in Fig. (b):
cos = cos a / 3a = 0.5774, = 54.7o
(a) For slip system (1 1 1) [ 1 0 1], the geometry of Fig. (c) verifies that is equal to 45. Thus,

r = cos cos = (2.78 MPa)( cos 45, )(cos 54.7, ) = 1.14 MPa.

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(b) For slip system (1 1 1) [ 0 11], the geometry of Fig. (c) verifies that is equal to 45. Thus,
once again, r = cos cos = (2.78 MPa)( cos 45, )(cos 54.7, ) = 1.14 MPa.
(c) For slip system (1 1 1) [11 0 ], from the geometry depicted within the (1 1 0) plane of Fig. (e),
is equal to 90. Thus, r = cos cos = (2.78 MPa)( cos 90, )(cos 54.7, ) = 0.
A stress of 2.34 MPa is applied in the [0 01] direction of a unit cell of an FCC copper single

5.51

crystal. Calculate the resolved shear stress on the ( 1 11) plane in the following directions:
(a) [1 01], (b) [11 0], (c) [ 0 1 1].
(a)

(b)

[0 0 1]
Stress Direction
[1 0 1]

[1 11]
Normal

z
B

[0 0 1]

[1 1 1]

( 1 11)
Slip Plane

A
[0 0 1]
Stress Dir.

3a

2a

D
[11 0]

[0 1 1]

(c)

(e)

(d)
[0 0 1]

[1 0 1]

= 45

[0 0 1]

a
F

[0 0 1]

[ 0 1 1]

= 90

2a

= 45

a
[11 0]

H
D

The direction of the applied stress, the slip plane and each of the three slip directions are shown
above in Fig. (a) while Fig. (b) depicts the (110) plane with the directions of the applied stress
and the normal to the slip plane. For all three slip systems, can be calculated based on the
geometry depicted in Fig. (b):
Smith

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cos = cos a / 3a = 0.5774, = 54.7o

(a) For slip system ( 1 11) [1 0 1], the geometry of rectangle AEFD in Fig. (c) verifies that is
equal to 45. Thus, r = cos cos = (2.34 MPa)( cos 45, )(cos 54.7, ) = 0.956 MPa.
(b) For slip system ( 1 11) [11 0 ], from the geometry depicted within the (1 1 0) plane of Fig.,
is equal to 90. Thus, r = cos cos = (2.34 MPa)( cos 90, )(cos 54.7, ) = 0.
(c) For slip system ( 1 11) [ 0 1 1], the geometry of rectangle AGHD in Fig. (e) shows that
equals 45. Thus, r = cos cos = (2.34 MPa)( cos 45, )(cos 54.7, ) = 0.956 MPa.
5.52

A stress of 85 MPa is applied in the [0 01] direction of a unit cell of a BCC iron single crystal.
Calculate the resolved shear stress on the following slip systems:
(a) (011) [1 1 1], (b) (110) [ 1 11], (c) ( 0 1 1)[111].
(a) For slip system (011) [1 1 1], can be calculated based upon the geometry depicted within
rectangle ABCD of Fig. (b): cos = cos a / 3a = 0.5774, = 54.7 o. From the
geometry depicted in Fig. (c) as square ABFE, is equal to 45. Thus, the resolved shear
stress is: r = cos cos = (85 MPa)(cos 54.7, )( cos 45, ) = 34.7 MPa
(b)

(a)

[0 0 1]

Normal

(c)

2a

3a

[0 0 1]

[0 11]

(011)
Slip Plane

a = 45

Smith

[0 11]

[1 1 1

[0 0 1]

[1 1 1]

Foundations of Materials Science and Engineering

94

(b) For slip system (110) [ 1 11], is calculated based on the geometry of rectangle EFGH in
Fig. (e): cos = cos a / 3a = 0.5774, = 54.7 o. From the geometry of square ABCD
in Fig. (f), equals 90. Thus, r = cos cos = (85 MPa)(cos 54.7, )( cos 90, ) = 0.
(d)

(e)
[0 0 1]

[1 11]

z
F

[0 0 1]

[1 11]

[0 0 1]

a
(110)
Slip Plane

[0 0 1]

2a

(f)

3a

[110 ]

= 90

Normal

[11 0]

2a

(c) For slip system (0 1 1)[111], is calculated based on the geometry of rectangle ABCD in
Fig. (h): cos = cos a / 3a = 0.5774, = 54.7 o. From the geometry of square AEFD in
Fig. (i), equals 45. Thus, r = cos cos = (85 MPa)(cos 54.7, )( cos 45, ) = 34.7 MPa
(h)

(g)

[0 0 1]

[0 1 1]
Normal

[111]

A
[0 0 1]

3a

z
A

2a

D
[1 11]

(i)

[0 0 1]

(011)
Slip Plane

[ 0 1 1]

y
C

= 45

x
D
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Foundations of Materials Science and Engineering

F
95

5.53

A stress of 92 MPa is applied in the [0 0 1] direction of a unit cell of an BCC iron single
crystal. Calculate the resolved shear stress on the following slip systems:
(a) (011) [ 1 1 1], (b) (110) [111], (c) ( 1 0 1)[111].
(a) For slip system (011) [ 1 1 1], can be calculated based upon the geometry depicted
within rectangle ABCD of Fig. (b): cos = cos a / 3a = 0.5774, = 54.7 o. From the
geometry depicted in Fig. (c) as square AEFD, is equal to 45. Thus, the resolved shear
stress is: r = cos cos = (92 MPa)(cos 54.7, )( cos 45, ) = 37.6 MPa .
(b)

(a)
[1 1 1] [0 0 1]

[0 11]
Normal

[0 0 1]

[0 0 1]

[1 1 1]

a
(011)
Slip Plane

2a

(c)

3a

[0 0 1]

[0 11]

A
C

= 45

(b) For slip system (1 1 0)[111], is calculated based on the geometry of rectangle ABCD in
Fig. (e) on the following page: cos = cos a / 3a = 0.5774, = 54.7 o. From the
geometry depicted within square EFGH in Fig. (f), equals 90. Thus, the resolved shear
stress is: r = cos cos = (92 MPa)(cos 54.7, )( cos 90, ) = 0.
(c) For slip system (1 0 1)[111], can be calculated based upon the geometry depicted within
rectangle ABCD of Fig. (h) on the next page: cos = cos a / 3a = 0.5774, = 54.7 o.
From the geometry depicted in Fig. (i) as square BEFC, is equal to 45. Thus, the
resolved shear stress is: r = cos cos = (92 MPa)(cos 54.7, )( cos 45, ) = 37.6 MPa .

Smith

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96

(d)

(e)
[0 0 1]

[0 0 1]

[0 0 1]

[111]

z
A

3a

[111]

2a

[1 1 0]

(f)
[0 0 1]

x
a

= 90
[1 1 0]

(h)

(g)

2a

[0 0 1]

[111]

[0 0 1]

z
E

A
[111]

y
( 1 0 1)
C

(i)

2a

[0 0 1]

[1 0 1]

Slip Plane

x
a

Smith

3a

[1 0 1]
Normal

Foundations of Materials Science and Engineering

= 45

97

5.54

Describe the deformation twinning process that occurs in some metals when they are plastically
deformed.
In the deformation twinning process, a part of the atomic lattice is deformed such that it forms a
mirror image of the adjacent undeformed lattice.

5.55

What is the difference between the slip and twinning mechanisms of plastic deformation of
metals?
The slip mechanism causes all atoms on one side of the slip plane to move equal distances,
such that a series of slip steps are formed. Whereas in twinning, atoms only move distances
that are proportional to their respective distances from the twinning plane, and thus produce a
well defined region of deformation.

5.56

What important role does twinning play in the plastic deformation of metals with regard to
deformation of metals by slip?
During twining deformation, the lattice orientations change in such a manner that new slip
systems may become favorable for further slip.

5.57

Why is deformation by twinning especially important for HCP metals?

The HCP metals have very few slip systems. Thus, the creation of new favorable slip systems
by twinning deformation is especially important for HCP metals.

5.58

By what mechanism do grain boundaries strengthen metals?

Grain boundaries strengthen metals by acting as barriers to dislocation movement.

5.59

What experimental evidence shows that grain boundaries arrest slip in polycrystalline metals?
Slip bands in polycrystalline metals are observed to be parallel within a grain but discontinuous
at grain boundaries.

5.60

Describe the grain shape changes that occur when a sheet of alloyed copper with an original
equiaxed grain structure is cold-rolled with 30 and 50 percent cold reductions.
When an alloyed sheet of copper with an equiaxed grain structure is cold rolled to 30-50
percent reduction, the grains are elongated in the direction of rolling.

5.61

What happens to the dislocation substructure in Prob. 5.60?

When an annealed sheet of pure copper is cold rolled to about 30 percent reduction, a cellular
structure high in dislocation density and having clear internal areas develops. Upon further
cold rolling to 50 percent reduction, the cellular structure becomes denser and elongated in the
direction of rolling.
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5.62

How is the ductility of a metal normally affected by cold working? Why?

Cold rolling normally decreases the ductility of metals because the dislocation density of the
metal is increased and thus further slip by dislocation movement is inhibited.

5.63

An oxygen-free copper rod must have a tensile strength of 50.0 ksi and a final diameter of
0.250 in. (a) What amount of cold work must the rod undergo (see Fig. 5.45)? (b) What must
the initial diameter of the rod be?
(a) From Fig. 5.45, to attain a tensile strength of 50.0 ksi, the amount of cold work must be
40 percent.
(b) The initial diameter, based on 40 percent cold work is:

2
d1 (0.250 in.) 2
4
0.40 = 4
2
d1
4
d12 0.40d12 = 0.0625 in 2 , d1 = 0.323 in.
5.64

A 70% Cu30% Zn brass sheet is to be cold-rolled from 0.070 to 0.040 in. (a) Calculate the
percent cold work, and (b) estimate the tensile strength, yield strength, and elongation from Fig.
5.46.
0.70 in. 0.40 in.
100% = 42.9%
0.70 in.
(b) From Fig. 5.46, for percent cold work of approximately 43%, read:

(a) % cold work =

Ultimate Tensile Strength 80 ksi; Yield Strength 64 ksi; and Elongation 5 %.

5.65

A 70% Cu30% Zn brass wire is cold-drawn 20 percent to a diameter of 2.80 mm. The wire is
then further cold-drawn to a diameter of 2.45 mm. (a) Calculate the total percent cold work
that the wire undergoes. (b) Estimate the wires tensile and yield strengths and elongation
from Fig. 5.46.
(a) To calculate the total percent cold work, the initial wire diameter must be determined:

2
d1 (2.80 mm)2
4
4
0.20 =
2
d1
4
d12 0.20d12 = 7.84 mm 2 , d1 = 3.13 mm
The total cold work is thus,
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(3.13 mm) 2 (2.45 mm)2

9.797 6.003
100% =
100%
2
9.797
(3.13 mm)
= 38.7 %

total % cold work =

(b) From Fig. 5.46, for percent cold work of approximately 39%, read:
Ultimate Tensile Strength 75 ksi; Yield Strength 62 ksi; and Elongation 5 %.
5.66

What is solid-solution strengthening? Describe the two main types.

Solid-solution strengthening is a method of increasing a metals strength. By adding one or
more elements, dislocation movement is impeded due to lattice distortions and the introduction
of different bonding structures.
The two primary types of solid-solution strengthening are substitutional and interstitial.

5.67

What are two important factors that affect solid-solution hardening?

Two important factors that affect solid-solution hardening are: the relative size of the atoms of
the elements in the solid solution and; short-range ordering of the atoms of different atoms into
clusters.

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