Blood transfusion
Shubha Allard
Abstract
The term blood transfusion generally refers to the therapeutic use of
whole blood or its components (red cells, platelets, fresh frozen plasma
and cryoprecipitate). Careful donor selection and stringent testing by
the blood service is required to ensure a safe blood supply. Blood transfusion may be essential for many clinical treatments where it can be life
saving. However, donated blood is a limited resource and hospital
blood transfusion practice must focus on ensuring safe and appropriate
use. Clinical guidelines are essential in all specialities using blood and
components, supported by education and training with regular audit of
practice. Particular emphasis must be placed on accurate patient identification through the whole transfusion process from taking the initial blood
sample, through laboratory testing and the transfer of blood to clinical
areas to the final bedside check before transfusion to minimize errors.
The reporting and monitoring of all adverse events in relation to blood
transfusion via national haemovigilance schemes has highlighted key
areas for action resulting in improved transfusion safety. Transfusion
medicine must be practised within a strict regulatory framework; the European Union (EU) blood directives, in particular, have had far-reaching
implications for the UK blood services and for hospital transfusion
laboratories.
Processing of blood
Donor blood is collected into plastic packs containing citric
phosphate dextrose, an anticoagulant that helps to support red
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Testing
introduced
Examples of testing
methods used
Syphilis
Hepatitis B
1940s
1970
onwards
1985/2002
onwards
1991/1999
onwards
Antibody
Surface antigen
(HBsAg)
Antibody/nucleic
acid testing
Antibody/nucleic
acid testing
HIV
HCV
Approximate risk
of infection
1 in 1 million
1 in 6 million
1 in 72 million
Table 1
Laboratory transfusion
Blood group serology e ABO groups
There are four different ABO blood groups, which are determined
by whether or not an individuals red cells have the A antigen
(Group A), the B Antigen (Group B), both A and B antigens
(Group AB) or neither (Group O).
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Depending on the ABO group, individuals produce anti-A or antiB antibodies in early life that are mainly immunoglobulin M (IgM)
and can rapidly attack and destroy incompatible cells with activation
of the full complement pathway, resulting in intravascular haemolysis (acute haemolytic reaction). It is therefore essential that
only red cells of a compatible ABO group are transfused.
patients to minimize risk of transfusion-associated graft-versushost disease. In addition to providing RhD-compatible blood, it is
important to avoid transfusing Kell-positive red cells to Kellnegative girls and women with child-bearing potential, to
prevent formation of anti-K antibodies that can cause severe
HDN.
Certain patient groups, such as those with sickle cell disease,
are at very high risk of forming red cell alloantibodies, which
increases the risk of delayed haemolytic transfusion reactions.
Patients with haemoglobinopathy should therefore receive blood
that is matched for the patients full extended Rh type (c, C, D,
Ee) and K type, to prevent their forming antibodies to these
highly immunogenic antigens.
Use of red cells: red cells are indicated to increase the haemoglobin and hence the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood following
acute haemorrhage, or in chronic anaemia, with examples as
shown in Table 2.
There has been a trend in favour of lowering the haemoglobin (Hb) threshold used as a trigger for red cell transfusion
(e.g. Hb trigger of 7 or 8 g/litre for most patients with a trigger of
8 or 9 g/litre if there is a history of cardiac disease), but
Special requirements
The hospital transfusion laboratory also needs to ensure that
appropriate blood and components are provided for patients with
special requirements such as CMV-negative blood (see above) or
irradiated blood. The latter is needed for immunocompromised
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Patient exhibiting possible features of an acute transfusion reaction, which may include:
fever, chills, rigors, tachycardia, hyper- or hypotension, collapse, flushing, urticaria, pain (bone, muscle, chest, abdominal),
respiratory distress, nausea, general malaise
STOP THE TRANSFUSION
Undertake rapid clinical assessment, check patient identification/blood compatibility label, visually assess unit
Evidence of:
Iife-threatening Airway and/or Breathing and/or Circulatory problems and/or wrong blood given and/or evidence of contaminated unit
Yes
No
SEVERE/LIFE-THREATENING
Call for urgent medical help
Initiate resuscitation ABC
Is haemorrhage likely to be causing
hypotension? If not, discontinue
transfusion (do not discard implicated
unit/s)
Maintain venous access
Monitor patient: e.g. TPR, BP, urinary
output, oxygen saturations
MODERATE
Temperature 39C or rise 2C and/or
Other symptoms/signs apart from pruritus/rash only
MILD
Isolated temperature
38C or rise 12C
and/or
Pruritus/rash only
Continue transfusion
Consider symptomatic
treatment (see text)
Monitor patient more
frequently as for
moderate reactions
If symptoms/signs
worsen, manage as
moderate/severe
reaction (see left)
If consistent with
underlying condition or
transfusion history,
consider continuation of
transfusion at slower rate
and appropriate
symptomatic treatment
Transfusion-related
event
Transfusion
unrelated
Continue transfusion
Review at HTC
Report to SHOT/MHRA as appropriate
Figure 1 Reproduced with kind permission of the British Committee for Standards in Haematology.
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surgery
trauma
childbirth
gastrointestinal bleed
Inherited anaemias:
thalassaemia
C
sickle cell anaemia (e.g. following stroke)
C
Table 3
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FURTHER READING
BCSH. Guidelines for the use of fresh frozen plasma, cryoprecipitate and
cryosupernatant. Br J Haematol 2004; 126: 11e28.
BCSH. Guidelines for the use of platelet transfusions. Br J Haematol2003;
122: 10e23.
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