Engineering.
Aerospace Engineering
Individual Investigative Project
Designing, Building and Testing a Lithiumion Polymer Battery Charger With State of
Health Monitoring
James E Stott
May 2016
Abstract
The explosive development of lithium-ion polymer (LiPo) batteries has revolutionised
the way we interact with technology not previously portable. In particular, remote
control vehicle users have unanimously adopted LiPo batteries as their main power
source. Despite their widespread use, the largely hobbyist nature of RC users has not
proved conducive to the adoption of battery health measurement techniques commonly
used in commercial applications that enable informed battery replacement decisions.
Consequently, RC vehicle users are incurring extra cost with unnecessary battery
replacement due to the inability to decide definitively when to replace them. To
minimise waste and cost, a method of quantifying the state of health of RC vehicle
batteries enabling informed battery replacement is of interest to users. Internal
resistance the largest variable affecting battery performance is the strongest
indicator of state of health and is therefore the main report consideration.
The report aim was to develop a system for RC vehicle users - governed by user
requirements for low cost and ease of use - which facilitates informed and
unambiguous battery replacement decisions. In order to achieve this, a circuit to
measure the internal resistance of a single cell LiPo battery with multiple cell LiPo
scalability was produced. With future development the circuit has the potential to yield
state of health information and integrate with current hobbyist charging products. The
project hypothesis states that with successive cell cycles, the internal resistance will
increase.
Testing and evaluation of the circuit revealed large variations in cell internal resistance
measurements, predominantly due to unstable ambient temperatures during the testing
procedure, rendering most data unusable. Despite the test data inconsistencies, trend
lines indicate a gradual increase in cell internal resistance with cycle number,
permitting the tentative conclusion that the results are congruent with the hypothesis.
The circuit will therefore fulfil the project aim with further development of the state of
health quantification feature and does meet the user requirements for low cost and ease
of use.
Overall, the project provides some promising results that indicate the aims and
objectives will be fulfilled with further testing and development of the SOH
quantification feature to enable better informed battery replacement decisions.
Contents
Acknowledgements
1.
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Background
1.2
Motivation
1.3
1.4
1.5
Report Overview
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
Battery Charging
2.6
2.7
Hypothesis
10
11
3.1
11
3.2
Research Conclusions
12
13
4.1
13
4.2
14
CIRCUIT SPECIFICATION
15
5.1
User Specification
15
5.2
Operation Specification
15
CIRCUIT DESIGN
16
6.1
Component Selection
16
6.2
Software Design
17
6.3
Circuit Diagram
19
CIRCUIT TESTING
20
7.1
Testing Considerations
20
7.2
Testing Method
21
8.
22
8.1
Test Results
22
8.2
24
9.
CONCLUSION
26
10.
FUTURE DEVELOPMENT
27
10.1
27
10.2
Charger Integration
27
10.3
Temperature Control
27
PROJECT MANAGEMENT
28
11.1
Gantt Charts
28
11.2
Project Progress
28
11.
12.
13.
SELF REVIEW
30
12.1
Project Progress
30
12.2
Personal Development
30
REFERENCES
31
Acknowledgements
I would like to offer my sincere thanks to my project supervisor, Professor David
Stone, for his continued and boundless support throughout this project, including his
provision of sound careers and further study advice. His reassuring manner has proved
invaluable for re-focussing on objectives and re-directing efforts in times of confusion.
Thanks are also due to my second project supervisor, Dr Daniel Gladwin, for kindly
providing his signature for part orders and advice in Davids absence.
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
The invention of the lithium-ion battery in the 1970s (Whittingham, M.S., 1976) never
looked set to transform the portable electronics field. It wasnt until research into stable
electrode materials at The University of Oxford in 1979 (Mizushima, K. et al., 1980), that
their use in consumer electronics became a key focus. In 1991, Sony and chemical
company Asahi Kasei released the first commercial lithium-ion battery (Sony Energy
Devices Corporation, 2016), laying the foundation for a revolution in portable technology.
1.2 Motivation
A major use of lithium battery technology has emerged among amateur RC (remote
control) vehicle users. LiPo (Lithium-ion Polymer) batteries are the predominant power
source for RC planes, cars and UAVs (Unmanned Aerial Vehicles) due to their high
energy densities, large discharge currents and low weight. The phenomenon of decreasing
battery performance with successive charge cycles is recognised by RC vehicle users, but
is rarely quantified, making battery replacement decisions largely ambiguous resulting in
unnecessary expense and waste. Clearly, this presents a problem to the user. Battery SOH
(State Of Health) is a health metric encompassing parameters that contribute to
performance reductions and represents the condition of an ageing battery compared to a
new one. A key component of battery SOH is internal resistance, which directly affects
performance criteria such as discharge current and power transfer efficiency. A method of
quantifying battery SOH through internal resistance measurement is of interest to RC users
to enable unambiguous replacement decisions, minimising cost and waste.
project aims and objectives are defined by user requirements for low cost and ease of use
as well as technical and time constraints limiting the breadth of research and development.
Spurious test data results are identified and their respective causes highlighted with
analysis into the sources of uncertainty and how they manifest themselves in the test data.
Chapter 9 provides a project conclusion before chapter 10 suggests areas for future
development to fully achieve the project aims and objectives, as well as suggesting
methods of reducing the uncertainty in internal resistance measurements.
Chapter 11 delivers an analysis of the project management and contrasts expected with
actual progression, allowing conclusions to be drawn as to the effectiveness of time
management and planning techniques.
Chapter 12 gives a self review of the performance and personal developments made during
the project.
Finally, chapter 13 sets out the references used throughout the report.
Literature Review
The following chapter analyses existing internal resistance research and technical articles,
and discusses their relationship to the investigation in order to justify the report aim and
define the report scope. Throughout this chapter, the review is grouped into themes with
appropriate headings to effectively identify both similar and conflicting research
connections.
impedance
aside,
the
resistances,
Effective
Resistance).
Figure 1
The Randles model showing the various
According to Albr (n.d.), the total resistances, impedances and capacitances of a typical
conductance path through a battery battery. Buchmann (2001). (P. 150).
includes, the metallic or ohmic RO = ohmic resistance ZW = Warburg Impedance
QC = constant phase loop Rt = transfer resistance
path, as well as the path that is L = inductor
involved electrochemically (p. 2), where each has an associated resistance. A technical
bulletin produced by Energizer (2005) and Linden (2010) define the resistances as the
electronic and ionic resistances respectively, which combine to yield TER. In a technical
article on internal resistance measurement by Schweiger et al. (2010), ohmic resistance is
defined as the resistivity of battery components including anode and cathode materials,
current collectors and electrolyte. Energizer (2005) attributes ionic (electrochemical)
resistance to electrochemical factors including electrolyte conductivity, ion mobility and
electrode surface area. This is in line with the definitions found in Linden (2010), Albr
(n.d.) and Buchmann (2001). The Energizer (2005) technical article makes reference to the
different development times of electronic (ohmic) and ionic (electrochemical) resistances
during discharge, which will become an important consideration when analysing internal
resistance measurement methods later in the report.
parameters measurable with EIS - EIS can provide detailed information of the cell under
examination; parameters such as corrosion rate, electrochemical mechanisms, battery life
and of course internal resistance (p. 5609). The Energizer (2005) technical bulletin
describes EIS as an impedance test across a range of frequencies to portray internal
resistance accurately (p. 1). Typical RC vehicle users rarely cycle batteries daily,
diminishing the usefulness of EIS to measuring the SOH of amateur RC vehicle batteries.
Internal impedance measurements obtained through EIS are highly dependent upon battery
characteristics and are not universal according to Buchmann (2001) Each battery type
generates its own set of signatures, and without a library of well defined reference readings
with which to compare the measurements, EIS has little meaning (p. 203). For EIS to be
an effective method of RC vehicle battery SOH measurement, a large library of battery
reference readings must exist. Despite the in depth battery analysis EIS offers, it requires
extensive measurement equipment and is generally time consuming according to
Schweiger et al. (2010). Finally Albr (n.d.) highlights several problems with AC
measurement methods The problem with AC measurements is that they are susceptible
to charger ripple currents and other noise sources. Some instruments cannot be used while
the battery is on-line (p. 3). In order to mitigate the effects of noise on internal resistance
measurement, Albr (n.d.) offers the DC load method as an alternative to AC methods due
to its use of A/D convertors capable of ignoring AC signals flowing through the battery.
A common method of measuring internal resistance is the DC load test which applies a
discharge current to the battery whilst measuring the voltage drop (p. 145) according to
Buchmann (2001). The voltage drop method is a fast and convenient method for the
measurement of internal resistance (p. 5623) according to Schweiger et al. (2010). One
DC method effectively shorts the battery to deliver maximum current for a very short
period of time, allowing an approximation of internal resistance to be made according to
Energizer (2005) and Linden (2010). However, Linden (2010) states that the ammeter
resistance must be extremely low, no more than 10% of the battery internal resistance.
Alternatively, a DC load test called the dual pulse or voltage drop method consecutively
applies two smaller loads to a battery and calculates the internal resistance from the known
load resistance and voltage drop. The resulting smaller discharge currents permit the use of
larger resistors less susceptible to thermal effects, improving the internal resistance
measurement accuracy. Linden (2010) writes, a more accurate method of calculation (as
opposed to flash amps) is the voltage drop method. In this method, a small initial load is
applied to stabilise the battery. A load approximating the application load is then applied
(p. 9.27).
A variety of other internal resistance measurement methods are available including energy
loss and calorimetric methods according to Schweiger et al. (2010). However, these
methods do not present reliable, easily obtainable internal resistance measurements
according to the article findings.
Figure 2
A graph showing the CC/CV LiPo charging scheme implemented in battery
chargers. It is clear from the graph that at the upper battery threshold voltage 4.1V, the
charging scheme switches from constant current to constant voltage. Buchmann (2001).
Therefore, an
temperature
measurement
consistent
during
process
readings.
to
the
yield
Buchmann
Figure 3
A graph showing the change in
internal internal resistance of an AA battery with
resistance measurements taken from temperature. Energizer (2005).
(2001)
suggests
that
a fully charged battery immediately after charging are higher than those taken several
hours after removal from the charger. Buchmann (2001) also defines a full LiPo cell cycle
as a discharge to 3V and warns that many modern batteries contain protection circuits that
can distort internal resistance measurements.
Finally, Buchmann (2001) gives insight into the method by which some battery quick
testers calculate SOH readings - Some quick testers simulate the equipment load and
observe the voltage signature of the battery under these conditions. The readings are
compared to reference settings in the tester. The resulting discrepancies are calculated
against the anticipated or ideal settings and displayed as SOH readings. (p. 192). In order
to quantify battery SOH it is clear that a form of trend monitoring must be implemented,
consisting of historical internal resistance measurements and manufacturer defined limits
to compare against readings.
2.7 Hypothesis
According to Buchmann (2001), the usage of LiPo batteries does not contribute as much to
the increase in internal resistance as ageing. However, the wear down effects caused by
usage and aging are more pronounced in LiPo batteries (p. 164), confirming the
hypothesis that with cycling, the internal resistance of LiPo batteries will increase. It
describes that cell oxidisation increases internal resistance and is the ultimate cause of
failure (p. 110). Albr (n.d.) attributes increasing battery internal resistance to cycling and
aging as corrosion, sulfation and grid growth occur within the cell, which is congruent with
the hypothesis.
10
11
12
Figure 4
the effects of ohmic and ionic resistances on the terminal voltage. Linden (2010).
13
Energizer (2005) and Linden (2010) recommend applying a light background load prior to
the full load application to stabilise the battery discharge and provide equilibration for
consistent measurements.
Equation 1 can be used to calculate the internal resistance of a LiPo battery using the DC
dual pulse method.
Rin =
Where
(V1
V2 )RL
V2
(1)
Linden (2010)
Connect the cell to a light stabilisation load for a short period of time to stabilise the
discharge and provide equilibration for consistent internal resistance measurements.
2.
3.
Disconnect the light stabilisation load and connect the cell to a heavy discharge load
for a short period of time.
4.
5.
Disconnect the heavy discharge load and use equation 1 to calculate the cell internal
resistance from the voltage measurements and the known load resistance.
14
5 Circuit Specification
The following chapter defines what the internal resistance measurement circuit should do
and how it should operate. In later chapters, it will be used as a benchmark for evaluation
of the actual test results against expected results.
The circuit must accurately calculate the internal resistance of a single LiPo cell and
present the internal resistance value to the user.
The circuit must be scalable to measure the internal resistance of multiple cell LiPo
batteries.
The circuit must integrate easily with common LiPo battery charging technologies.
The circuit must apply stabilisation and application loads to the cell consecutively.
The circuit must not discharge the cell lower than 3V.
The circuit must apply the stabilisation load for 20ms and the application load for
100ms.
15
6 Circuit Design
The following chapter describes the circuit design process and makes the justifications for
technical and operational decisions clear. After defining the component selection, the
software design is outlined before the final circuit diagram is presented.
16
coefficients have been selected, minimising the variation in load resistance over the
discharge period.
void setup() {
pinMode(dischargeOnPin, OUTPUT);
pinMode(stabiliseOnPin, OUTPUT);
pinMode(depleteOnPin, OUTPUT);
Serial.begin(9600);
}
void loop() {
int openV = analogRead(A0);
float openVoltage = openV * (5.0 / 1023.0);
if (openVoltage > 3.0) {
Serial.print(openVoltage,3);
17
digitalWrite(depleteOnPin, HIGH);
delay(10000);
digitalWrite(depleteOnPin, LOW);
}
else {
Serial.println("Discharge Complete");
while (true) {
}
}
}
18
19
7 Circuit Testing
The following chapter highlights some testing procedure considerations and describes the
testing method.
20
21
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Figure 5
A graph showing the variance in the average LiPo cell internal resistance with
22
indication of increasing internal resistance with cell cycle. In order to allow reliable
conclusions to be drawn, figure 6 presents the same graph as figure 5 with the spurious
results beyond 35 cell cycles omitted. Prior to the 36th cell cycle, the LiPo cell was left
fully charged, off the charger for several days which appears to have introduced large
variations in the cell internal resistance measurements for later tests.
10
15
20
25
30
35
Figure 6
A graph showing the variance in the average LiPo cell internal resistance with
23
10
15
20
25
30
35
Figure 7
A graph showing the variance in the fully discharged LiPo cell internal
resistance with cell cycle number with data beyond 35 cell cycles omitted.
As expected, figure 7 shows the fully discharged cell internal resistance is higher than the
average cell internal resistance shown in figure 6. This confirms that internal resistance is a
function of cell charge state and agrees with common theory that says battery internal
resistance increases with decreasing charge level.
The internal resistance measurements are presented with an uncertainty of 0.02,
calculated from the discharge resistor tolerance 1%. It should be noted that this is a large
uncertainty with respect to the maximum working cell internal resistance 0.16 as detailed
in the cell data sheet. Other sources of uncertainty are difficult to quantify as they have not
been monitored throughout the project, but they are highlighted in the test results
evaluation.
24
amounts of scientific equipment. The testing procedure was carried out in a converted
church, which possessed poor thermal control capability due to the nature of the building.
Therefore, large uncontrollable temperature variations occurred during the internal
resistance measurement procedure and due to the aforementioned dependency of internal
resistance on cell temperature, affected the consistency and reliability of the test results.
Despite the aforementioned sources of error and inconsistencies with the test data, the
circuit appears to be measuring cell internal resistance correctly. According to the cell data
sheet, the normal working cell internal resistance should be under 160m for 300 cycles.
Forecasting the trend lines of figures 6 and 7 forward, according to the data the cell
internal resistance is approximately 120m at 300 cycles, which is a surprisingly accurate
forecast considering the internal resistance measurement uncertainty of 0.02 and lack of
data.
The gentle upward slope of the trend lines displayed in figures 6 and 7 shows increasing
internal resistance with successive cell cycles and is therefore in agreement with the
hypothesis. A significantly larger amount of test data would display the upward trend more
clearly and allow the conclusion that the test results are in line with the hypothesis to be
stated with much greater confidence.
The project aim - to develop a system for RC vehicle users that facilitates informed and
unambiguous battery replacement decisions has been partially fulfilled by creating an
internal resistance measurement circuit, but will be completed with further development
into SOH quantification as detailed in later chapters.
The circuit does present scalability to work with multiple cell LiPo batteries thanks to the
multitude of analogue input and output ports on the Arduino microcontroller. The use of
balance leads found on many commercially available LiPo batteries facilitates multiple cell
internal resistance measurements. A simple circuit expansion and a small amount of
program code change is required to adapt the circuit to measure multiple cell LiPo battery
internal resistance.
25
9 Conclusion
The ability of RC vehicle users to decide confidently when to replace their batteries is
hampered by a lack of battery health measurement products available to them, creating
unnecessary wastage and expenditure. Internal resistance is a key indicator of battery
performance and can be measured to provide RC vehicle users with an overview of the
state of health of their batteries, permitting better informed replacement decisions and
minimising cost. This project set out to find a solution to this real problem through a
design, build and test exercise. By performing thorough research of the issue at hand, a
clear set of aims and objectives was defined, permitting the design of a solution which best
serves the needs of RC vehicle users. Despite numerous project scope changes during the
design and build stages caused by technical ability and time limits, the overarching test
results suggest the main aims and objectives have been fulfilled. With further refinement
and development, the project promises to provide a legitimate marketable solution to save
RC vehicle users money.
26
10 Future Development
This chapter highlights areas for future project development and briefly discusses the
reasons for developments and their practical implementation.
27
11 Project Management
This chapter compares the actual project progress with the expected progress as detailed by
figures 8 and 9 and provides a summary of the overall project progress.
Figure 8
Figure 9
28
planned deadline. The extensive amount of time required to charge and discharge the LiPo
cell during testing was not foreseen and as such, twice the amount of planned time was
required to complete the testing objective.
29
12 Self Review
This chapter provides some insight into my progression and performance as a final year
student and highlights areas that I have developed throughout the project.
30
13 References
Albr, G. (n.d.) Predicting Battery Performance Using Internal Cell Resistance. Florida,
Albrcorp.
Battery University. (2011) BU-902: How to Measure Internal Resistance [online]. Canada,
Cadex. Available from: http://batteryuniversity.com/learn/article/how_to_measure_internal
_resistance [Accessed 10th April 2016].
Buchmann, I. (2001) Batteries In A Portable World. Canada, Cadex Electronics.
Energizer. (2005) Battery Internal Resistance. Technical Bulletin, [online], 1(1), 1 2.
Available from: http://data.energizer.com/PDFs/BatteryIR.pdf [Accessed 10th April 2016].
Linden, D and Reddy, Thomas B. (2011) Linden's Handbook Of Batteries. New York,
McGraw-Hill.
Mizushima, K. et al. (1980) A New Cathode Material For Batteries of High Energy
Density. Materials Research Bulletin [online], 15(6), 783 789. Available from:
http://ac.els-cdn.com/0025540880900124/1-s2.0-0025540880900124- main.pdf?_tid=6703
360a-ff37-11e5-9214-00000aab0f27&acdnat=1460305092_f85ead6d3b879a95bb2a422f61
3f9484 [Accessed 10th April 2016].
Schweiger, G. H. et al. (2010) Comparison of Several Methods for Determining the
Internal Resistance of Lithium Ion Cells [online], Sensors. 10(1), 5604 5625. Available
from: www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/10/6/5604/pdf [Accessed 10th April 2016].
Sony Energy Devices Corporation. (2016) Keywords to Understanding Sony Energy
Devices [online]. Japan, Sony Energy Devices Corporation. Available from: http://www.s
onyenergy-devices.co.jp/en/keyword/ [Accessed 10th April 2016].
Turnigy. (n.d.) Instruction Manual [online]. Hong Kong, Turnigy. Available from:
http://www.hobbyking.com/hobbyking/store/uploads/832792292X250282X36.pdf [Acces
sed 10th April 2016].
Whittingham, M. S. (1976) Electrical Energy Storage and Intercalation Chemistry.
Science [online], 192(4244), 1126 1127. Available from: http://science.sciencemag.org/c
ontent/192/4244/1126.f ull-text.pdf+html [Accessed 10th April 2016].
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