www.elsevier.com/locate/jafrearsci
Abstract
The coal deposits of southern Africa (Botswana, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia and
Zimbabwe) are reviewed. The coal seams formed during two periods, the Early Permian (ArtinskianKungurian) and the Late Permian
(UfimianKazanian). The coals are associated with non-marine terrestrial clastic sedimentary sequences, most commonly mudrock and
sandstones, assigned to the Karoo Supergroup. The Early Permian coals are most commonly sandstone-hosted while the younger coals
typically occur interbedded with mudstones. The sediments were deposited in varying tectono-sedimentary basins such as foreland,
intracratonic rifts and intercratonic grabens and half-grabens. The depositional environments that produced the coal-bearing successions
were primarily deltaic and fluvial, with some minor shoreline and lacustrine settings. Coals vary in rank from high-volatile bituminous to
anthracite and characteristically have a relatively high inertinite component, and medium- to highash content. In countries where coal is
mined, it is used for power generation, coking coal, synfuel generation, gasification and for (local) domestic household consumption. 2002
Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Karoo; Permian; Coal
1. Introduction
Coal is the main source of energy in southern Africa. In
1997, 68% of the regions energy consumption was coalbased, while the rest of Africa depended primarily on oil
for its energy needs (Energy Information Administration,
2000). In particular, coal consumption in South Africa
accounts for 74% of the countrys energy usage and in
Zimbabwe, 51%. The remaining southern African countries
consume and mine considerably less coal than these two
countries (Table 1). With very few exceptions, all of the
sub-continents coal seams are hosted in Permian-aged
rocks of the Karoo Supergroup (Langford, 1992). One
exception is the Triassic Molteno coalfield in South Africa
(Christie, 1981, 1986), but coal is not presently mined from
this deposit. Coal is exploited with varying degrees of
sophistication, from one-man spadeand-shovel diggings,
0899-5362/02/$ - see front matter 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S0899-5362(01)00088-4
Swaziland
Tanzania
Zambia
Zimbabwe
128
980
61
809
Total
67,993
530
2.
Database
Fig. 1. The outcrops of Karoo Supergroup Permian strata in southern Africa. Numbers in circles refer to the columns featured in Fig. 2(a)(c). They are
generalised reference profiles for each of the coalfields.
larger successions.
Table 1
Southern African fossil fuel reserves (recoverable) as at January 1999
Country
Coal (MMST)
Botswana
4754
Malawi
Mozambique
Namibia
South Africa
2
265
n.d.
60,994
531
532
3.
Fig. 2. (a)(c). Reference profiles for each of the southern African coalfields described in the text. Refer to Fig. 1 for the profiles geographic location. The
various lithostratigraphic units are depicted with respect to their relative ages, and there is no thickness connotation to any of the profiles. Black squares
represent the main coal-forming periods for each locality (adapted from Cairncross, 1987 and Langford, 1992).
533
534
basins, either intra and intercratonic grabens or halfgrabens (Cairncross, 1987). The overall depositional
systems of the Karoo Supergroup in southern Africa are
relatively well understood (see Smith et al., 1993 for an
overview). To some degree, coal parameters such as rank,
distribution and lateral extent, can be explained in terms of
their respective basin setting, original palaeoflora (Falcon,
1989) and associated depositional palaeoenvironments in
which the peat accumulated (Hobday, 1987; Tavener-Smith
et al., 1988 ; Cairncross, 1989; Holland et al., 1989;
Snyman and Barclay, 1989; Cadle et al., 1993; Snyman and
Botha, 1993; Galloway and Hobday, 1996; Nyambe, 1999).
It is well established that the Permian Gondwana coal types
are markedly different from the Carboniferous coals, this
due primarily to the post-glacial climatic setting (Crowell
and Frakes, 1975; Le Blanc Smith and Eriksson, 1979)
under which the Permian coal originated and which
resulted in distinct floral assemblages from those of the
northern hemisphere (Falcon, 1986a; Falcon et al., 1984).
One of the main differences in the coal type is the presence
of non-reactive inertinite in the Gondwana coals, a
relatively rare component in the European coals. The origin
of inertinite has been ascribed to various parameters
including varying plant origins, variations in climate,
exposure of the peat to premature oxidation (Falcon and
Snyman, 1986), and different tectonic settings (Hunt and
Smyth, 1989).
5.
Angola
535
536
7.
Malawi
Malawi lies within a Palaeo to Neoproterozoic belt,
east of the Zambian craton. The strata of the Karoo
Supergroup all occur within fault-bounded half-graben
outliers within the Precambrian basement (Cooper and
Habgood, 1959; Habgood, 1963; Ortlepp, 1977; Chamber
of Mines, undated; Kreuser, 1994). The areas with coal
are situated in the northern and southern extremities of
the country (Figs. 1 and 2(c)) and comprise the
Southern coalfields containing the Sumbu and
Chiromo deposits, and the northern localities near
Livingstonia and Ngana about 200 km to the north of
Livingstonia (Cairncross, 1987). The deposits in the
south occur in the mid-Zambezi Karoo outlier while the
northern deposits have closer affinities with the adjoining
Tanzanian deposits.
7.1. Southern coalfields (Fig. 2(c), column 30)
The Sumbu and Chiromo coal deposits are located
close to the Moatize coal district in Mozambique. The
Karoo strata occur in a complexly structured northwest
southeast striking graben 135 km long and 15 km wide
(Chamber of Mines, undated). The coal-bearing region is
situated in the Shire and Zambezi river valleys. The
north-eastern margin of the Shire rift forms a dominant
structural and topographic unit relative to the adjacent
low-lying valley.
7.1.1. Stratigraphy and geology
The stratigraphy of the Sumbu and Chiromo coal
deposits are similar. The lowermost member of the Karoo
Supergroup, the Coal Shales, overlies a basal
conglomerate. This argillaceous succession is 650 m
thick and is composed of black, carbonaceous mudstone,
sandstone and thin interbedded, high-ash coal seams.
This is overlain by the Lower Sandstone, 1300 m of
537
538
Karoo
Supergroup
8.
Mozambique
8.1. Introduction
539
540
Fig. 5. A typical section of the Chipanga coal seam from the Moatize coalfield, Mozambique (after Neto, 1976).
9.
Namibia
9.1. Introduction
Five regions of Karoo-age strata are known in Namibia, four of which are coal-bearing ( Stavrakis, 1985; Hegenberger,
1992). These are located in the Kaokoveld, western Damaraland, Owambo, Otjiwarongo (Omatako), the Kalahari basin and
the Karasburg basin (Figs. 1 and 2(b)). No coal mining is undertaken at present in Namibia. The area that has been the most
extensively drilled and sampled is the Aranos coalfield (Marsh and McDaid, 1986; Kingsley, 1985).
9.2. General stratigraphy
The major subdivisions of the Karoo Supergroup in the Namibia are the basal Dwyka Formation, overlain by the Prince
Albert Formation, which contains the coal seams and then formations that are named differently in their respective
geographic areas (Fig. 2(b), columns 16 21). The coal seams are Artinskian in age and occur interbedded with argillaceous
and arenaceous strata.
9.3. Aranos coalfield ( Kalahari basin)
In south-eastern Namibia (Fig. 1), in the Kalahari basin, the Karoo Supergroup rocks cover an area of 80,000 km 2. Most of
the Karoo rocks are covered by younger Kalahari sand that is up to 250 m thick.
9.3.1.
Stratigraphy and structure
The Ecca Group is subdivided into the Dwyka Group, Price Albert, Whitehill and Vreda Formations (Fig. 2(b), column 17)
and these collectively attain a maximum thickness of 1200 m (Marsh and
541
Fig. 6. The coal-bearing unit from the Ncondedzi coalfield in Mozambique (after Reconnaissance Report: Mozambique, 1986).
542
Depositional environments
543
544
Coal
Etjo
Gai-as
Huab
(White
hill)
Lithology
Thickness ( m )
Basalt, latite,
>1000
quartz latite, minor
Aeolian sandstone
Aeolian
<50
sandstone,
minor
125
conglome
rate lenses
Red and
<50
purple
mudrock
180
and purple
siltstone,
red
sandstone
Grey,
10
orange
100
and
yellow
limestone,
interbeds
of
siltstone
and shale
Tsarabis
Sandstone
3
, siltstone,
40
(Upper
shale
m
Prince
Albert)
Verbrande Berg white sandstone,
<60 m
(Lower
white nodular shale,
Prince Albert) black, carbonaceous shale, COAL
grey shale
Dwyka (Group) Tillite, diamictite, 0 10
fluvioglacial conglomerate
(From Stavrakis, 1985; Hegenberger, 1992.)
10.4.2.
Coal
The coal-bearing unit occurs in the Verbrande Berg
Formation. The coal seams vary considerably in
thickness, averaging 1020 cm, although some are up to
1.5 m thick. In the Toscanini area, the coal zone is
between 62 to 725 m below surface. The coal is on
average inferior, poor quality, displaying high ash and
low volatile matter values. Dolerite has also intruded the
sequence and locally produced anthracite. Schommarz
(1988) published analyses of nineteen samples of coal
from the Toscanini area and these show an average (raw)
qualities value of moisture1.8%; ash56% (min.
16.9%, max. 90.3%); volatile matter6.5% (min. 4.2%,
max. 13.7%).
545
546
547
Fig. 9. Three stratigraphic profiles through the coalfields of the northern Karoo basin, South Africa (after Winter et al., 1987).
548
Table 2
Locality (coalfield)
Seam
H2O (%)
Ash (%)
VM (%)
CV (MJ/kg)
References
Witbank
1.7
25.4
21
24
2
4
5
5.3
2.6
2.5
23.3
27.6
13.1
21.5
20.7
32
21.2
22.2
28.7
3.8
29.3
19.9
20.5
4
5
2.5
3.2
27.9
17.1
20.2
32.7
21.9
25.9
2.7
20.4
31.5
25.5
D
C
B
2.5
3.6
2.8
23
19.9
29.5
26.7
32
23.7
24
25.3
21.1
Vereeniging
Composite
4.4
40.8
18.6
16.3
Prevost (1997)
Free State
Utrecht
Bottom
Coking
Dundas
Gus
Alfred
5.6
1.6
1.9
1.4
1.2
27.7
9.1
10.3
14.2
40.3
21.4
23.8
28.3
10.6
11.7
20.5
31.4
30.2
29.5
Gilligan (1986)
Spurr et al. (1986)
Vryheid
Gus
2.1
16.5
20.8
28.9
Viefontein
Koppies
Kroonstad
Bottom
1 and 2
Bottom
6.7
4.5
4
25.8
32.6
39.1
21.1
21
21.2
20.7
18.7
17.2
Stavrakis (1986)
Stavrakis (1986)
Stavrakis (1986)
Welkom
Bottom
4.5
36.7
20.5
16.73
Stavrakis (1986)
34.1
38.6
21.8
22.3
20.71
17.6
Highveld
Mpumalanga
Top
3.9
Dwyka
3.9
Typical analyses of raw coal for coalfields in the Karoo Basin
Jordaan (1986)
Greenshields (1986)
11.4.1.
Waterberg coalfield (Ellisras)
The Waterberg (Ellisras) coalfield is situated northwest
of the Karoo basin in the northern Province (Figs. 1 and
2(a), column 5). The coal deposit has been extensively
drilled and is currently being mined at the Grootegeluk
colliery, so there are several sources of information on the
geology, sedimentology and characteristics of the coals and
associated strata (De Korte, 1995; Dreyer, 1994; Faure et
al., 1996; Siepker, 1986).
The coalfield is structurally deformed, being dissected
by numerous east-west and northwestsoutheast trending
faults. These have produced a series of horsts and grabens,
which, in some areas, allow shallow coal to be mined, but
in other areas, coal is too deeply buried to be economically
mined. However, these inaccessible coals have been tested
for coalbed methane potential. The coal seams are
contained within the Ecca Group, specifically within the
Vryheid Formation and the Volksrust Formation, which in
the Waterberg area is named the Grootegeluk Formation
(Siepker, 1986). The latter contains the main coal reserves
and consists of a finely interlayered coal-mudstone
sequence. The entire coal sequence attains thicknessess of
up to 115 m. The underlying Vryheid Formation coal seams
(numbered 1, 2, 3 and 4) are interbedded with sandstone
and shale. Metallurgical coal may be produced from these
lower seams by beneficiation (Prevost, 1997). The
overlying coal-mudstone sequence displays some vertical
trends with respect to coal quality. For example, the raw
ash content shows a general upward increase in value from
43% in the lower coal to approximately 60% in the
uppermost seams (Snyman, 1998).
11.4.2.
Springbok flats
The Springbok Flats coalfield (Figs. 1 and 2(a), column
4) occupies an area of approximately 160 km striking
north-east to south-west and is 30 km wide. The deposit has
been extensively drilled (Visser and Van der Merwe, 1959)
and has been the subject of considerable research (Kruger,
1981). The coal-bearing sequence is assigned to the
Turfpan and Warmbad Formations (Roberts, 1992). The
former consists of high-ash coal (>30%) and is not of major
economic significance. The overlying Warmbad Formation
is the main target of economic interest and is up to 12 m
thick. This is tentatively correlated with the Volksrust
Formation (Snyman, 1998). The sequence consists of
interlaminated thin coal seams and mudstone. The coals in
the Springbok Flats are known to be highly uraniferous,
containing 1601000 ppm uranium (Snyman, 1998).
11.4.3.
Limpopo coalfields (incorporating Tuli,
Mopane, Tshipise and Pafuri)
The only area where the Limpopo, extreme northern
Province coals are being exploited is at the Tshikondeni
colliery (Sullivan, 1995; Sullivan et al., 1994) in the Pafuri
deposit (Figs. 1 and 2(a), column 7). The sequence has been
extensively faulted, with structures being pre-, syn- and
549
550
(m)
Younger
Formations
Beaufo
rt
Group
125
40
Volksrust
Formation
Vryheid
Formation
160
Karoo
Ecca
630
Supergrou
Group
p 10. A generalised cross-section through the Karoo Supergroup in north-east Swaziland (after Scogings and Lenz, 1961).
Fig.
Pietermaritzbu
40
value25.5 MJ/kg; fixed carbon80.3 % (Hunter, 1962).
rg
An area north and east of Mpaka ( the Mtendekwa region)
contains coal in the Volksrust Formation.
Formation
Dwyka Group
012
(After Davies, 1961; Hunter, 1962).
Accumulations of Dwyka tillite are thickest in southern
Swaziland relative to that in the northern regions where
thicknesses of up to 50 m are reported (Scogings and Lenz,
1961). The Pietermaritzburg Shale Formation consists
primarily of shale, which is also thickest in the south. The
Vryheid Formation contains the main mineable coal
deposits and comprises arkosic sandstone, shale, siltstone
and several coal seams. Up to 18 seams can be present with
three, the Main, Nos. 1 and 2 (Upper) seams the most
important. These have been correlated with the Dundas,
Gus and Alfred seams of the KwaZuluNatal coalfield. The
overlying Volksrust Formation consists of carbonaceous
shale, some sandstone and also contains coal seams (Fig.
2(a)). Average analyses for the best (Zone 4) Volksrust
Formation seam is: ash22%; volatile matter6.3 %;
moisture1%;
calorific
value23.48
MJ/kg;
sulphur0.98%; fixed carbon74.2 %.
12.3.
Coal
13. Tanzania
13.1. Introduction
Four main coal deposits of Permian age have been
described from Tanzania and these are situated in the
vicinity of Lake Malawi (Figs. 1 and 2(c), columns 34
36). These are the Mhukuru and the Ketewaka
Mchuchuma coalfields (McKinlay, 1954) and Ngaka
coalfields, known collectively as the Ruhuhu coalfield. This
is the main area of interest for Tanzania coal and the region
holds 700 million tons reserves ( Kreuser, 1994). The
SongweKiwira coalfield is situated northwest of the
Ruhuhu field and overlaps into northern Malawi,
correlating with the Ngana deposits (Cairncross, 1987). The
Luwegu deposits (Figs. 1 and 2( c), column 36) are located
to the east of Mhukuru. These do not contain coal as the
sediments post-date the coalforming period (Kreuser,
1994). The petrographic character of the Tanzanian coals,
coupled with data from coal seam palynomorph
assemblages, suggest that the peat originated in upper delta
plain and braided (bedload) fluvial palaeoenvironments
(Semkiwa et al., 1998; Kalkreuth et al., 1999). The
Tanzanian coal tends to be medium-volatile to high-volatile
bituminous coal, with vitrinite reflectance values of R oVmax
of between 0.49% and 1.2% (Kreuser, 1994). Inertinite is a
relatively common component in all seams.
Thickness
(m)
150
551
Karoo
Supergroup
Unconformity
Basement
The Lower Coal Measures, which host the best quality
coal in the Ruhuhu coalfields, were either not intersected at
Mhukuru or were at a depth greater than was drilled. The
Upper Coal Measures contain the main coal seams and
these are characteristically alternating coaly shale, shaly
coal and shale. Two zones with thicker seams occur toward
the top and bottom of the sequence. Fresh water mollusca
have been found in the shale units (Harkin, 1952). The
Upper Coal Measures are thickest at Mhukuru in the south
(>400 m), poorly developed in the Ruhuhu coalfield, and
absent in the Songwe Kiwira area.
The Karoo strata in the Mhukuru region are contained
in a rectangular structure. This resembles a syncline and
the axis is traversed by east-west trending faults that
effectively divide the field into a northern and southern
area. The northern area contains well-developed,
composite coal seams and strata in this field dip 1020
south-west. The southern area, although areally larger
than the northern sector, contains less widespread coal. In
this area, the strata dip northwest at between 10 and 15.
Major faulting of Karoo strata is restricted to the
lithologies of the southern area, while the region, as a
whole, is defined by major boundary faults.
552
14.1. Introduction
Most of the known coal deposits are located in incised
valleys of the Zambezi, Luangwa, Mulungushi, Lunsemfwa
and Lukasashi Rivers (Reeve, 1963; Drysdall and Weller,
1966). The Barotse and Hot Springs coal deposits occur to
the west of the above-mentioned coalfields (Figs. 1 and
2(b), column 29). Coal seams occur in the Ecca Group of
the Karoo Supergroup. The present distribution of Karoo
strata in river valleys is controlled by down-faulting of the
strata into grabenlike structures (Tavener-Smith, 1956,
1960).
The main coal areas in Zambia are shown on Fig. 1.
These are the Luano deposit northeast of Lusaka and the
Kandabwe and Gwembe deposits of the Zambezi Valley.
An area in the Luangwa Valley to the east and northeast of
the Luano coalfield is also known to contain coal.
14.2. Zambezi valley coalfields
Three main areas of Karoo-age coal occur on the
northern side of Lake Kariba in Zambia. These have been
termed the Gwembe, Kandabwe and Luano coalfields (Fig.
Fig. 11. A generalised cross-section through the Karoo Supergroup in the Gwembe coalfield, Zambia, showing the half-graben structures typical of
14. Zambia
553
554
15. Zimbabwe
15.1. Introduction
After South Africa, Zimbabwe is the most
wellendowed southern African country with respect to
coal reserves. Over 11 billion tons of in situ coal reserves
are calculated for the country and 2.5 billion of these tons
are considered to be opencastable reserves (Bartholomew,
1992). The coal occurs in two main regions, the Zambezi
basin in the north-east and the Save-Limpopo area in the
south, close to the border with South Africa (Figs. 1 and
2(b), columns 2325). Karoo-age strata occur to the west
and northwest of the craton in the mid-Zambezi basin and
contain the major coal deposits of Zimbabwe (Duguid,
1986a). The deposits in the south-east are covered by
flood basalts that terminated Karoo sedimentation, but in
the northern mid-Zambezi basin, much of this cover has
been removed by erosion. The coal is typically low rank
bituminous with relatively high ash contents, although
pockets of semi-anthracite have been produced by local
thermal heating of intrusive dolerites. There is coking
coal potential in the Limpopo deposits but this is offset
by complex structures and extensive dolerites. The main
focus of coal mining activities is at the Wankie coal mine
where the Main seam, which varies from 2 to 12 m, is
exploited. The lower portions of this coal have excellent
coking properties and contains ash contents of less than
10 %, but the sulphur content can be relatively high. The
upper portions of the seam are higher in ash and are used
for power generation.
15.2. Wankie coalfield
The Wankie coal region incorporates the Wankie
Concession, Entuba, Western Area, Lubu, Sengwa, Lusulu,
Sinamatella and Lukosi coalfields. These are located in the
western and north-western parts of Zimbabwe. The Lusulu
coal deposit is located to the northeast of the Wankie
deposits.
15.2.1. Stratigraphy and geology
The distribution of lithologies constituting the Ecca
Group is similar throughout the mid-Zambezi basin
(Watson, 1958). The basal succession is invariably
arenaceous with occasional fluvioglacial sediments
( Lepper, 1992). These constitute the Lower Wankie
sandstone upon which the main Wankie seam rests (Fig.
2( b), column 25). The Wankie seam grades both laterally
and vertically into carbonaceous shale. The Upper Wankie
sandstone overlies the main coal seam and these clastics
Fig. 12. A typical vertical section through the Wankie Main seam,
Zimbabwe (after Duguid, 1986 a,b ).
Western areas
Maximum 18 m
Entuba
Maximum 20 m
Wankie concession
Maximum 14 m
Lubu
Maximum 18 m
Lusulu
Maximum 10 m
Sengwa
Maximum 17 m
(Source: Palloks, 1984, 1987; Lepper, 1992)
555
556
Table3
Summary
of coaldeposits
of southernAfrica
Age
Botswana
EarlyLate Permian
Zimbabwe
Early Permian
Zambia
Early Permian
coals
3. Mudrock, subordinate
3. Fluvio-deltaic
3. Variable, thin seams
sandstone, thin seams, 4060
Tectonicsetting
Stratigraphy
Depositional
systems
Coalseams
Coalran
m
4. Rift basin (Toscanini)
4. Conglomerate, sandstone, 4. Fluvio-deltaic
4. Variable, thin seams
mudrock, thin seams, 15
220 m
Intracratonic rift basins
Mudrock, sandstone, three Fluvio-deltaic, fluvioMorupule, three seams, 1
coal zones
lacustrine
(MorupuleMoijabana,
0.59.5 m bituminous coa
Mmamabule, Lethlakeng)
Mmamabula, three
2. M
bituminous coa
Lethlakeng, two seams, 3
1.55 m bituminous coa
Intracratonic rift basins
1. Conglomerate,
1. Alluvial fan to lacustrine 1. Two main seams, Basal
sandstone, mudrock, thick
1. Wankie region
seam 912 m bituminous
coal seams
2. Sabie region
2. Conglomerate, sand2. Alluvial fan, fluvial,
2. Variable thin seams,
stone, mudrock, thin coal lacustrine seams
bituminous, two zones, 0.5
anthracite
3. Rift basin (Ovambo)
3. Luano
Tanzania
Early Permian
LateEarly Permian
2. Ruhuhu
3. SongweKiwira
Malawi
EarlyLate Permian
1. Sandstone, mudrock,
1. Bedload fluvial,
lacusone main coal seam
trine
2. Conglomerate, sand
2. Fluviolacustrine stone, mudrock and thin coal seams
3. Conglomerate, mud
rock, thin coal seams
3. Lacustrine
3, 4. Lacustrine
1. One seam, 23 m
4. Galula
Intracratonic rift basins
B.Cairncross/AfricanEarthSciences33(2001)529562
NkanaLivingstonia1. Conglomerate,
sand 1. Fluvio-lacustrine
stone,mudrock,thincoal
seams
2. ChiromoSumbu
Mozambique
Swaziland
Earlyto EarlyLate
Permian
Earlyto LateEarly
2. Mudrock,subordinate2. Lacustrine
sandstone
andthin coal
seams
Intracratonic
rift basins
1. MoatizeTete
1. Conglomerate,
sandstone,mudrock,
coal
seams
Intracratonic
rift basins
1. Fluvio-lacustrine
Conglomerate,
sandstone,Fluvio-deltaic,
mudrockand coalseams fluvio-lacustrine
557
Two coalzones.Lower
Semi-a
zonemultiple
seams,
three
mainseams50 cm8m
thick
Source
: Cairncross
(1987).
555
558
Fig. 14. Conceptual flow chart for the formation of southern African coal (see text for details).
Acknowledgements
Portions of this article were researched while working for
BHP-Utah International. Robert Langford, David Mathew,
the late Ted Milligan, Vanessa Santos and Judith Crouch are
thanked for their assistance during that period. I am indebted
to many coal geologists and sedimentologists with whom I
have interacted during the past 20 years and who have
directly or indirectly provided food for thought for this
review. In particular Tony Cadle, Angus Christie, Rosemary
Falcon, Dave Hobday, Dave Roberts and Bob Winter, all of
whose work is reflected in this paper. The research was
originally sponsored by the Co-Operative Science
Programme (CSP) of the CSIR, and later by the South
African National Research Foundation. Hester Roets of
RAU Graphics drafted the final versions of the diagrams.
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geochronolgy and signifiance of ash-fall tuffs in the glaciogenic
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