5/17/2016

318311963

1/13

The Linear, TimeInvariant System

Most of the microwave devices and networks that we will
study in this course are both linear and time invariant (or
approximately so).
Lets make sure that we understand what these terms
mean, as linear, time-invariant systems allow us to
apply a large and helpful mathematical toolbox!

LINEARITY
Mathematicians often speak of operators,
which is mathspeak for any mathematical
operation that can be applied to a single
element (e.g., value, variable, vector, matrix, or
function).
...operators, operators, operators!!

For example, a function f x describes an operation on

variable x (i.e., f x is operator on x ). E.G.:

f y y2 3

Jim Stiles

g t 2t

The Univ. of Kansas

y x x

Dept. of EECS

5/17/2016

318311963

2/13

Moreover, we find that functions can likewise be operated on!

For example, integration and differentiation are likewise
mathematical operationsoperators that operate on
functions. E.G.,:

f y dy

d g t
dt

y x dx

A special and very important class of operators are

linear operators.
Linear operators are denoted as L y , where:

* L symbolically denotes the mathematical operation;

* And y denotes the element (e.g., function, variable,
vector) being operated on.
A linear operator is any operator that satisfies the following
two statements for any and all y :
1. L y1 y2 L y1 L y2
2.

Jim Stiles

L a y a L y
, where a is any constant.

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

5/17/2016

318311963

3/13

From these two statements we can likewise conclude that a

linear operator has the property:

L a y1 b y2 a L y1 b L y2

where both a and b are constants.

Essentially, a linear operator has the property that
any weighted sum of solutions is also a solution!
For example, consider the function:
L t g t 2t
At t 1 :

and at t 2 :

g t 1 2 1 2

g t 2 2 2 4

Now at t 1 2 3 we find:

g 1 2 2 3
6
24
g 1 g 2

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

5/17/2016

318311963

4/13

More generally, we find that:

g t1 t2 2 t1 t2
2t1 2t2

g t1 g t2
and

g a t 2a t
a 2t

a g t
Thus, we conclude that the function g t 2t is indeed a
linear function!
Now consider this function:

y x mx b
Q: But thats the equation of a line! That
must be a linear function, right?
A: Im not surelets find out!
We find that:

y a x m ax b
a mx b

but:

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

5/17/2016

318311963

5/13

a y x a mx b
a m x ab
therefore:

Likewise:

y a x a y x !!!
y x 1 x 2 m x1 x 2 b
m x1 m x2 b

but:

y x 1 y x 2 m x1 b m x 2 b
m x1 m x2 2b

therefore:

y x1 x2 y x1 y x2 !!!

The equation of a line is not a linear function!

Moreover, you can show that the functions:

f y y2 3

y x x

are likewise non-linear.

Remember, linear operators need not be
functions. Consider the derivative
operator, which operates on functions.

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

f x

d
dx

Dept. of EECS

5/17/2016

318311963

6/13

d f x
dx
Note that:

d
d f x d g x

f x g x
dx
dx
dx
and also:

d
d f x
a f x a
dx
dx
We thus can conclude that the derivative operation is a linear
operator on function f x :

d f x
L f x
dx
You can likewise show that the integration operation is
likewise a linear operator:

f y dy

L f y

But, you will find that operations such as:

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

5/17/2016

318311963

d g 2 t
dt

7/13

y x dx

are not linear operators (i.e., they are non-linear operators).

We find that most mathematical operations are in fact nonlinear! Linear operators are thus form a small subset of all
possible mathematical operations.
Q: Yikes! If linear operators are so rare, we are we wasting
our time learning about them??
A: Two reasons!
Reason 1: In electrical engineering, the behavior of most of
our fundamental circuit elements are described by linear
operatorslinear operations are prevalent in circuit analysis!
Reason 2: To our great relief, the two characteristics of
linear operators allow us to perform these mathematical
operations with relative ease!
Q: How is performing a linear operation easier than
performing a non-linear one??
A: The secret lies is the result:
L a y1 b y2 a L y1 b L y2

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

5/17/2016

318311963

8/13

Note here that the linear operation performed on a relatively

complex element a y1 b y2 can be determined immediately
from the result of operating on the simple elements y1 and
y2 .

To see how this might work, lets consider some arbitrary

function of time v t , a function that exists over some finite
amount of time T (i.e., v t 0 for t 0 and t T ).

Say we wish to perform some linear operation on this

function:
L v t ??
Depending on the difficulty of the
operation L , and/or the complexity of the
function v t , directly performing this
operation could be very painful (i.e.,
approaching impossible).
Instead, we find that we can often expand a very complex and
stressful function in the following way:

v t a0 0 t a1 1 t a2 2 t L

an n t

where the values an are constants (i.e.,

coefficients), and the functions n t are known
as basis functions.

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

5/17/2016

318311963

9/13

For example, we could choose the basis functions:

n t t n

n 0

for

Resulting in a polynomial of variable t:

v t a0 a1 t a2 t a3 t L an t n
2

n 0

This signal expansion is of course know as the Taylor Series

expansion. However, there are many other useful expansions
(i.e., many other useful basis n t ).
* The key thing is that the basis functions n t are
independent of the function v t . That is to say, the
basis functions are selected by the engineer (i.e., you)
doing the analysis.
* The set of selected basis functions form whats known as
a basis. With this basis we can analyze the function v t
.
* The result of this analysis provides the coefficients an
of the signal expansion. Thus, the coefficients are
directly dependent on the form of function v t (as well
as the basis used for the analysis). As a result, the set
of coefficients a1 , a2 , a3 , L completely describe the
function v t !

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

5/17/2016

318311963

10/13

Q: I dont see why this expansion of function of v t is

helpful, it just looks like a lot more work to me.
A: Consider what happens when we wish to perform a linear
operation on this function:

L v t L

n t an L n t
n

Look what happened! Instead of performing the linear

operation on the arbitrary and difficult function v t , we can
apply the operation to each of the individual basis functions

n t .
Q: And thats supposed to be easier??
A: It depends on the linear operation and on the basis
functions n t . Hopefully, the operation L n t is simple
and straightforward. Ideally, the solution to L n t is
already known!
Q: Oh yeah, like Im going to get so lucky.

Im sure in all my circuit analysis problems

evaluating L n t will be long, frustrating,
and painful.

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

5/17/2016

318311963

11/13

A: Remember, you get to choose the basis over which the

function v t is analyzed. A smart engineer will choose a
basis for which the operations L n t are simple and
straightforward!
Q: But Im still confused. How do I choose what basis n t

to use, and how do I analyze the function v t to determine

the coefficients an ??
A: Perhaps an example would help.
Among the most popular basis is this one:

and:
T

2 n
t
T

0 t T

t 0,t T
T

2 n
t
T

j
1
1
an v t n t dt v t e
T 0
T 0

dt

So therefore:

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

5/17/2016

318311963

v t

12/13

2 n
t
T

for 0 t T

The astute among you will recognize this signal

expansion as the Fourier Series!
Q: Yes, just why is Fourier analysis so
prevalent?
A: The answer reveals itself when we apply a linear operator
to the signal expansion:

L v t L

an e

2 n
t
T

j
an L e
n

2 n
t
T

Note then that we must simply evaluate:

for all n.

Le

2 n
t
T

We will find that performing almost any

linear operation L on basis functions of
this type to be exceeding simple (more on
this later)!

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS

5/17/2016

318311963

13/13

TIME INVARIANCE
Q: Thats right! You said that most of the microwave devices
that we will study are (approximately) linear, time-invariant
devices. What does time invariance mean?
A: From the standpoint of a linear operator, it means that
that the operation is independent of timethe result does
not depend on when the operation is applied. I.E., if:

then:

L x t y t

L x t y t

where is a delay of any value.

The devices and networks that you are
about to study in EECS 723 are in fact
fixed and unchanging with respect to time
(or at least approximately so).
As a result, the mathematical operations
that describe most (but not all!) of our
circuit devices are both linear and timeinvariant operators. We therefore refer
to these devices and networks as linear,
time-invariant systems.

Jim Stiles

The Univ. of Kansas

Dept. of EECS