35

CHAPTER 1II

METHODOLOGY

3.1

Analysis on Present Water Supply

Planning, implementation and construction of all future projects are carried

out by Public Works Department of Kedah with blessing from the state government.
Whereas the management and daily operation and maintenance carried out by the
private concessionaire Taliworks (Langkawi) sendirian Berhad.
Discussions and consultation from the managing staffs of both the above
bodies would reveal great deal of information on study pertaining to the quality of
water and water resources to meet the present and future demand. Reference would
be made to the monthly and annual reports prepared by Taliworks and data made
available from routine maintenance and operation carried out by the body.

3.2

Approach to Population Projections

It is stated in Design Guidelines for Water Supply Systems by the Malaysian

Water Association, water demand estimates for domestic, commercial and

institutional uses have been based on population, since there is a close correlation
between categories and population. The population projection should be carried out
at 5 year interval to over a 20 year period from 2000 to 2020. In making

36
assumptions on growth rates, reference should be made to historical data based on
previous census and the Demographic Section of the Economic Planning Unit of the
Prime Minsters Department (EPU) should also be consulted. If an assumed
population growth rate is not expected to be sustained throughout the 20 year
planning period, different growth rates may be assumed for different parts of the
period. It should be noted that it would not be practical to expect changes in growth
rates in 5 years. In the case of historical data indicating negative growth rates for any
particular part of the study area, the increase in water demand there would be due
solely to increase the service factor and per capita consumption. Projections of
population should be made on a mukim by mukim basis and hence water demand
estimation should be made on such basis.
In projecting population growth a high and low growth rate should be assumed as
per table in Appendix C. Based on this assumption, two water demand curves will
be generated. Generally the median of these two curves should be used for water
demand estimation. However for water supply planning purposes it is essential to
consider the implications of the higher planning growth curve which represents the
population which will be assumed for developments of water resources in the study.
The high growth curve represents the limit that will be assumed in considering
possible additional source requirements for purposes of gazetting catchments as
water supply reserves in order to preserve rights to develop new resources in the
future.
The following formula should be used for population projection for water supply
planning purposes:
Pn = Po(1+r) n
Where Pn =

2
projected population at the end of year n,

Po

population at the beginning of the year zero,

assumed population growth rate

number of years

37
3.3

Approach for Estimating Water Demand

All water demand projections need to have base line data from which demand
projections can be made. For the purpose of the study, the base line data for
demand projections is 2000. However, historical information prior to this year is
also available. For the short-term future, past trends have been extrapolated to
establish per capita consumption for domestic, commercial and institutional
uses. Before water demand projections were made the total production for the
base year 2000 was initialised to ensure that the starting per capita demand
criteria were compatible with population served and total water production for
Langkawi
All water demand projections need to have base line data from which demand
projections can be made. For the purpose of the study, the base line data for
demand projections is 2000. However, historical information prior to this year is
also available. For the short-term future, past trends have been extrapolated to
establish per capita consumption for domestic, commercial and institutional
uses. Before water demand projections were made the total production for the
base year 2000 was initialised to ensure that the starting per capita demand
criteria were compatible with population served and total water production for
Langkawi

All water demand projections need to have base line data from which
demand projections can be made. For the purpose of the study, the base line data for
demand projections is 2000. However, historical information prior to this year is also
available. For the short-term future, past trends have been extrapolated to establish
per capita consumption for domestic, commercial and institutional uses. Before water
demand projections were made the total production for the base year 2000 was
initialised to ensure that the starting per capita demand criteria were compatible
with population served and total water production for Langkawi.

38

3.3.1

Water Demand
The term demand is the quantity of water which has to be put into a supply

and distribution system so as to satisfy the requirements of household use,

commerce, institutional services, industry, recreation and tourism, meet losses that
occur through leakage, waste, theft etc. and satisfy other unaccounted for water
components. Demand supply may be considered to be synonymous since the only
reliable data available for forecasting are the historical records of total water put into
the supply system. However the accuracy of estimating or measuring water put into a
system is not always very reliable, because in many cases, indirect means such as
pumping hours and nominal pump ratings are used to estimate flows. The volumes
put into supply are constrained by the following:

limitations in the capacity of supply and distribution systems;

restrictions on use imposed as a result of shortages in treatment or

distribution capacity

authorized connections; operational use through hydrants for firefigunhting and street cleaning

3.3.2

service reservoir overflows;

breaks in the continuity of power supplies; and

other limitations such as the build up of deposits in pipes.

Categories of Water uses

For the purpose of the study, domestic and industrial water demands are

divided into the following five categories: (a) domestic (b) industrial (c)
commercial (d) institutional and (e) leakage. Of these categories, domestic,
commercial and institutional uses have a strong correlation with the size of

39
population. Industrial uses are principally related to process requirements for
manufacturing and thus are less dependent on population size. Nevertheless, it is
useful to quote industrial use in litre per capita per day(l/c/d) as acceptance of
population growth in any area implies that some form of industry will be established
to provide employment opportunities. The leakage component of non revenue water
(NRW) is first estimated as a percentage of total NRW and then expressed in terms of
an equivalent per capita consumption. Hence, all components of water demand are
expressed in terms of per capita or equivalent per capita demands.

Domestic Consumption
Domestic consumption comprises the following:
*

in house uses for drinking, cooking, personal washing, sanitation,

house cleaning, laundry and etc.

out of house uses for garden watering, lawn sprinkling and car washing etc.
Water is supplied through house connections or in a limited number of cases,
through public standpipes.

Commercial Consumption
*

Commercial consumption comprises the following

shops, offices, restaurants, hotels, railway stations, airports, small trades, etc.

Institutional Consumption
*
*

Institutional consumption comprises the following:

ospitals, schools, universities, government offices, places of worship,
military establishments, etc.

Industrial Consumption
*

Industrial consumption comprises the following:

process plants, manufacturing industries, power stations, docks, etc.

40
Non Revenue Water (NRW) and leakage
NRW is separately estimated based on comparing the total quantity produced
by the treatment plants within the State against the total amount billed over a
particular period and usually expressed as percentage of total production in the study.
Service factor
NRW = Total supply (measured) Total consumption (metered)
Part of NRW includes leakage from the distribution system.

3.3.3

Estimation of Per Capita Consumption

As found in the book Water Supply Engineering by Santosh Kumar(1982),

page14, the total annual average draft in litres/day required by an area can be worked
out by multiplying the probable number of persons who are going to use the facilities
by the scheme and the annual consumption of each person (for all uses) called Per
Capita Demand.
Per Capita Demand(q) in litres per day
= Total yearly water requirement of the area in litre(i.e. V)
365 x Design population

This estimated quantity of water required for all uses for which the water
supply scheme has to be designed, should be worked out with due provision for the
estimated requirements of future. The future period for which a provision is made in
the water supply scheme is known as the Design Period.
Per capita consumption should be classified under three categories. The
guideline below gives a range of per capita consumption for each of the three
categories:Urban

230 to 320 litres/head/day

Semi urban -

180 to 230 litres/head/day

41
Rural

135 to 180 litres/head/day

By urban it is meant communities with population exceeding 10,000 in

number. As such estimation of water demand for Langkawi for year zero,
considerations should be made on the present size of the urban centre, the existing
per capita of consumption, the degree of unsatisfied demand and the per capita
consumption of other similar sized urban centres without suffering from a high
degree of unsatisfied demand.
Per capita consumption should be increased at 5 year interval until year 20.
The target to be set for year 20 will depend on the projected size of the urban centre.
In Malaysia if mukims can be classified as urban, semi urban and rural categories,
different per capita consumption should be assumed for different mukims for water
demand estimation. If a certain mukim is very big and consists of a range of
classification (say 70% urban and 30% rural), a weighted average per capita
consumption should be assumed for that mukim.
The guideline given above on per capita consumption is deemed to include
normal commercial and industrial use, domestic use and unaccounted for water
losses. If there is provision in the development plans for specific industrial areas,
additional water demand for such use should be added to the estimation.

3.3.4

Service Factor
The service factor reflects the potential percentage of population served. A

service factor of 0.9 means that the distribution system covers adequately 90% of the
area and the population located in that area can get easy access to public water
supply. A 0.9 service factor does not necessarily mean that 90% of the population
have service connections. In estimating the water demand the existing service factor
for urban and rural areas should be deemed for year zero and the service factor
should be increased at 5 year intervals until it reaches the target service factor in year
20. Based on the State Government policy and the expected water supply

42
development budgets in future a service factor of 0.95 0.99 should be adopted for
this study.
Population served = Service Factor x Total Population
3.3.5

Provision For Additional Water demand

Provision for additional water is to cater for new developments such as an

industrial estate to be set up, army camp, institution of higher learning and
resettlement scheme or a new town expected to be populated by migrants into the
study area. The following was used as guideline for estimating industrial demand:Light industries 32,000 litres/hectare
Heavy industries 45,000 litres/hectare

3.3.6

Planning Horizon and Staged Development

In the Malaysian context and with the circumstances applicable the most

urban centres in the country, a planning horizon of 20 years is the optimum and
should be used unless circumstances justify a shorter or longer planning horizon.
Planning on horizon shorter than 20 years will not allow a planner to take full
advantage of the water source selected or to make provisions for full and economical
development of infrastructure, treatment facilities and distribution systems. On the
other hand, planning on a horizon longer than 20 years may introduce a great deal of
inaccuracy due to lack of information of long term development of the area served.
Although the planning horizon of any scheme is 20 years, for economic
reasons implementation of construction of facilities may be staged or phased in two
or more stages especially for the bigger schemes. In the staging of construction, the
stage I facilities should be adequate to meet the water demand for a minimum period
of another 10 years. Notwithstanding this recommendation on staging of water
supply development, a scheme may be implemented in one stage if considered

43
desirable or deemed necessary or the water source has the potential only to cater for a
period slightly longer than 10 years based on the water demand projections.

3.3.7

Basic Formula For Water demand Estimation

The basic formula for water demand estimation to be used is as follows:Wdn
Where

(Pn x C x F) + Dn

Wdn

water demand at the end of year n

Pn

projected population at the end of year n

per capita consumption at the end of year

n

Service factor at the end of year n

Service factor at the end of year n

Dn

additional demand at the end of year n

( source: Design Guidelines for Water Supply Systems The Malaysian Water
Association )
The assessment and evaluation of surface water resources including treatment
facilities in terms of quantity and quality for domestic and industrial water supply
was based on the findings and data available from previous studies on the island.
Some of the recent studies referred to this study are identified in the List of
Reference. The scope of those studies included comprehensive assessment and
documentation of the water resources availability in Pulau Langkawi up to the early
1990s.

3.4

Network Modelling and Distribution Analysis

3.4.1

General

44

In this study the pipe network model has been formed for the main island of
Langkawi and the present water demands were stimulated using the Watnet4
computer programme developed by the Water Research Centre in the United
Kingdom. Figure 3.1 shows the built of the model using Watnet4.
Analysis of the present network confined to identification of the present shortfalls
and only provides the basis for immediate improvement works such as pipelines,
reservoirs and treatment plants, if necessary. The recommendation of suitable size
pipes to sustain the hydraulic capability and estimating cost is not part this study.

3.4.2

Model Building Process

The main steps in performing a network analysis are:

(i)

Data collection, update mapping records and model

building

(ii)

Performing the hydraulic analysis.

(ii)

Identify areas where improvement works required.

45

Figure 3.1: Pipe Network Model of Pulau Langkawi

46
3.4.3

Assumptions
The following assumptions were made in the analysis of trhe distribution

system.
(i)

As normally practiced, pipes diameter of 100 millimetre and below were

ignored as their effect on the overall system characteristics is minimal.

(ii)

Pumping supplies into reservoirs into reservoirs are modelled as inflows with

the flow pattern resembling the pumping schedule. This because many of the pump
performance curves are not available on time.
(iii)

To simplify the network in very congested areas two or more parallel pipes

running along side one another are replaced by a pipe of equivalent cross section.
Likewise, several reservoirs can be combined into a single reservoir if their operating
levels are the same.
(iv)

Typical demand patterns are obtained by logging the demands at various

parts of the system and obtaining representative values.

(v)

Reservoirs and tanks are assumed to have a uniform cross section unless

specified. Lengths of pipes are obtained from reticulation plans and the lengths
increased by 2% to take into account of the ground gradient and minor losses.
(vi)

Ground levels of critical nodal points are obtained from past records held by

JKR Kedah while the rests are obtained from topographic maps.
(vii)

Float valves are introduced avoid reservoir overflowing

(viii)

The whole of Langkawi is considered as an urban area

47
3.4.4

Network Analysis
The model is analysed for peak flow with initial reservoir levels at mid

height. A peak factor of 2.0 is adopted for draw offs at the demand nodes. From
analysis results, shortfalls in the distribution system regards to the accepted standard
of service are noted and the network upgraded until it meets the service criteria
condition. Subsequently, the model was stimulated over 24 hours to check the
adequacy of the model over time, especially the recovery of reservoir during off peak
hours. All reservoirs are assumed to be full at the start of simulation.

3.4.5

Hazen Williams Friction Coefficient (C value)

Typical C values of 110 is used for all types of and all sizes.

Hazen Wiliam Formul:

H = 1.2 x 1010 x L x Q1.86
C1.86 x D4.87

( JKR design criteria and standards for water supply system Feb 1989)
Where H is the head loss(m)
Lis the pipe length (m)
Q is the flow (litres/sec)
D is the diameter (mm)
C is the Hazen William C value

48
3.4.6

Acceptance Criteria for Pressure

The maximum acceptable velocity for trunk and distribution mains is 2.6

meter per second. The minimum acceptable pressure extracted from the JKR
standard of service is 22.0 metre for urban. As the modal is confined to the trunk
mains, a residual pressure of 30.0 metres is adopted when checking the results of the
hydraulic analysis at the various nodes.

3.4.7

Network Data
Table shows data that has been fed in Watnet4 for performing analysis and

simulation. As general principle, and unless otherwise stated the units of

measurement are:

Length

Head/pressure -

meter (m) of water

Flow

litre/second (l/s)

Velocity

meter/second (m/s)

Volume (storage) -

mega litre (ml)

Time schedule

day, hour, minutes (dd/hh:mm)

meter

49

Table :3.1 Data Input for Performing Analysis

and Simulation
GOKRI

Page 01 of 03
03-SEP-** 19:19:13

NODE DATA
Node

Ground

Area

Name
C1

Level
24.410

C2

32.790

C3

70.0

C4

7.510

C5

3.420

CANGKUAN

78.50

D1
D10
D11
D12
D13
D2
D3
D4
D5PENARA
D6JETI
D7
D8
D9
DATAIET
DUDUNGRE
HOTELDAT
IDATA

20.990
14.773
8.10
47.480
8.50
5.577
40.0
3.80
3.250
50.0
14.60
15.50
14.650
102.30
79.0
30.50
105.50

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

INCANKUA

830

INDUDUNG

84.0

INKUAH

84.0

INMALUT

76.50

INNIBUNG

84.0

50
Table : 3.1 Data Input for Performing Analysis
and Simulation
GOKRI

NODE DATA

Page 02 of 03

03-SEP-** 19:19:13

Node

Ground

Area

Name
INPDG

Level
70.0

INSAGA

110.20

83.50

K2

66.50

K3
KUAHRES
LOJI
LOJI2
LOJI3
M2
M3
M4
M5
MALUTRES
PDG.LALA
PL1
PL10
PL2
PL3
PL4

69.790
76.50
10.00
10.00
4.00
70.0
10.0
20.0
15.0
64.90
59.0
10.0
7.60
10.850
15.50
12.0

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

PL5

15.850

PL6

14.50

PL7

15.0

PL8

12.0

PL9

12.250

S1

56.420

S11

5.577

51
GOKRI

Page 03 of 03
03-SEP-** 19:19:13

NODE DATA
Node

Ground

Area

Name
S2
S3

Level
14.80
31.420

1
1

S4
S5
S6

110
3.50
13.225

1
1
1

S7
S8
S9

28.60
100
7.680

1
1
1

SAGAR

102.30

T.NIBUNG

78.50

TN1

29.550

TN2

2.070

TN3

3.240

TN4

5.150

Table :3.1
GOKRI
:
FLV DATA
Node
K
K2
K3

Data Input for Performing Analysis

and Simulation

Node
Outlet
INKUAH
INPDG
INNIBUNG

Factor
Throttle
450
450
450

Mode
Active
Active
Active

Page 01 of 01
03-SEP-** 19:19:41

ModeLevel
Fix/Vary
Vary 83.50
Vary 66.50
Vary 83.50

Level Inlet
Upper Lower
82
65
82

52

GOKRI
:
BASE DEMAND DATA
Node
Demand
Initial
Name
Type1
Ex. Dem
C1
C2
C3
696
C4
696
C5
870
CANGKUAN
D1
2435
D10
609
D11
609
D12
609
D13
D2
1500
D3
609
D4
609
D5PENARA
609
D6JETI
609
D7
609
D8
609
D9
609
DATAIET
DUDUNGRE
HOTELDAT
IDATA
INCANKUA
INDUDUNG
INKUAH
INMALUT
INNIBUNG

Page 01 of 03
03-SEP-** 19:19:50
Demand

Demand

Demand

Demand

Type2

Type3

Type4

Type5

696
931
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

347
347
347
347
347

53

GOKRI
:
BASE DEMAND DATA
Node
Demand
Initial
Name
Type1
Ex. Dem
INPDG
INSAGA
K
K2
K3
KUAHRES
LOJI
LOJI2
LOJI3
M1
435
M2
870
M3
1800
M4
870
M5
MALUTRES
PDG.LALA
PL1
435
PL10
348
PL2
435
PL3
435
PL4
435
PL5
218
PL6
218
PL7
218
PL8
435
PL9
218
S1
348
S11

Page 02 of 03
03-SEP-** 19:19:50
Demand

Demand

Demand

Type2

Type3

Type4

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

-483.13
-95
-231

374
374
374
374

374
522

Demand
Type5

54

GOKRI
:
BASE DEMAND DATA
Node
Initial
Name
Ex. Dem
S2
S3
S4
S5
S6
S7
S8
S9
SAGAR
T.NIBUNG
TN1
TN2
TN3
TN4

Page 03 of 03
03-SEP-** 19:19:50

Demand

Demand

Demand

Demand

Demand

Type1

Type2

Type3

Type4

Type5

348
348
435
435
218
696
653
653

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

522
522
374
374

653
435
653

0
0
0

143
435
435

435

55
Table: 3.1 Data input for Performing Analysis and Simulation
GOKRI
:
VAR. HEADRESVR

. DATA

Main
Node
CANGKUAN
DATAIET

BWL
(Aod)
78.50
102.30

GOKRI
:
VAR. HEADRESVR

. DATA

Main
Node
DUDUNGRE
KUAHRES

BWL
(Aod)
76.50
76.50

GOKRI
:
VAR. HEAD
Main
Node
MALUTRES
PDG.LALA
GOKRI
:
VAR. HEAD
Main
Node
SAGAR
T.NIBUNG

Page 01 of 04
03-SEP-** 19:19:34
TWL
(Aod)
82.48
105

TWL
(Aod)
83.5
83.5

Level
Coords
83.5
83.5

Volume
Coords
4500
4500

Page 03 of 04
03-SEP-** 19:19:34
TWL
(Aod)
69.7
66.5

Level
Coords
69.7
66.5

Volume
Coords
4500
13500

Page 04 of 04
03-SEP-** 19:19:34

RESVR . DATA
BWL
(Aod)
102.30
76.50

Volume
Coords
13650
950

Page 02 of 04
03-SEP-** 19:19:34

RESVR . DATA
BWL
(Aod)
64.90
59.0

Level
Coords
82.48
105

TWL
(Aod)
109.8
83.5

Level
Coords
109.8
83.5

Volume
Coords
13500
4500