CIVL 2510 Laboratory Exercise 1: Hydraulic Jump

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering

CIVL 2510 Fluid Mechanics
Laboratory Exercise 1: Hydraulic Jump
1.1 - Definition
Hydraulic jump is a phenomenon that a rapidly flowing stream suddenly becomes a slowly flowing
stream with a larger cross-sectional area. In other words, there is a depth increase for a hydraulic jump
to exist by definition.
Hydraulic jumps occur frequently in nature both in air flows and water flows. A well-known example
is the many rapids in so-called white water rivers, which end in much calmer water via a hydraulic
jump (figure 1.1). When the flow changes from flowing rapidly to flowing slowly via a hydraulic
jump, it loses a lot of energy. Engineers have made use of this characteristic of the hydraulic jump. For
example when water flows out of a reservoir via a spillway the water velocity is high. The energy
associated with these high velocities could seriously harm the river or damage the channel further
downstream. Hence the spillway is designed in such a manner that a hydraulic jump is formed at the
bottom, dissipating some of the energy in the flow and resulting in much slower moving water away
from the spillway (figure 1.2).

Figure 1.1 Naturally occurring hydraulic jumps in white water rivers

Figure 1.2 Artificially generated hydraulic jump at the bottom of a spillway

CIVL 2510 Copyright Dr G.A. Kikkert 2015

CIVL 2510 Laboratory Exercise 1: Hydraulic Jump

1.2 Objectives
The objectives of this experimental laboratory exercise are:
1. to observe different types of flow in an open channel and the circumstances under which a
hydraulic jump occurs
2. to compare the theoretical analysis of a hydraulic jump with experimental results
3. to calculate the energy loss through the hydraulic jump

1.3 Theory
To mathematically describe the phenomenon of the hydraulic jump we will use the definition as shown
in figure 1.3. Our control volume extends from the cross-sectional profiles at 1, where the flow depth is
h1 and the cross-sectional velocity is v1, and the cross-sectional profile at 2, with depth h2 and velocity
v2. The depth and velocity in the reservoir are h and v respectively.

Figure 1.3 Diagram of the hydraulic jump in a channel flow

There are three equations to describe the hydraulic jump. The first is the conservation of mass (see
Unit 3.2), i.e. the flow rate at 1 has to be equal to the flow rate at 2:
Q1 = Q2

or

v1 A1 = v2 A2

(1.1)

where A is the cross-sectional area. However the width, b, at 1 and 2 are the same. Therefore:
v1h1 = v2 h2

(1.2)

The second equation is the conservation of linear momentum (see Unit 3.3). Newtons second law
states that the net force acting on a body (in our case the control volume) in any fixed direction is equal
to the rate of increase of momentum of the body in that direction (or mass times acceleration).
F = ma
CIVL 2510 Copyright Dr G.A. Kikkert 2015

(1.3)
2

CIVL 2510 Laboratory Exercise 1: Hydraulic Jump

If we decide to use a coordinate system, where the x-axis is in the direction of the flow, then:

Fx = F1 F2 = g
and

h12
h2
g 2
2
2

(1.4)

max = q (v2 v1 )

(1.5)

where q is the flow rate per unit width (Q / b). Solving for the ration of the two flow depths gives:
h2 1
8v 2 1
= 1 + 1 1 = 1 + 8 Fr12 1

h1 2
gh1 2

(1.6)

v1
. Using the
gh1
Froude number we can define three different flow types, which are summarized in the table below.
Here we define the Froude number, Fr, which is a non-dimensional number as Fr1 =

Table 1.1 Flow type dependence on the Froude number

Froude No.

Depth

Type

Fr > 1
Fr =1
Fr < 1

h 2 > h1
h 2 = h1
h 2 < h1

Super-critical flow
Critical flow
Sub-critical flow

Will hydraulic jump

occur?
Yes/No
Yes/No
Yes/No

The final equation we will use is the modified Bernoulli equation (see Unit 3.4 and 5.4). We will use
this equation to determine the energy loss, hf0, as a result of the hydraulic jump. Note the energy loss in
this case is expressed in meters of head of water.
2
2
p1
u1 p 2
u2

g + z1 + 2 g g + z 2 + 2 g = h f 0

(1.7)

where p1 and p2 are the pressures at 1 and 2 respectively. However we are working with an open
channel and hence p1 = p2 = atmospheric pressure. With z1 = h1 and z2 = h2, the equation becomes:

hf 0

2
2

u1
u2

= h1 +
h2 + 2 g
2
g

(1.8)

Entering results from the conservation of mass and momentum equation in the modified Bernoulli
equation give the energy loss in the hydraulic jump:
hf 0 =

(h2 h1 )3
4h1h2

CIVL 2510 Copyright Dr G.A. Kikkert 2015

(1.9)

CIVL 2510 Laboratory Exercise 1: Hydraulic Jump

1.4 Experimental Considerations

The aim of a good experimentalist is to obtain measurements that are as accurate as possible with the
measurement tools available. However, more important than increasing the overall accuracy of the
measurements is to quantify the accuracy at its current level. To determine this accuracy, the
experimental procedure and measurement tools are investigated in detail to make sure the random
errors and systematic errors are minimized and the errors that cannot be avoided are then quantified.
When the errors in the experiments are quantified, it also determines the significant digits that should
be used when presenting the results.

Random error (or precision error) is the difference between the value of an individual
measurement and the average of a number or repeated measurements. The smaller the random
error, the better the repeatability of the measurement. Random errors are generally associated
with unrepeatable errors and hence obtaining an estimate for the measurement from an average
of a large number of individual measurements decreases the random error. Small random errors
are unavoidable as these are often directly related to the accuracy of the measuring instrument.
Systematic error (or accuracy error) is the difference between the value of an individual
measurement and the true value. Systematic errors are generally related to repeatable, fixed
errors and the magnitude of the error does not decrease with obtaining an average reading.
Systematic errors are often related to experimental setup and procedure. Hence when
systematic errors are discovered, the setup and procedure should be scrutinized to determine
whether improvements can be made, before new measurements are obtained.
Significant digits are digits that are relevant and meaningful. The least significant numeral in a
number implies the precision of the measurement (or the calculation based on the
measurement). For example, if a measured distance is given as 1262 mm, it has four significant
digits. This suggests that the actual value has an accuracy of 1 mm and is somewhere between
1261 mm and 1263 mm. If this distance is covered in 0.34 s (i.e. two significant digits) than the
average speed can be calculated as 3.711764 m/s. However when performing calculations of
several parameters the final result is generally only as precise as the least precise parameter. In
this case the time is the least precise parameter and hence the average speed should be written
with two significant digits or as 3.7 m/s.

The accuracy of the experimental measurements is generally presented as a percentage. Assuming that
the systematic errors are small (otherwise no useful conclusions can be obtained from the
experiments), the accuracy of the measurement tools will determine the percentage error and the
significant digits. For example, if your measurement tool gives a value for the distance of 1.262 m, but
the error is 0.5% then the actual value is somewhere between 1.256 m and 1.268 m. Hence it is not
appropriate to give the value for the distance as 1.262 m, but should instead be written as 1.26 m, as
this indicates that the actual value is between 1.25 m and 1.27 m.
1.5 Experimental Procedure

1) Adjust the channel to horizontal position and start the pump

2) Wait until water level rises in the tank to the highest level mark of the tank (several cm from
the top). Allow a short interval of time between each adjustment of the pump to allow the water
level to stabilize. Otherwise the water tank may overflow.
3) At these settings, a super-critical flow (Fr > 1) should be present throughout the entire length of
CIVL 2510 Copyright Dr G.A. Kikkert 2015

CIVL 2510 Laboratory Exercise 1: Hydraulic Jump

the channel. Let it run for a few more minutes to ensure stability.
4) After those minutes, measure the heights h, h1, and h2 using a straight edged ruler on the
outside walls of the channel and take readings of v1 and v2 from the computers.
5) Slowly reduce the output of the pump to adjust the water level to certain levels, which are
marked in the water tank
6) Repeat steps 4 and 5 for at least 6 different water levels, h.
1.6 Tasks

Task 1: Derivation of equations

Derive equation (1.6) from 1st principle. Use the result from the conservation of mass equation (ie. q =
v1h1). Hint: multiply both sides of the momentum equation by h2 / h12.
Derive equation (1.9) from 1st principle. Note that this equation no longer depends on either velocity.
You can eliminate velocity v2 from the modified Bernoulli equation, using the conservation of mass
equation and velocity v1 using the conservation of momentum equation.
Task 2: Estimation of experimental accuracy
Determine all sources of errors involved in the experimental measurements. Distinguish between
random errors and systematic errors. Comment on the assumption that the systematic errors are
negligible. Quantify the random errors related to each of the measurement tools used during the
experiments and determine the appropriate number of significant digits to be used throughout the
calculations and discussion of your experimental results.
Task 3: Obtain experimental measurements
Follow the experimental procedure as mentioned above to obtain the necessary experimental
measurement. You can make use of the attached Experiment Record sheet to record your
measurements. While carrying out your measurement, pay particular attention to the accuracy of your
measurements and possible errors in your measurements.
Task 4: Calculations and Discussion
1) Determine for each water level, the Froude number based on the measurement obtained at 1
2) Compare your obtained Froude numbers with your observation of whether a hydraulic jump
occurred. Discuss your results.
3) Based on your calculated Froude numbers, you can obtain theoretical values for the ratio of h2
over h1. Plot these as a function of the Froude number.
4) In the same plot as 3), plot the experimental results of h2 / h1 as a function of the Froude
number. Comment on the comparison between the theoretical and experimental results. What
kind of errors, in the assumptions in case of the theoretical value and in the measurements for
CIVL 2510 Copyright Dr G.A. Kikkert 2015

CIVL 2510 Laboratory Exercise 1: Hydraulic Jump

the experimental values, could have affected the results?

5) For each of the water level calculate the energy loss and plot as a function of the Froude
number. Comment on the relationship between the energy loss and the Froude number. What
happens to the Reynolds number when the Froude number increases? Remember that for higher
Reynolds number, the flow becomes more turbulent. What property of turbulence can you
determine from your results?
Task 5: Reporting your experimental investigation
For this laboratory exercise, an informal report will be sufficient, i.e. neatly hand-written by different
members of the group. Make sure that you clearly include all necessary information related to task 1 to
4 and that before you leave the laboratory the TA has reviewed your report and recorded the mark for
each member of your group.

CIVL 2510 Copyright Dr G.A. Kikkert 2015

CIVL 2510 Laboratory Exercise 1: Hydraulic Jump

Experiment Record (Hydraulic Jump)

Group No.:
Date:
Experimental Data:

No.

Flow
rate

v1

h1

v2

CIVL 2510 Copyright Dr G.A. Kikkert 2015

h2

Does
hydraulic
jump
occur?