Presented

to the

LIBRARY of the
UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO
by

\A/,

SANSKRIT GRAMMAR
Sriclubing botfj ti)t Classical language, anb
tfje olber Jitalectt, of #eba anb $5raf)tnana

BY

WILLIAM DWIGHT WHITNEY

Late Professor of Sanskrit in Yale University, Knight of the Prussian Order
Pour le Merite, Corresponding Member of the Academic des Inscriptions

et

Belles- Lettres of the Institute of France,

etc.,

Editor-

in-Chief of The Century Dictionary, an Encyclopedic

Lexicon of the English Language

CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS
LONDON: GEOFFREY CUMBERLEGE
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

1950

SEVENTH ISSUE

(1950)

OF THE SECOND EDITION

(1889)

PREFACE
TO THE FIRST EDITION.

It

was

in June,

two in Leipzig, that

the Sanskrit

1875, as I chanced to be for a day or

was unexpectedly invited to prepare

grammar

for the

Indo-European series projected

by Messrs. Breitkopf and Hartel. After some consideration,

and consultation with friends, I accepted the task, and have
since devoted to

it

what time could be spared from regular

engagements earlier formed.

seems a long one, it was nevertheless unavoidwould gladly, in the interest of the work itself,

duties, after the satisfaction of

If the delay

able

and

have made
ary

to

it

still

longer.

In every such case,

make a compromise between measurably

it is

necess-

satisfying

present pressing need, and doing the subject fuller justice

at the cost of more time
and it seemed as if the call for
;

a Sanskrit grammar on a somewhat different plan from those

excellent as some of these in many respects
already in use
are

was urgent enough to recommend a speedy comwork begun.

The objects had especially in view in the preparation

pletion of the

grammar have been the following:

To make a presentation of the facts of the language
primarily as they show themselves in use in the literature,
and only secondarily as they are laid down by the native
grammarians. The earliest European grammars were by the
of this
1

necessity of the case chiefly founded on their native prede-

PREFACE.

vi

cessors

and a

traditional

method was thus established which

has been perhaps somewhat too closely adhered to, at the

expense of clearness and of proportion, as well as of scientruth.

tific

Accordingly,

my

attention has not been directed

toward a profounder study of the grammatical science of the

Hindu schools: their teachings I have been contented to take
as

already

to

reported

Western learners in the existing

Western grammars.

To

2.

include also in the presentation the forms and

constructions of the older language, as exhibited in the

Veda

and the Brahmana. Grassmann's excellent Index- Vocabulary

to the Rig-Veda, and my own manuscript one to the Atharvabe able to make public*), gave
mass of Vedic material; and this,
with some assistance from pupils and friends, I have sought

Veda (which

me

hope soon

to

in full detail the great

as far as the circumstances permitted, from the

other Vedic texts and from the various works of the Brah-

to complete,

mana

period, both printed

3.

To

treat the

and manuscript.

language throughout as an accented one,

omitting nothing of

what

the Sanskrit accent,

its

is

known

and the tone of individual words

cessarily dependent especially

by

respecting the nature of

changes in combination

and

inflection,

being, in all this, ne-

upon the material presented

the older accentuated texts.

4.

To

cast

all

statements,

classifications,

and so

on.

a form consistent with the teachings of linguistic science.

In doing this, it has been necessary to discard a few of the

into

long-used and familiar divisions and terms of Sanskrit grammar

for example, the classification and nomenclature of

and "general tenses" (which is so indefenthat one can only wonder at its having maintained itself

^special tenses*'
sible

and terminology of the conjugation-classes

the separation in treatment of the facts of internal and exso long), the order

It

was published, as

Oriental Society, in 1881.

vol. XII.

of the Journal of the American

PREFACE.
ternal euphonic combination,

taken to

and the

like.

But care has been

the transition from the old to the

facilitate

and the changes,

vil

is

it

believed, will

unqualified acceptance.

It

new;

commend themselves

to

has been sought also to help an

appreciation of the character of the language by putting its

facts as far as possible into a statistical form. In this respect

the native

grammar

is

and misleading.

especially deficient

Regard has been constantly had

to the practical

needs

of the learner of the language, and it has been attempted,

by due arrangement and by the use of different sizes of

make

to

type,

work

the

as

usable by one whose

object

acquire a knowledge of the classical Sanskrit alone

as those are in which the earlier forms are not included.

it is to

The custom

of transliterating all Sanskrit

which has become usual

words
in

into

Euro-

European San-

pean

characters,

skrit

grammars, is, as a matter of course, retained throughand, because of the difficulty of setting even a small

out;

Sanskrit type with anything but a large European,

practiced alone in the smaller sizes.

While the treatment of the

thus been

language

by

made a
itself,

historical

facts of the

one,

is

language has

within the limits of the

have not ventured

it

to

make

it

comparative,

and processes of other

addition to all that was

bringing in the analogous forms

To do

related languages.

this,

in

attempted beside, would have extended the work, both in

content and in time of preparation, far beyond the limits
it.
And, having decided to leave out this elehave done so consistently throughout. Explanations

assigned to

ment,

of the origin of forms have also been avoided, for the same
reason and for others, which hardly call for statement.

grammar

is

predecessors, and

necessarily in great part founded on its

it

would be in vain

to

attempt an acknowl-

in detail of all the aid received from other schol-

edgment
I have had

ars.

arly and

at

hand always especially the very scholsummary of Kielhorn, the full and

reliable brief

PREFACE.

viii

excellent

work of Monier Williams, the smaller grammar of

wonder of learning and method for the time when

Bopp (a
was prepared), and the volumes of Benfey and
As regards the material of the language, no other
it

course,

has been at

all

Mtiller.

of

aid,

comparable with the great Peters-

burg lexicon of Bo'htlingk and Roth, the existence of which

gives by itself a new character to all investigations of the
Sanskrit language.
special collections

What I have not found there or in the

made by myself or by others for me, I

have called below "not quotable"

a provisional designa-

by the results
For what concerns the verb, its forms
and uses, I have had, as every one

tion, necessarily liable to correction in detail

of further researches.

and

their classification

must have, by

far the

most aid from Delbrtick, in his Alt-

indisches Verbum and

Former pupils of
tions.

his various syntactical contribu-

my own, Professors Avery and

have
also
helped me, in connection with this
Edgren,
with
and
others, in a way and measure that calls for
subject

public acknowledgment. In respect to the important matter

of the declension in the earliest language, I have made great
use of the elaborate paper in the Journ. Am. Or. Soc. (print-

ing contemporaneously with this work, and used by

almost, but not quite, to the end of the subject) by

me
my

former pupil Prof. Lanman my treatment of it is founded

on his. My manifold obligations to my own teacher, Prof.
;

Weber

of Berlin, also require to be mentioned

among other

him the use of his copies of certain unthings,

the
texts
of
Brahmana period, not otherwise accesspublished
ible to me; and he was kind enough to look through with
me my work in its inchoate condition, favoring me with
I

owe

to

valuable suggestions.
thank Prof. Delbrtick

For

this last favor I

have likewise

to

who, moreover, has taken the trouble

glance over for a like purpose the greater part of the
proof-sheets of the grammar, as they came from the press.

to

To Dr. L. von

Schrb'der is

due whatever use

have been

PREFACE.
able to

make

ix

(unfortunately a very imperfect one) of the im-

portant Maitrayam-Sanhita.*
Of the deficiencies of my

work

I am, I think, not less

even
the severest, is likely
it,
fully
Should it be found to answer its intended purpose
to be.
well enough to come to another edition, my endeavor will
be to improve and complete it; and I shall be grateful for

aware than any

critic

of

any corrections or suggestions which may aid me in making it a more efficient help to the study of the Sanskrit
language and

literature.

GOTHA, July 1879.

W.

D.

W.

PREFACE
TO THE SECOND EDITION.

In preparing a new edition of

made use

this

grammar,

have

new

material gathered by myself during

the intervening years,** and also of that gathered by others,
***
so far as it was accessible to me and fitted into my plan
of the

have had the benefit of kind suggestions from various

for all of which I desire to return a grateful
quarters

and

acknowledgment. By such help, I have been able not only

to correct and repair certain errors and omissions of the
first edition,

but also to speak with more definiteness upon

* Since
published in full by him, 18816.
part of this new material was published by myself in 1885,
as a Supplement to the grammar, under the title "Roots, Verb-Forms,

**

and Primary Derivatives of the Sanskrit Language".

***
Especially deserving of mention is Holtzmann's collection of
material from the Mahabharata, also published (1884) in the form of
a Supplement to this work; also Btthtlingk's similar collection from
the larger half of the Ramayana.

PREFACE.

x
very

many

points relating to the material

and usages of

the language.

In order not to impair the applicability of the references already made to the work by various authors, its para-

graphing has been retained unchanged throughout; for increased convenience of further reference, the subdivisions

more thoroughly marked, by letters

then
changing a former lettering) and the par(now and
agraph-numbers have been set at the outer instead of the
of paragraphs have been

inner edge of the upper margin.

My remoteness from the place of publication has forbidden me the reading of more than one proof; but the

kindness of Professor

companied by

Lanman

in adding his revision

other timely suggestions)

to

care of the printers, will be found, I trust,

in securing a text disfigured

Circumstances beyond

by few

my

year or two the completion of

it

in

some parts

NEW-HAVEN,

less

(ac-

mine, and the

to have aided

errors of the press.

control

have delayed for a

and have made

this revision,

complete than I should have desired.

Sept. 1888.

W.

D.

W.

INTRODUCTION.
BRIEF ACCOUNT OF THE INDIAN LITERATURE.
It seems desirable to give here such a sketch of the
history of Indian literature as shall show the relation to

one another of the different periods and forms of the lan-

guage treated in the following grammar, and the position

of the works there quoted.
The name "Sanskrit" (samskpta, 1087 d, adorned, elaborated, perfected), which is popularly applied to the whole
ancient and sacred language of India, belongs more properly
only to that dialect which, regulated and established by the
labors of the native grammarians, has led for the last two
thousand years or more an artificial life, like that of the

Latin during most of the same period in Europe, as the

written and spoken means of communication of the learned

and

priestly caste;

that office.

and which even

It is thus distinguished,

the later and derived dialects

at the present

day fills
on the one hand, from

as the Prakrit,

forms of

language which have datable monuments from as early as

the third century before Christ, and which are represented
by inscriptions and coins, by the speech of the uneducated
characters in the Sanskrit dramas (see below), and by a
limited literature the Pali, a Prakritic dialect which became
the sacred language of Buddhism in Farther India, and is
;

INTRODUCTION.

xii

still

in service there as such

tongues forming

and yet

later

and more altered

modern

the transition to the languages of

And, on the other hand, it is distinguished, but

very much less sharply and widely, from the older dialects
India.

of speech presented in the canonical literature,

or forms

the

Veda and Brahmana.

This

fact,

authorized

of the fixation by learned treatment of an

expression, which should thenceforth be

mode of

used according to rule in the intercourse of the educated,

the cardinal one in Indian linguistic history; and as the

is

native grammatical literature has determined the form of

the language, so it has also to a large extent determined
the grammatical treatment of the language by European
scholars.

Much

in the history of the learned

movement

is still

and opinions are at variance even as to points of

prime consequence. Only the concluding works in the development of the grammatical science have been preserved to
us; and though they are evidently the perfected fruits of a
obscure,

long series of learned labors, the records of the latter are

The time and the place of the crelost beyond recovery.
ation of Sanskrit are

unknown; and

as to its occasion,

we

have only our inferences and conjectures to rely upon. It

seems, however, altogether likely that the grammatical sense
of the ancient Hindus was awakened in great measure by
their study of the traditional sacred texts, and by their comparison of its different language with that of contemporary
use. It is certain that the grammatical study of those texts

(9akhas,

and

lit'ly

and other, was zealously

Brahmanic schools; this is

branches), phonetic

effectively followed

in the

attested by our possession of a number of phonetico-grammatical treatises, prati9akhyas (prati 9akham belonging to
each several text), each having for subject one principal

Vedic text, and noting all its peculiarities of form; these,

both by the depth and exactness of their own researches
and by the number of authorities which they quote, speak
plainly of a lively scientific activity continued during a long
time.
What part, on the other hand, the notice of differ-

INTRODUCTION.

ences between the

xiii

speech of the learned and the

may have borne in the same

correct

altered dialects of the vulgar

but it is not customary

is not easy to determine
that a language has its proper usages fixed by rule until
the danger is distinctly felt of its undergoing corruption.

movement

The labors of the general school of Sanskrit grammar

reached a climax in the grammarian Panini, whose text-book,
containing the facts of the language cast into the highly
and difficult form of about four thousand algebraic-

artful

rules (in the statement and arrangement of

which brevity alone is had in view, at the cost of distinctness and unambiguousness) became for all after time the
Reauthoritative, almost sacred, norm of correct speech.
specting his period, nothing really definite and trustworthy
is known; but he is with much probability held to have
lived some time (two to four centuries) before the Christian
era. He has had commentators in abundance, and has undergone at their hands some measure of amendment and completion; but he has not been overthrown or superseded.
The chief and most authoritative commentary on his work
is that called the Mahabhashya
great comment, by Pa-

formula -like

tanjali.

language, even if not a vernacular one. which is in

tolerably wide and constant use for writing and speaking,
is,

of course, kept in

life

principally by direct tradition, by

to scholar and the study and

communication from teacher

imitation of existing texts, and not by the learning of grammatical rules; yet the existence of grammatical authority,

and especially of a
scriptive value,

single one,

could not

fail

deemed

infallible

and of pre-

to exert a strong regulative

influence, leading to the avoidance more and more of what

was. even if lingering in use, inconsistent with his teachings,

and

also, in

the constant reproduction of texts, to the gradthey might contain that was

ual effacement of whatever

Thus the whole more modern literature of

unapproved.
India has been Paninized, so to speak, pressed into the
mould prepared by him and
limits

his

school.

of the artificiality of this process

is

What

are

the

not yet known.

INTRODUCTION.

xiv

attention of special students of the Hindu grammar

and difficult that the number
(and the subject is so intricate
is exceedingly small of those who have mastered it suffi-

The

on such general matters)

ciently to have a competent opinion
has been hitherto mainly directed toward determining what
the Sanskrit according to Panini really is, toward explaining
the language from the grammar. And, naturally enough,
in India, or wherever else the leading object is to learn to
that is, as authorspeak and write the language correctly
that is the proper course to
the way really to understand
is
not
however,
pursue. This,
the language. The time must soon come, or it has come
already, when the endeavor shall be instead to explain the

ized

by the grammarians

grammar from the language:

as

shall

be

found

possible,

(which contain not a

little

to

test in

the

reason

all

details,

of Panini's

so far
rules

that seems problematical, or even

to determine what and how much

had
he
everywhere as foundation, and what
genuine usage
traces may be left in the literature of usages possessing an

sometimes

perverse);

inherently authorized character, though unratified by him.

By the term "classical" or "later" language, then, as
constantly used below in the grammar, is meant the lan-

guage of those literary monuments which are written in conformity with the rules of the native grammar: virtually, the
whole proper Sanskrit literature. For although parts of this
are doubtless earlier than Panini,

it

is

impossible to

tell

just what parts, or how far they have escaped in their style
The whole, too,
the leveling influence of the grammar.
may be called so far an artificial literature as it is written
in a phonetic form (see grammar, 101 a) which never can

have been a truly vernacular and living one. Nearly all of

it is metrical: not
poetic works only, but narratives, histories
to exist),
(so far as anything deserving that name can be said
and scientific treatises of every variety, are done into verse;
a prose and a prose literature hardly has an existence (the
principal exceptions, aside from the voluminous commentaries,

are a few stories, as the Da9akum5racarita and the

Of linguistic history there is next to nothing

VSsavadatta).

xv

INTRODUCTION.

it all; but only a history of style, and this for the most
part showing a gradual depravation, an increase of artificiality
and an intensification of certain more undesirable features

in

such as the use of passive constructions

of the language
and of participles instead of verbs, and the substitution of

compounds

for sentences.

This being the condition of the later literature,

it is

of

much

the higher consequence that there is an earlier

literature, to which the suspicion of artificiality does not
attach, or attaches at least only in a minimal degree, which
so

has a truly vernacular character, and abounds in prose as

well as verse.

The results of the very earliest literary productiveness

of the Indian people are the hymns with which, when they
had only crossed the threshold of the country, and when
their geographical horizon was still limited to the riverbasin of the Indus with

its tributaries, they praised their

the
deified powers of nature, and accompanied the
gods,
rites of their comparatively simple worship.
At what period

made and sung cannot be determined with any

approach to accuracy: it may have been as early as 2000
B. C. They were long handed down by oral tradition, prethese were-

served by
imitations,

growing,

the

care,

and increased by the additions and

of succeeding generations; the mass was ever

and, with the change of habits and beliefs and

religious practices,
in chosen extracts,

was becoming variously applied

sung
mixed with other material into liturgies,

adapted with more or less of distortion to help the needs

of a ceremonial which was coming to be of immense elaboration and intricacy.
And, at some time in the course
of this history, there was

made

lection of the hymn-material,

for preservation a great colmainly its oldest and most

genuine part, to the extent of over a thousand hymns and ten

thousand verses, arranged according to traditional authorship
and to subject and length and metre of hymn: this collection
is the Big -Veda Veda
of verses fro) or of hymns. Other
collections were made also out of the same general mass
of traditional material:

doubtless later, although the inter-

INTRODUCTION.

xvi

relations of this

period are as yet too unclear to allow of

our speaking with entire confidence as to anything concerning them. Thus, the Sanaa- Veda Veda of chants (saman),
containing only about a sixth as much, its verses nearly all
found in the Rig- Veda also, but appearing here with numerous differences of reading

these were passages put together

Again, collections called

for chanting at the soma-sacrifices.

by the comprehensive name of Yajur-Veda Veda of sacthese contained not verses alone,
rificial formulas (yajus)
but also numerous prose utterances, mingled with the former,
in the order in which they were practically employed in
the ceremonies; they were strictly liturgical collections. Of
these, there are in existence several texts, which have their
mutual differences the Vajasaneyi-Samhita (in two slightly
:

discordant versions, Madhyandina and Kanva), sometimes

also called the White Yajur-Veda; and the various and

considerably differing texts of the Black Yajur-Veda, namely

the Taittiriya-Samhita, the Maitrayani-Samhita, the Kapis-

thala-Samhita, and the Kanaka (the two last not yet published). Finally, another historical collection, like the RigVeda, but made up mainly of later and less accepted
material, and called (among other less current names) the

Atharva-Veda Veda of the Atharvans (a legendary priestly

family) it is somewhat more than half as bulky as the RigVeda, and contains a certain amount of material corresponding to that of the latter, and also a number of brief prose
;

passages. To this last collection is very generally refused

in the orthodox literature the name of Veda but for us it
;

is
it

as

the most interesting of all, after the Rig- Veda, because

contains the largest amount of hymn-material (or mantra,
is

it

called,

than that of the other,

versions of

known

it

from the prose brShmana),

though distinctly less antique

in distinction

and in a language which,

are

is

nevertheless truly Vedic. Two

of them in only a single

extant, one

manuscript.
not insignificant body of like material, and of various
period (although doubtless in the main belonging to the
latest time of Vedic
productiveness, and in part perhaps

INTRODUCTION.

the imitative

work of a yet more modern

xvii

time), is scattered

through the texts to be later described, the Brahmanas and

the Sutras. To assemble and sift and compare it is now
one of the pressing needs of Vedic study.
The fundamental divisions of the Vedic literature here

mentioned have all had their various schools of sectaries,

each of these with a text of its own, showing some differences from those of the other schools: but those mentioned
above are all that are now known to be in existence; and
the

chance of the discovery of others grows every year

smaller.

The

labor of the schools in the conservation of their

sacred texts was extraordinary, and has been crowned with

such success that the text of each school, whatever may

be its differences from those of other schools, is virtually

without various readings, preserved with all its peculiarities
of dialect, and its smallest and most exceptional traits of
phonetic form, pure and unobscured. It is not the place
here to describe the means by which, in addition to the
care of the sectaries, this accuracy was secured:
forms of text, lists of peculiarities and treatises upon them,
religious

When this kind of care began in the case of

so on.
each text, and what of original character may have been
effaced before it, or lost in spite of it, cannot be told. But
and

certain that the Vedic records furnish, on the whole,

a wonderfully accurate and trustworthy picture of a form of
ancient Indian language (as well as ancient Indian beliefs
it is

and institutions) which was a natural and undistorted one,

and vhich goes back a good way behind the classical SanIts differences from the latter the following treatise
skrit.
endeavors to show in detail.
Along with the verses and sacrificial formulas and
phrases in the text of the Black Yajur-Veda are given
long prose sections, in which the ceremonies are described,
their meaning and the reason of the details and the accompanying utterances are discussed and explained, illustrative
legends are reported or fabricated, and various speculations,
etymological and other, are indulged in. Such matter comes

INTRODUCTION.

xviii

be called br&hmana (apparently relating to the brahman

In the White Yajur-Veda, it is separated into
a work by itself, beside the eamhits or text of verses and
formulas, and is called the gatapatha-Br&hmana Brahmana
of a hundred ways. Other similar collections are found, beto

or worship).

longing to various other schools of Vedic study, and they

bear the common name of BrShmana, with the name of the
Thus, the
school, or some other distinctive title, prefixed.

Aitareya and Kausltaki-Brahmanas, belonging to the schools

of the Big-Veda, the Paneavin9a and 8a<Lvin9a-BrShmanas
and other minor works, to the Sama-Veda; the Gopatha-

Brahmana, to the Atharva-Veda and a Jaiminiy a- or Talavakara-Brahmana, to the Sama-Veda, has recently (Burnell)
;

been discovered in India; the Taittiriya-Brahmana is a collection of mingled mantra and brShmana, like the samhitS
of the same name, but supplementary and later. These
works are likewise regarded as canonical by the schools
and are learned by their sectaries with the same extreme care
which is devoted to the samhit&s, and their condition of
,

textual preservation
tain extent, there is

material:

a fact

is

of a kindred excellence.

To

a cer-

among them the possession of common

the bearings of which are not yet fully

understood.

Notwithstanding the inanity of no small part of their

contents, the Brahmanas are of a high order of interest in
their bearings on the
history of Indian institutions; and
philologically they are not less important, since they represent a form of language in most respects intermediate
between the classical and that of the Vedas, and offer spe-

cimens on a large scale of a prose

is

in the

main a natural and

and of one which

the
developed one

style,

freely

and most primitive Indo-European prose.

Beside the Brahmanas are sometimes found

oldest

later ap-

pendices, of a similar character, called Aranyakas (forestsections): as the Aitareya- Aranyaka, Tftittirlya-Aranyaka,

Brhad-Aranyaka, and so on. And from some of these, or

even from the
Brahmanas, are extracted the earliest Upanis>ds

(sittings,

lectures

on

sacred

subjects)

which,

INTRODUCTION.

xix

however, are continued and added to down to a comparaThe Upanishads are one of the lines
tively modern time.

by which the Brahmana

literature passes over into the later

theological literature.

Another line of transition is shown in the Sutras (lines,

The works thus named are analogous with the
rules).
Brahmanas in that they belong to the schools of Vedic
study and are named from them, and that they deal with
the religious ceremonies: treating them, however, in the
way of prescription, not of dogmatic explanation. They,
too, contain some mantra or hymn-material, not found to

occur elsewhere.

In part (9rauta or kalpa-sutras), they take

up the great sacrificial ceremonies, with which the Brahmanas have to do; in part (gyhya-sfitras), they teach the
minor duties of a pious householder; in some cases (samayacarika-sutras) they lay down the general obligations of
life is in accordance with prescribed duty. And

one whose

out of the last two, or especially the last, come by natural

development the law-books (dharma^astras) which make
,

a conspicuous figure in the later literature: the oldest and

most noted of them being that called by the name of

Manu
many

it is believed by many, of the Manava

which are added that of Yajnavalkya, and

(an outgrowth,

Vedic school)

to

others.

Respecting the chronology of this development, or the

of any class of writings, still more of any individual
work, the less that is said the better. All dates given in
date

Indian literary history are pins set up to be bowled down

again. Every important work has undergone so many more
or less

which

transforming changes before reaching the form in

comes to us, that the question of original con-

it

complicated with that of final redaction. It is

law-book of Manu, just mentioned, which has
well-founded claims to being regarded as one of the very
oldest works of the proper Sanskrit literature, if not the
oldest (it has been variously assigned, to periods from six
struction

is

so with the

centuries before Christ to four after Christ). It is so, again,

still more striking degree, with the great legendary

in a

b*

INTRODUCTION.

xx

The ground-work of this is

MahabhSrata.
epic of the
doubtless of very early date; but it has served as a text
into which materials of various character and period have
been inwoven, until it has become a heterogeneous mass,
a kind of cyclopedia for the warrior-caste, hard to separate
into its constituent parts. The story of Nala, and the philof the most noted
osophical poem Bhagavad-GIta, are two
of its episodes. The Ramayana, the other most famous epic,
is a work of another kind: though also worked over and
more or less altered in its transmission to our time, .it is

the production, in the main, of a single author (Valmiki);

it is generally believed to be in part allegorical, re-

and

presenting the introduction of Aryan culture and dominion

By its side stand a number of minor

into Southern India.

epics, of various authorship and period, as the Raghuvan$a

(ascribed to the dramatist Kalidasa), the MSghakavya, the

BhaftikSvya

(the last, written chiefly

with the grammatical

intent of illustrating by use as many as possible of the

numerous formations which^ through taught by the grammarians, find no place in the literature).

The Pur anas, a

extent,

large class of works mostly of immense

are best mentioned in connection with the epics.

They are pseudo-historical and prophetic

modern date, and of inferior value. Real
place in
historical

in character,

of

history finds

no

Sanskrit literature, nor is there any conscious

element in any of the works composing it.

Lyric poetry is represented by many works, some of

which, as the Meghaduta and Gitagovinda, are of no mean
order of merit.

The drama is a still more noteworthy and important

The first indications of dramatical inclination and
capacity on the part of the Hindus are seen in certain
hymns of the Veda, where a mythological or legendary
branch.

situation is

conceived dramatically, and set forth in the

form of a dialogue
well-known examples are the dialogue
of Sarama and the Panis, that of Yama and his sister Yami,
that of Vasishtha and the rivers, that of
Agni and the other
but there are no extant intermediaries between these
gods

INTRODUCTION.

xxi

and the standard drama. The beginnings of the latter date

from a period when in actual life the higher and educated
characters used Sanskrit, and the lower and uneducated used
the popular dialects derived from it, the Prakrits and their
;

dialogue reflects this condition of things.

Then, however,

learning (not to call it pedantry) intervened, and sterotyped

the new element; a Prakrit grammar grew up beside the
Sanskrit grammar, according to the rules of which Prakrit

could be made indefinitely on a substrate of Sanskrit; and

none of the existing dramas need to date from the time of
vernacular use of Prakrit, while most or all of them are

Among the dramatic authors,

undoubtedly much later.
Kalidasa is incomparably the chief, and his Cakuntala as
His date has been a matter of
distinctly his masterpiece.
much

inquiry and controversy; it is doubtless some centuries later than our era.
The only other work deserving
to be mentioned along with Kalidasa's is the MrcchakatI of

f udraka, also of questionable period,

the oldest of the extant dramas.

but believed to be

partly dramatic character belongs also to the fable,

in which animals are represented as acting and speaking.
The most noted works in this department are the Pancatantra,
its

way

which through Persian and Semitic versions has made

all over the world, and contributes a considerable

quota to the fable-literature of every European language,

partly founded on it, the comparatively recent and

and,

popular Hitopade9a (salutary instruction}.

Two of the leading departments of Sanskrit scientific

and the grammatical, have been already

noticed
of those remaining, the most important
sufficiently
far
is
the
by
philosophical. The beginnings of philosophicliterature, the legal

al speculation are seen already in some of the later

hymns
of the Veda, more abundantly in the Brahmanas and AranThe evoyakas, and then especially in the Upanishads.

and historic relation of the systems of philosophy,

and the age of their text-books, are matters on which much
obscurity still rests. There are six systems of primary rank,
and reckoned as orthodox, although really standing in no
lution

INTRODUCTION.

xxii

accordance with approved religious doctrines.

All of

them

seek the same end, the emancipation of the soul from the
necessity of continuing its existence in a succession of
bodies, and its unification with the All-soul; but they
differ in regard to the means by which they seek to attain
this end.

The astronomical

science of the

of that of Greece,

and

as mathematicians,

in arithmetic

its

Hindus

is

a reflection

literature is of recent date;

but

and geometry, they have

shown more independence. Their medical

science, although
beginnings go back even to the Veda, in the use of
medicinal plants with accompanying incantations, is of little

its

account,

and

its

proper literature by no means ancient.

CONTENTS.
Page.

Chap.

PREFACE
INTRODUCTION
I.

II.

xi

19

ALPHABET
SYSTEM OF SOUNDS; PRONUNCIATION
Vowels, 10

Consonants, 13

1034

Quantity, 27 ; Accent, 28.

HI. RULES OF EUPHONIC COMBINATION

....

34

87

Introductory, 34; Principles, 37; Rules of Vowel Combination, 42; Permitted Finals, 49 Deaspiration, 53;
Surd and Sonant Assimilation, 54 Combinations of
;

Conversion of a to 8, 61
Conversion of n to n, 64 Conversion of Dental Mutes to
Linguals and Palatals, 66 Combinations of Final n,

Final 8 and r, 56

69

Combinations of Final

m, 71

the Palatal Mutes

and h, 72; the Lingual Sibilant, 77;

Extension and Abbreviation, 78
Strengthening and
Weakening Processes, 81 Guna and Vr/ddhi, 81
and

Sibilant,

Vowel-lengthening, 84

Vowel-lightening, 85

Nasal

Increment, 86; Reduplication, 87.

88110

IV. DECLENSION
Gender, Number, Case, 88

Endings of declension, 103 ;

Accent in Declension, 108.

Uses of the Cases, 89

Variation of Stem, 107

V. NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

Classification etc.

111

Ill

Declension I., Stems in a, 112

Declension
II., Stems in i and u, 116
Stems in Long Vowels (a, i, u): A. Root-words
124; Stems in Diphthongs, 130; B. Derivative

Declension
III.,

etc.,

etc., 131; Declension IV., Stems in f or ar,

137; Declension V., Stems in Consonants, 141;
A. Root-stems etc., 143; B. Derivative Stems in as,

Stemi

is,

us, 153;

in in, 161
j
ticiples in

C. Derivative Stems in an, 156; D.

in ant or at, 163
P. Perfect Par-

E.

vans, 169

Q. Comparatives

yas, 172; Comparison, 173.

in

yans

or

176

CONTENTS.

xxiv

Page.

Chap.

VI.

NUMEBALS
Cardinals,

VII.

177; Ordinals

etc.,

177185

183.

PBONOUNS

185

199

200

226

227

278

185; Demonstrative, 188; Interrogative,

194; Relative, 195; other Pronouns: Emphatic, In196; Nouns used pronominally,
definite,
197;
Personal,

Pronominal Derivatives, Possessives

jectives declined pronominally,

Vm.

etc.,

Ad-

197;

199.

CONJUGATION
Voice, Tense, Mode, Number, Person, 200; Verbal

Adjectives and Nouns, 203; Secondary Conjugations,

203; Personal Endings, 204; Subjunctive Mode, 209;
Optative, 211; Imperative, 213; Uses of the Modes,

215

220 Augment, 220 Reduplication,

Accent of the Verb, 223.

Participles,

222.;

IX.

THE PRESENT-SYSTEM
Conjugations and Conjugation Classes,
General, 227
228; Root-Class (second or ad-class), 231; Re;

duplicating Class (third or hu-class), 242 ; Nasal

Class (seventh or rudh-class), 250 ; nu and u-Classes
(fifth

and eighth, or su- and tan-classes), 254

Class (ninth

or kri-class),

260;

a-Class

na-

(first

or

bhu-class), 264; Accented a-Class (sixth or tud-

269; ya-Class (fourth or div-class), 271;

Accented ya-Class or Passive Conjugation, 275;
So-called tenth or cur-class, 277; Uses of the Presclass),

ent and Imperfect, 278.

279296

X. THE PEBFECT-SYSTEM
Perfect Tense,
of the Perfect,

279
292

Perfect Participle, 291

Pluperfect,

295

Modes

Uses of the

Perfect, 295.

XI.

THE AOBIST-SYSTEMS
299
305

297

Simple Aorist
Passive Aorist 3d sing., 304

Classification,

I.

II.

Aorist,

3.

313;

314;

5.

297

330

Root-Aorist,

the a- Aorist,

2.

Reduplicated Aorist, 308

4. the s- Aorist,

1.

III. Sibilant

the if-Aorist,

6. the sif-Aorist, 323; 7. the sa- Aorist, 325;

Precative, 326 ; Uses of the Aorist, 328.

320;

XII.

THE FUTUBE-SYSTEMS
The s-Future, 331 Preterit of the s-Future, Conditional, 334; II. The Periphrastic Future, 335;

I.

Uses

of the Futures

and Conditional, 337.

330339

xxv

CONTENTS.
Chap.

XIII.

Page.

VERBAL ADJECTIYES AND NOUNS: PARTICI340

PLES, INFINITIVES, GERUNDS

360

ta or n&, 340
Past Active
Participle in tavant, 344; Future Passive Participles, Gerundives, 346; Infinitives, 347; Uses of

Passive Participle in

the Infinitives, 351

am,

in

Gerunds, 355; Adverbial Gerund

359.

XIV. DERIVATIVE OR SECONDARY CONJUGATION

Passive, 361

I.

II.

Intensive, 362

365; Perfect, Aorist, Future,

etc.,

360

391

391

403

403

417

418

480

480

515

516

520

521

539

540

551

Present- System,

370;

III.

Desider-

Present-System, 374; Perfect, Aorist,

Future, etc., 376; IV. Causative, 378; Present-System,
380; Perfect, Aorist, Future, etc., 383; V. Denom-

372;

ative,

inative, 386.

XV. PERIPHRASTIC AND COMPOUND CONJUGATION

The Periphrastic
tic

Perfect,

392

Participial Periphras-

394; Composition with Prepositional

395; Other Verbal Compounds, 400.

Phrases,

Prefixes,

XVI. INDECLINABLES
Adverbs, 403; Prepositions, 414; Conjunctions, 416;
Interjections, 417.

....

XVII. DERIVATION OF DECLINABLE STEMS

A. Primary Derivatives, 420; B. Secondary
tives,

Deriva-

454.

XVIII. FORMATION OF COMPOUND STEMS

Classification,

480;

I.

Copulative Compounds, 485;

Determinative Compounds, 489; A. Dependent

Compounds, 489; B. Descriptive Compounds, 494;

II.

III.

Secondary Adjective Compounds, 501; A. PosCompounds, 501 B. Compound with Governed

sessive

Compounds as Nouns
Anomalous Compounds 514

Final Member, 511; Adjective

and

512

as Adverbs,

Stem-finals

altered

in

Composition,

614;

Loose

Construction with Compounds, 515.

APPENDIX

A. Examples

of Various Sanskrit Type, 516

B. Ex-

ample of Accentuated Text, 518; Synopsis of the

conjugation of roots

SANSKRIT INDEX

GENERAL INDEX

bhu

and ki% 520.

ABBREVIATIONS.
KU. Kena-Upanisud.

AA. Aitareya-Aranyaka.
A8. Aitareya-Brahmana.
AQS. A9valayana-Qrauta-Sutra.
AGS. A^valayana-Grhya-Sutra.

LgS. Latyayana-grauta-Sutra.
M. Mann.
MaiU. Maitri-Upanisad.

MBh. Mahabharata.
MdU. Mundaka-Upanisad.

Apast. Apastamba-Sutra.
APr. Atharva-Pratyakhya.
AV. Atharva-Veda.

Megh. Meghaduta.

B. or Br. Brahmanas.

MS. Maitrayani-Samhita.

BAU. Brhad-Aranyaka-Upanisad.

Nais. Naigadhlya.

BhG. Bhagavad-Gita.
BhP. Bhagavata-Purana.
BR. BShtlingk and Roth

Nir. Nirukta.

Pane. Pancatantra.
(Peters-

burg Lexicon).
C. Classical Sanskrit.
g. gakuntala.

gatrumjaya-Mahatmyam.
gatapatha-Brahmana.

PB. Pancavirica- (orTandya-) Brahmana.

PGS. Paraskara-Grhya-Sutra.

PU. Pra^na Upanisad.

R. Ramayana.
Ragh. Raghuvaiica.

gankhayana-grauta-Sutra.

RPr. Rigveda-Prati9akhya.

gankhayana-Grhya-Sutra.

RT. Raja-Tarangini.
RV. Rig-Veda.

ChU. Chandogya-Upanisad.
gvU. gveta9vatara-Upanisad.

S. Sutras.

DKC.

Da9a-Kumara-Carita.
E. Epos (MBh. and R.).

SB. Sadvifj9a-Brahmana.
Spr. Indische Spruche (Bohtlingk).

GB. Gopatha-Brahinana.
GGS. Gobhiliya-Grhya-Sfitra.
H. Hitopade9a.

SV. Sama-Veda.
TA. Taittirlya-Aranyaka.
TB. Taittirlya-Brahmana.

Har. Harivan9a.
JB. Jaiminiya (or Talavakara; Brah-

TPr. Taittiriya-Prati9akhya.
Tribh. Tribhasyaratna (comm.

mana.

to

TPr.).

JUB. Jaiminiya -Upanisad-Brahmana.

K. Kathaka.

TS. Taittirlya-Samhita.

Kap. Kapisthala-Samhita.

U. Upanisads.
V. Vedas (RV., AV., SV.).
Vas. Vasistha.

KB. Kausitaki-

VBS. Varaha-Brhat-Samhita.

(or gankhayana-)

Brahmana.

KBU. Kausitaki-Brahmana-Upanisad.

KgS. Katyayana-grauta-Satra.
KS. Kau9ika-Sutra.
KSS. Katha-Sarit-Sagara.
KthU. Katha-Upanisad.

Vet. Vetalapancavin9atl.
Vikr. Vikramorva9i.

VPr. Vajasaneyi-Prati9akhya.
Vajasaneyi-Samhita.
VS. Kan.
do.
Kanva-text.

VS

Y. Yajnavalkya.

CHAPTER

I.

ALPHABET.
1.

THE

natives of India write their ancient

language in a variety of alphabets

and sacred
in each

generally,

part of the country, in the same alphabet which they use

The mode of writing, however,
for their own vernacular.

which

employed throughout the heart of Aryan India, or

in Hindustan proper, is alone adopted by European scholars
is

it is

called the devanagari.

a. This

name

is

the gods, or

2.
obscure.

name

nagarl

the

of

Much
The

of

the

city);

more comprehensive

and deva-nagari

is

nagari of

Brahmans.

that

relates

to the history of the Indian alphabets

earliest written

the inscriptions

of doubtful origin and value.

is

(perhaps,

containing

monuments

of

known

is

still

date in the country are

the edicts of Acoka or Piyadasi,

of about

the

middle of the third century B. C. They are in two different systems of

characters, of which one shows distinct signs of derivation from a Semitic

much

source, while the other is also probably, though

same

From

less evidently, of the

Southern Ac.oka character (of

Giraar), come the later Indian alphabets, both those of the northern Aryan
languages and those of the southern Dravidian languages. The n&gari.
origin.

the latter,

the Lath,

or

devanagari, Bengali, Guzerati, and others,

them are related some

derivatives; and with

outside of India

as in Tibet

are varieties

of its northern

of the alphabets

and Farther India

of peoples

who have adopted Hindu

culture or religion.
a. There is reason to believe
for practical

was first employed in India

and business and the like

that writing

for correspondence

purposes

and only by degrees came to be applied also to literary use. The literature,
and the more fully in proportion to its claimed sanctity

to a great extent,

and authority, ignores

all

written record, and assumes to be kept in exist-

ence by oral tradition alone.

W hi tuey,

Grammar.

2. ed.

3]

I.

Of the devanagarl

3.

ALPHABET.

2
minor

itself there are

notices

of

MSS. in Indian

scriptions, and

in Rajendralala Mitra'a

of the Berlin Sanskrit MSS.,

in Weber's catalogue

the published

libraries, in

and these are in some measure

so on);

depending on
hand (see examples

varieties,

differences of locality or of period, as also of individual

fac- similes

of in-

reflected in the type

But a student who

prepared for printing, both in India and in Europe.
makes himself familiar -with one style of printed characters will hare little
difficulty with the others, and will soon learn, by practice, to read the manu-

few specimens of types other than those used in this work are
scripts.
given in Appendix A.
a. On account of the difficulty of combining them with the smaller size*
of OUT

Roman and

Italic type, the

in connection with

the

first or

devanagarl

largest

characters are used below only

And, in accordance with the

size.

laudable usage of recent grammars, they are, wherever given, also transliterated, in Clarendon letters ; while the latter alone are used in the other
sizes.

4. The student may be advised to try to familiarize himself

from the start with the devanagan mode of writing. At the same
time, it is not indispensable that he should do so until, haying
learned the principal paradigms, he comes to begin reading and analysing and parsing and many will find the latter the more practical,
and in the end equally or more effective, way.
;

5.

The

European

characters of the devanagarl alphabet, and the

letters

which

will

he used in transliterating them,

are as follows:
short
i

palatal

Vowels:

simple

labial

&

lingual

dental
u

>*

palatal

Mutes

long

&

%n

fj

5?f

[w

B"

3fT

^3T

f|

rf

JL, Ji

J7

I]

ai

J>*to
" 4ft

or in (see 73c).
sonant

surd asp.

kh

" 3R

13

tf

^chsTj

"5

$n

th

3*

ph

39

lingual

3 u

ct

Buid

guttural

&

{palatal
labial

Visarga
Anusvara

dental

rT

labial

^ p

3S

JT

I d
% d
T

naaal

son. asp.
>

SI

gh

*>

3"

3>jh3fft
so

40

dh

HT

U dh
H bh

THEORY OF THIS MODE OF WRITING.

palatal

lingual

dental

Sibilants

labial

palatal

J lingual
(

dental

Aspiration
a. To these may be added a lingual 1 3, which in some of the
Vedic texts takes the place of J 4 when occurring between two
vowels (54).

6. A few other sounds, recognized by the theories of the Hindu

grammarians, but either having no separate characters to represent
them or only very rarely and exceptionally written, will be noticed
c, 230). Such are the guttural and labial breathings, the
nasal semivowels, and others.

below (71 b,

7. The order of arrangement given above is that in

which the sounds are catalogued and described by the native
grammarians; and it has been adopted by European scholars

as the alphabetic order, for indexes, dictionaries, etc.

practical uses
a. In

to the

the idea of an alphabetic arrangement for such

Hindus,

is

wanting.

some works

(as the Petersburg lexicon), a visarga which is regarded as equivalent to and exchangeable -with a sibilant (172) is, though
written as visarga, given the alphabetic place of the sibilant.

8.

The theory

of the devanagari, as of the other In-

dian modes of writing,

is

to say,

it

is

syllabic and consonantal. That

regards as the written

sound, but the syllable (aksara)

stantial part of the syllable, the

which precede the vowel

or, if written,

and

unit,

not the simple

further,

as

the sub-

consonant or the consonants

this latter

being merely implied,

being written by a subordinate sign attached

to the consonant.

9.

Hence

follow these two principles:

The forms of the vowel -characters given in the

alphabetical scheme above are used only when the vowel
A.

1*

9]

I.

forms a syllable by
ceding consonant

itself,

that

ALPHABET.

ceded by another vowel.

is,

or

is

when

not combined with a preit

is

either initial or pre-

In combination with a consonant,

other modes of representation are used.

B.

If

more consonants than one precede the vowel,

it a single syllable, their characters must be

forming with

combined into a single compound character.

a. Native Hindu usage, in manuscripts and inscriptions, treats
the whole material of a sentence alike, not separating its words from
one another, any more than the syllables of the same word a final
:

consonant

is

combined

into one written syllable with the initial

vowel

or consonant or consonants of the following word. It never occurred

to the Hindus to space their words in any way, even where the mode
of writing admitted such treatment; nor to begin a paragraph on a
line; nor to write one line of verse under another: everything,

new

by them, filling the whole page.

and verse-line aham rudrebhir vasubhiQ
see
caraxny aham adityair uta vi$vadev&ih (Rig-Veda X. 125. 1
Appendix B) / wander with the Vasw, the Rudras, I with the Adityas
and the All- Gods is thus syllabized: a ham ru dre bhi rva su bhi $ca
ra mya ha ma di tyai ru ta vi $va de vaih, each syllable ending
with a vowel (or a vowel modified by the nasal -sign afcusvara, or
having the sign of a final breathing, visarga, added these being the
only elements that can follow a vowel in the same syllable) and it
without exception,

is

written solid

b. Thus, the sentence

(together with the next line) written in the manuscripts after this
fashion
is

Each syllable is written separately, and by many scribes the

successive syllables are parted a little from one another: thus,
and so

on.

c. In Western practice, however, it is almost universally customary to divide paragraphs, to make the lines of verse follow one another, and also to separate the words so far as this can be done
without changing the mode of writing them. See Appendix B, where
the verse here given is so treated.

d.
is

not

Further, in works prepared for beginners in the language, it

to make a more complete separation of words by a

uncommon

[10

WRITING OF VOWELS.

5
free use

of the virama-sign (11) under final consonants:

thus,

for

example,

3cT
or even

by indicating also the combinations of initial

(126, 127): for example,

lifl

and

final

^^ifti^T'HT

vowels

II

In transliterating, Western methods of separation of words are

to do otherwise would be simple pedantry.

e.

of course to be followed

Under A,

10.

a.

The

is

it

indicating a vowel
are as follows

be noticed that the modes of

to

combined with a preceding consonant

short

sonant-sign

itself

vowel-sign

is

a has no written sign at all; the conimplies a following 5J a, unless some other
5T

attached to

it

the viraina: 11). Thus,

(or else

the consonant-signs as given above in the alphabetic scheme

are really the signs of the syllables ka, kha, etc. etc.
b.

The long

after the

1X1

consonant

is

ka UT dha, ^T ha.

thus, 3TT

(to ha).

written by a perpendicular stroke

and long

by a similar
stroke, which for short i is placed before the consonant and for
long I is placed after it, and in either case is connected with
c.

Short ^

are written

the consonant by a hook above the upper line

3ft

ki; ft bhi,

>ft

bhi; ft ni,

:.

thus,

fsfi

ki,

nl.

?ft

The hook

above, turning to the left or to the right, is historically the

essential part of the character, having been originally the whole of it ; the
hooks were only later prolonged, so as to reach all the way down beside

In the MSS., they almost never have the horizontal stroke

the consonant.

drawn
thus,

them above, though this is added in the printed characters

ki, efi ki; in the MSS., f%, 5$; in print, fti, cfft.
originally
across

d.

The u-sounds,

short

and

long, are written

by hooks

attached to the lower end of the consonant -sign: thus,

ku,

ktt;

combination,

<lu,

fltt.

du and dH

g; and the forms with ^

ular

thus,

ru,

it

On
are
r

account of the necessities of

somewhat disguised: thus, -jy

^ h are still more irreg-

and

ru; ^Thu, f

hti..

10]

ALPHABET.

I.

The

e.

y- vowels, short

and long, are written by a sub-

opening toward the right

In the h-sign, the hooks
thus, 37 kr, R k?;
dy, \ d?.
to
the
middle:
are usually attached
thus, ^T hp, Sj h?
single or double,

joined hook,

As

to

f.

The

y with preceding

the combination of

J- vowel

14d.

r, see below,

written with a reduced form of

is

its

^ k} the corresponding long

has no real occurrence (23a), but would be written with a
full initial character: thus,

similar reduced sign.

The diphthongs

g.

are written

above the upper

double,

by strokes, single or
and
combined, for sff

line,

au, with the 5 -sign after the consonant: thus,

kai cffi ko, cfit kau.

5fJ

ke,

h. In some

devanagari manuscripts (as in the Bengali alphabet), the

or one of the double ones, is replaced by a sign like the
stroke
above,
single

& -sign

before the consonant:

11.

made

thus,

ke, Ri kai;

13)

[cfT!

ko,

Ffil

kau.

is capable of
being
consonant-sound alone, without an added

consonant -sign, however,

to signify the

vowel,

by having written beneath

virama

(rest, stop)

thus, 3R k,

a stroke called the

it

"^ d,

h.

a. Since, as was pointed out above, the Hindus write the words of a
sentence continuously like one word (9a,b), the virama is in general called

when a

for only

final

casionally resorted to

consonant occurs before a pause. But it is also ocscribes, or in print, in order to avoid an awkward

by

or difficult combination of consonant-signs: thus,

ftfflft: li<Jbhih,

and

it is

used

to

make

f^TCH lifau,

^^c|

a separation of words

ank|va;

in texts prepared for begin-

ners (9d).

12.

Under B,

combinations are

make

or

is to

to

be noticed that the consonant

most part not at all difficult to

one who is familiar with the

for

characteristic part

be added to another

the horizontal
both),

The

is

for the

to recognise

simple signs.
that

it

is

of a consonant -sign

taken

(to

the exclusion of

or of the perpendicular framing -line, or of

and they are put together according

to

convenience,

[14

COMBINATIONS OF CONSONANTS.

7
either side

side, or

by

one above the other

binations either arrangement

be pronounced

is to

and above

order,

com-

first is set

before the other in the one

in the other order.

Examples of the side-by-side arrangement are:

a.

gga,

it

in a few

allowed. The consonant that

is

f^

EUT sna,

nj pya,

jja,

5sf

nma,

>3J

?5T ttha,

bhya,

F^

J7[

ska,

tka.

Examples of the above-and-below arrangement are:

^f kka, Wf kva, ^T cca, ^ fija, ^ dda, H pta, ?T tna,
b.

3T tva.

some

13. In

more

cases, however, there is

or less ab-

breviation or disguise of the independent form of a con-

sonant-sign in combination.

W kta,

a.

Of

5R

b.

Of

rT t

c.

Of ^ d in ?:
Of *f m and

d.

thus, 5*T kya,

in
in

^FT

Thus,
j^T

kla;

and in

^FHT

kna

etc.;

tta;

rf

dga,
ET

etc.

dna,

when

y,

following other consonants:

kma, ^T nma, 21 nya,

^T

dma,

~Q dya, ^T

lima, ^T hya, ^T chya, ^1 <lhya.

Of

e.

by
same change
thus,

f.

which generally becomes

5f 9,

a consonant

9u,

thus,

usual

is

ST

9ca,

when

of

a vowel-sign

is

The

added below:

dbha,

s^a,

stha; and the

as gf hna, "^ nna.

In a case or two, no trace of the constituent letters

recognizable
14.

followed

9va, STT 9ya.

Other combinations, of not quite obvious value, are

compounds
is

9na,

when

9 r.

*T nna, 5T Ua, IT ddha,

g.

ST

thus,

^f

ksa,

The semivowel \

other consonants,

is

r,

^f

jna.

in

making combinations with

treated in a wholly peculiar manner,

analogous with that in which the vowels are treated.

a. If pronounced before another consonant or combination of consonants,

it

is

written

above the

latter,

with a

14]
hook opening
?,

ALPHABET.

I.

to the right

b.

rmya,

rtf

part of

its

is

sign, or

thus,

right:

sfef

thus,~^rka,

its

sign of nasality (anusvara: 70, 71),

rkan,

rke,

&

is

placed furthest to the

^frkl,

rki,

c. If r is

pronounced

with a straight stroke below,

consonant- sign like those noted above

(18),

ntra,

thus,

CET

grya,

of a preceding
"5T

tra,

dra,

hra.

When

d.

written

it is

slanting to the left

pra, U dhra, H gra, R era, 5 ddhra, ^T

R srva, &X ntrya; and, with modifications

^ r

the vowel

is

sfif

whether

after another consonant,

ST

it

^ rko,

rkon.

before a vowel or before yet another consonant,

T% 9ra,

sf rsa,

a consonant -group thus containing r as

followed by a vowel that has its sign, or a

written above the line, the r-sign

rkln,

rtsna.

if

Then,

member

first

fp

vowel

like the sign of the

under a consonant: lOe)

as written

if rtva,

(much

character,

is to

which

be combined with a following ft y,

is written in full, with its initial

and the consonant in subordination

to it

thus,

f? ry.

15.

Further combinations, of three,

five consonant-signs,

are

made according

or four,
to the

or even

same

rules.

Examples are:

of three consonants,

drya,

S.TJ

dhrya,

c^

psva,

of four consonants,

ttva, ST

%&
^J

ddhya, ^T dvya, 51

9cya, ^J 9thya, ^1 hvya;

ktrya,

^T nk$ya, ^

tsmya;
of five consonants,

f?f

rtsnya.

The manuscripts, and the type-fonts as well, differ from one another
more in their management of consonant combinations than in
any other resa.

pect, often having peculiarities which one needs a little practice to understand. It is quite useless to give in a grammar the whole series of
possible

combinations (some of them excessively

rare) which are provided for in any
given type -font, or even in all.
There is nothing which due familiarity

VARIOUS SIGNS.

[-18

with the simple signs and with the above rules of combination will not
enable the student readily to analyse and explain.

16. a.

the

manner

sometimes
or

sign called the avagraha (separator)

mark

to

to

thus,

hiatus,

a after final

5J

European, it is
and to that

texts, especially

the use last mentioned,

vigeR^te
abruvan, so abravlt.

'bruvan,

JJT

b. If the elided initial- vowel

is

J^lfT so

usually and

is

properly transferred to the eliding vowel

written instead over the avagraha-sign

mSn, from so ai^um&n, either

'bravit, for te

and has the anu-

nasal,

svara-sign (70, 71) written above, this

is

mark of

as

the elision of initial

In printed

ordinarily applied

alone

sometimes

of a hyphen,

o (135).

5Jj

namely

occasionally used in the manuscripts, sometimes in

is

vT

more

but sometimes
thus, for so

it

'^u-

^ JSJJTFT

or

?ft
^3^*1^
used
in
sign
place of something that is
thus,
omitted, and to be understood from the connection

The

o.

is

eJi^UHUHH^

^ ^

vlrasenasutas -tarn -tena.

d. Signs of punctuation are

At

and

n.

of a verse, a paragraph, or the like, the latter of

ordinarily written twice, with the figure of enumeration bethe end

them is
tween thus,
:

17.

||

t*0

||.

The numeral

figures are

t I, ^ 2, $ 3,
In combination, to

4,

5,

express

6,

7,

TT

8,

larger numbers,

used in precisely the same way as European

1894.
^H 25, ^0 630, bCOO 7000,

9,

0.

they are

digits:

thus,

^g

The Hindu grammarians

characters representing them, by

the different sounds, and the

kara (maker} added to the sound
of the letter, if a vowel, or to the letter followed by a, if a consonant.
Thus, the. sound or character a is called akara; k is kakara;
and so on. But the kara is also omitted, and a, ka, etc. are used
alone. The r, however, is not called rakara, but only ra, or repha
marl : the sole example of a specific name for an alphabetic element
of its class. The anusvara and visarga are also known by these
names alone.
18.

call

II.

19-]

SYSTEM OP SOUNDS.

CHAPTER
SYSTEM OF SOUNDS
I.

THE

19.

a, i,

10

II.

PRONUNCIATION.

Vowels.

and u- vow els.

The

Sanskrit has these

three earliest and most universal vowels of Indo-European

in both short and long form

language,
i

and

I,

3 u

and

v5T

u.

the "Continental" or "Italian"

pin and pique, pull and rule.

20. The a is the openest
panded

throat,

stands in no

They are
manner

to

a and

5TT 5,

be pronounced in

as in far or farther,

vowel, an utterance from the exof kindred with any of the

relation

and has no corresponding semivowel.

and u, on the other hand, i is palatal, and
shades through its semivowel y into the palatal and guttural consonantclasses u is similarly related, through its semivowel v, to the labial
class, as involving in its utterance a narrowing and rounding of

classes of consonantal sounds,

Of the

close vowels i

the lips.
a.

The Paninean scheme (commentary

to Panini's

grammar i.

1.

9) classes

as guttural, but apparently only in order to give that series as well as the

rest a

vowel

no one of the Pratic.akhyas puts a into one

class with

etc.

All these authorities concur in calling the i- and u-vowels respectively palatal

and

labial.

The

short a is not pronounced in India with the full openness

corresponding short, but usually as the "neutral vowel"
(English so-called "short w", of but, son, blood, etc.). This peculiarity
appears very early, being acknowledged by Panini and by two of the

21.

of

ft,

as

its

Pratic.akhyas (APr. i. 36; VPr. i.

samvrta, covered up, dimmed. It is
scholars, except those

22.

who

72),

wont

which

call

the

to be ignored
have studied in India.

utterance

by Western

The a-vowels

are the prevailing vowel-sounds of the language, being about twice as frequent as all the others (including
diphthongs) taken together. The i-vowels, again, are about twice as
numerous as the u-vowels. And, in each pair, the short vowel is
more than twice (.21/2 to 3 times) as common as the long.
a.

For more precise estimates of frequency, of these and of the other

[27

VOWELS.

11

and

alphabetic elements,

for

way in which they were

the

obtained,

see

below, 75.

The

23.

y-

and J-vowels.

To

the three simple vow-

els already mentioned the Sanskrit adds two others, the

f-vowel and the l-vowel, plainly generated by the abbre-

viation of syllables containing respectively a ^" r or

along with another vowel: the

(see 237, 241-3) from 5^ ar or
Some

of the

coming almost always

ra, the ^ I from q^f al.

ft ?
^[

Hindu grammarians add

to the alphabet also a long 1;

only for the sake of an artificial symmetry, since the sound does
not occur in a single genuine word in the language.

a.

but this

is

The vowel

24.

r-sound,
as,

by a

fj

is

simply a smooth

or untrilled

assuming a vocalic

office

like abbreviation,

has done also in certain Sla-

like

The vowel

syllable-making

an /-sound similarly
the English /-vowel in such words as able,

vonic languages.
uttered

it

in

is

angle, addle.
a. The modern Hindus pronounce these vowels as ri, rl, li (or
even Iri), having long lost the habit and the facility of giving a
vowel value to the pure r- and /-sounds. Their example is widely
followed by European scholars; and hence also the (distorting and
altogether objectionable) transliterations yi, yi, li. There is no real
difficulty in the way of acquiring and practising the true utterance.
b. Some of the grammarians (see APr. i. 37, note) attempt to define more

nearly the

way

with something

in which, in these vowels, a real r- or /-element is combined

else.

25. Like their corresponding semivowels, r and 1, these vowels

belong respectively in the general lingual and dental classes; the

euphonic influence of f and f (189) shows this clearly. They are

so ranked in the Paninean scheme; but the Pratic.akhyas in general
strangely class them with the jihvSmulIya sounds, our "gutturals"
(39).

The

short y is found in every variety of word and of ponot rare, being just about as frequent as long u. Long
y is very much more unusual, occurring only in certain plural cases
of noun-stems in $ (371b,d, 375). The } is met with only in some

26.

sition,

and

is

of the forms and derivatives of a single not very

root (kip).

27.

the

The diphthongs.
and ^T

o,

Of

common

verbal

the four diphthongs, two,

are in great part original Indo-European

27-

II.

12

the Sanskrit, they wear the aspect of being

In

sounds.

SYSTEM OP SOUNDS.

or strengthening of ^ i and 3 u
products of the increment
and they are called the corresponding gunarespectively;

vowels to the latter

(see

below, 235

The

ff.).

other two,

Su, are held to be of peculiar Sanskrit

and 3t

5i

growth they
are also in general results of another and higher increment
of ^ i and 3 u, to which they are called the corresponding
vyddhi- vowels (below, 235

ff.).

But

all

are likewise some-

times generated by euphonic combination (127); and

especially,

m^AB

common

is

o,

as result of the alteration of a final

(175).

28.

The ^

and

5ft

o are, both in India and in

Eu-

that
pronounced as they are transliterated
long e- (English "long a", or e in they) and o-sounds,

rope, usually
as

is,

without diphthongal character.

a. Such they apparently already were to the authors of the
Pratigakhyas, which, while ranking them as diphthongs (sandhyaksara),

give rules respecting their pronunciation in a manner implying them

to be virtually unitary sounds. But their euphonic treatment (131-4)
clearly
real

still at the period when the euphonic

as they of course were at their origin,
From them, on the
and au (a
u).

shows them to have been

laws established themselves

diphthongs,

ai (a

-f-

same evidence, the heavier or v?ddhi diphthongs were distinguished

by the length of their a-element, as ai (a -+ t) and au (a + u}.
b. The recognizable distinctness of the two elements in the vyddhidiphthongs

noticed by the

is

Pratic. akhyas (see

APr.

i.

40, note)

tion of those elements is either defined as equal, or the a is

tity

than the

and

The

made

but the relaof less quan-

u.

guna- diphthongs are much more frequent

or 7 times) than the heavier or -vrrddhi-diphthongs, and the e and
ai than the o and au (a half more). Both pairs are somewhat more
29.

lighter or

(6

common as the simple i- and u-vowels.

30. The general name given by the Hindu grammarians

than half as

is

svara

the simple vowels are called

to the vowels

samanak^ara homogeneous
and the diphthongs are called sandhyaksara combination- syllable.
The position of the organs in their utterance is defined to be one of openness,
tone;

syllable,

or of non-closure.

a.

As

to quantity

and

accent, see below,

76

ff.,

80

ff.

MUTES.

13

Consonants.

ll.

The Hindu name

31.

The consonants
or mute,

They

[Se-

for

'consonant' is vyanjana manifester.

by the grammarians into sparqa contact

are divided

antahstha, intermediate or semivowel, and usraan

be taken up and described in this order.

spirant.

will here

32. Mutes. The mutes, sparQa, are so called as involving a

complete closure or contact sparqa and not an approximation only,
of the mouth-organs by which they are produced. They are divided
,

into five classes or series (varga), according to the organs and parts
of organs by which the contact is made and each series is composed
of five members, differing according to the accompaniments of the
;

contact.

33.

The

five mute-series are called respectively guttural,

palatal, lingual

dental,

(or cerebral),

and

and they

labial;

are arranged in the order as just mentioned, beginning with

made

the contact

ward from point

furthest back in the mouth,

coming forand ending with the frontmost

to point,

contact.

34. In each series

there are two surd

sonant, and one nasal (which

in the labial series,

q p and

is

q\
"x

s.

members, two

also sonant): for example,

^*sb

ph,

and H bh, and

"X

q*s m.

The members are by the Hindu grammarians called respectively first,

and last or fifth.
b. The surd consonants are known as aghof a toneless, and the sonants
ghosavant having tone; and the descriptions of the grammarians are in
a.

second, third, fourth,

as

accordance with these terms.

All alike recognise a difference of tone, and not

any manner a difference of force, whether of contact or of expulsion, as
separating the two great classes in question. That the difference depends on
in

vivara

samvara

opening,

or

The

first

closure (of the

is

glottis),

also recognised

by them.

35.

and

third

members of each

series are the

ordinary corresponding surd and sonant mutes of European

^k

languages: thus,
36.

Nor

What J^m
is also

is

and

is to

^p

and

each other nasal to

expulsion into

TT^g,

r^t

and

<[

d,

the character of the nasal any

3Jt>,
its

or

^n

own

to

rM

series of

and 5M>.
t^p
more doubtful.
and

mutes

5*
:

d, that

a sonant

and through the nose, while the mouth-

organs are in the mute-contact.

30]

SYSTEM OP SOUNDS.

II.

14

a. The Hindu grammarians give distinctly this definition. The nasal

the nose") sounds are declared to be formed by
(anunfisika passing through
mouth and nose together or their nasality (ammaeikya) to be given them
;

by unclosure of the nose.

37.

The second and fourth of each

mute

thus, beside the surd

5fi

series are aspirates:

k we have

the corresponding

surd aspirate 13 kh, and beside the sonant

ponding sonant aspirate SJ^gh.

acter

is

a.

more obscure and

That the aspirates,

all

not fricatives (like European

th

Of

3T

g, the corres-

these, the precise char-

determine.

difficult to

of them, are real mutes or contact sounds, and

and ph and

ch, etc.), is

beyond question.

b. It is also not doubtful in what way the surd th, for example, differs
from the unaspirated t : such aspirates are found in many Asiatic languages,

and even in some European they involve the slipping-out of an audible bit
of
flatus or aspiration between the breach of mute-closure and the following
;

sound, whatever it may be. They are accurately enough represented by the
etc., with which, in imitation of the Latin treatment of the similar ancient

th

Greek aspirates, we are accustomed

c.

The sonant

to write

them.

aspirates are generally understood

and described

as

made

in a similar way, with a perceptible ft-sound after the breach of sonant muteclosure. But there are great theoretical difficulties in the way of accepting
this explanation; and some of the best phonetic observers deny that the modern
Hindu pronunciation is of such a character, and define the element following
the mute as a "glottal buzz", rather, or as an emphasized utterance of the
beginning of the succeeding sound. The question is one of great difficulty,

and upon it the opinions of the highest authorities are much at variance.
Sonant aspirates are still in use in India, in the pronunciation of the vernacular
as well as of the learned languages.

d. By the Praticakhyas, the aspirates of both classes are called

seaman

which might mean either accompanied by a rush of breath (taking usman

in its more etymological sense), or accompanied by a spirant (below, 59).

And some

made by the combiown corresponding surd spirant and

native authorities define the surd aspirates as

nation of each surd non-aspirate with its

the sonant aspirates, of each sonant non-aspirate with the sonant spirant, the
h-sound (below, 66). But this would make the two classes of aspirates of
quite diverse character, and would also
as c<$

name
to

make th

the same as ts, th as ts,

ch

in any measure plausible only of the last. Panini has no

for aspirates ; the scheme given in his comment (to i. 1. 9) attributes

which

them

is

mahaprana

great expiration,

and

to

the non-aspirates

alpaprana

small expiration.

e. It is

usual

among European

scholars to pronounce

both classes of aspirates as the corresponding non-aspirates

GUTTURAL AND PALATAL MUTES.

15

with a following h: for example,

GR

boathook,

Hjbh

ph

as in abhor,

8Mb

[42

nearly as in English

dh

as in

haphazard, q^

and

so on.^ This is (as

as

in

we have

madhouse,
seen above)

strictly accurate only as regards the surd aspirates.

38. The sonant aspirates are

(in

the opinion of most), or at least

represent, original Indo-European sounds, while the sard aspirates

are a special Indian development. The former are more than twice

as common
much more

The unaspirated (non-nasal) mutes are very

times) than the aspirates (for the special fre-

as the latter.

frequent

(5

quency of bh and original gh, see 50 and 66)

and among them the

surds are more numerous

(chiefly

(2Y2 times) than the sonants. The nasals

are nearly as frequent as the surd non-aspirates.

n and m)

We

take up

30.

Guttural

now

the several mute- series.

series:

cfi

k,

Isf

kh,

JT

g,

gh, 3" n.

These are the ordinary European k and ^-sounds, with their

corresponding aspirates and nasal (the last, like English ng
in singing).
a. The gutturals are defined by the Pratigakhyas as made by contact of
the base of the tongue with the base of the jaw, and they are called, from the
former organ, jihvamuliya tongue-root sounds. The Paninean scheme

as made in the throat (kantha). From the euphonic

on a following 8 (below, 180), we may perhaps infer that in
their utterance the tongue was well drawn back in the mouth.

describes

them simply

influence of a

40. The

by far the commonest of the guttural series, occurmore often than all the other four taken together.
The nasal, except as standing before one of the others of the same
series, is found only as final (after the loss of a following k: 386,
407) in a very small number of words, and as product of the assiis

ring considerably

milation of final

to a following nasal (161).

41. The Sanskrit guttural series represents only a minority

of Indo-European gutturals; these last have suffered more and more
general corruption than any other class of consonants. By processes
of alteration which began in the Indo-European period,

the palatal

mutes, the palatal sibilant 9, and the aspiration h, have come from
gutturals. See these various sounds below.

42.

Palatal series:

The whole

t^c,

^ ch,

STJ, <KJh, 3TJ&.

being generated by the

corruption of original gutturals. The c comes from an original k
as does also, by another degree of alteration, the palatal sibilant 9
The j, in like manner, comes from a g; but the
(see below, 64).
palatal series is derivative,

42]

II.

SYSTEM or SOUNDS.

16

Sanskrit j includes in itself two degrees of alteration, one correspondk to c, the other to that of k to 9 (see below,
ing to the alteration of
more common than the j (about as four
somewhat
c
is
The
219).
The aspirate ch is very much less frequent (a tenth of c),
to three).
and comes from the original group sk. The sonant aspirate jh is
in AV., and
excessively rare (occurring but once in RV., not once
hardly half-a-dozen times in the whole older language) ; where found,
it is either onomatopoetic or of anomalous or not Indo-European origin.

The

nasal,

or, in a
never occurs except immediately before
one of the others of the
also after (201)

fti

small

number of words,

same

series.

43. Hence, in the euphonic processes of the language, the

In some
treatment of the palatals is in many respects peculiar.
or, as
situations, the original unaltered guttural shows itself

appears from the point of view of the Sanskrit, the palatal reverts
No palatal ever occurs as a final. The j is
differently treated, according as it represents the one or the other
it

to its original guttural.

degree of alteration. And o and j (except artificially, in the algebraic rules of the grammarians) do not interchange, as corresponding
surd and sonant.

The

mutes are by European scholars, as by

also, pronounced with the compound
sounds of English ch and j (in church and judge).
44.

the

palatal

modern Hindus

by the old Hindu grammarians, however, gives them

They
are called talavya palatal, and declared to be formed against the palate by
the middle of the tongue. They seem to have been, then, brought forward in
the mouth from the guttural point, and made against the hard palate at a
a. Their description

a not less absolutely simple character than belongs to the other mutes.

point not far from the lingual one (below, 45), but with the upper flat surface
of the tongue instead of its point. Such sounds, in all languages, pass easily
into the (English) ch- and /-sounds. The value of the ch as making the prece-

ding vowel "long by position" (227), and its frequent origination from t
c.
(203), lead to the suspicion tthat it, at least, may have had this character from
the beginning

45.

compare

37

d, above.

Lingual series:

lingual mutes are by

all

t,

^fh, J

<L,

^$h,

tjj^n.

The

the native authorities defined as

uttered with the tip of the tongue turned

up and drawn
back into the dome of the palate (somewhat as the usual
English smooth r is pronounced). They are called by the

grammarians
cephalics;

murdhanya, literally head-sounds, capitals,

which term is in many European grammars

LINGUAL AND DENTAL MUTES.

17

rendered by 'cerebrals

no attempt

kritists,

dentals

t is

with the

is

47

In practice, among European Sansto distinguish them from the

made

3 $

like <T t,

pronounced

like

d,

<

and

so

rest.

The

46.

linguals

another non-original series of sounds,

alteration of the next series, the

are

coming mainly from the phonetic

dentals, but also in part occurring in words that have no traceable

Indo-European connection, and are perhaps derived from the abori-

The tendency to lingual ization is a posiginal languages of India.

tive one in the history of the language: dentals easily pass into
linguals under the influence of contiguous or neighboring lingual
sounds, but not the contrary

markedly more frequent

and

in the

the sounds of the class

all

later

The

literature.

become

conditions of

their ordinary occurrence are briefly these: 1. 9 comes from a,

more rarely from 9, j, k, in euphonic circumstances stated

218

(180,

a dental mute following 9

2.

ff.);

is

much
below

assimilated to

it,

becoming lingual (t, {h, 9: 197] 3. n is often changed to 9 after a

lingual vowel or semivowel or sibilant in the same word (189 ff.);
4. $h, which is of very rare occurrence,, comes from assimilation of
a dental after 9 (198 a) or h (222); 5. { and <J come occasionally
by substitution for some other sound which is not allowed to stand
;

as

final

1457). When originated in these ways,

may be regarded as normal in any other cases

(142,

gual letters

the

lin-

of their

occurrence, they are either products of abnormal corruption, or signs

of the non-Indo-European character of the words in which they
appear.
a. In a certain number of passages numerically examined (below, 76),
abnormal occurrences of lingual mutes were less than half of the whole
number (74 out of 159), and most of them (43) were of n: all were found more

the

frequent iu the later passages. In the Rig- Veda, only 15 words have an abnormal t; only 6, such a{h; only 1, such a <Jh; about 20 (including 9 roots,
nearly
9<J

all of

which hare derivatives) show an abnormal $, besides 9 that have

root) show a 9.

and 30 (including 1
b.

Taken

all

together,

the linguals are

by

of mutes (about 1 V* per cent, of the alphabet)

quent even as the palatals.

47.

Dental

series:

cT t,

Sfth,

<

far the rarest class

hardly half as fre-

d,

q^dh,

^n. These

by the Hindus also dantya dental, and are

described as formed at the teeth (or at the roots of the

are

called

teeth),

by the

tip

of the tongue.

equivalents of our European

a.

t,

But the modern Hindus are said

Whitney, Grammar.

2. ed.

They

to

are practically the

n.
pronounce their dentals with the
2

47]

II.

18

SYSTEM OF SOUNDS.

so that these
tongue thrust well forward against the upper teeth,
and Modern
the
to
the
of
English
a
belonging
quality
sounds get slight tinge
Greek M-sounds. The absence of that quality in the European (especially
the English) dentals is doubtless the reason why to the ear of a Hindu the
is apt to use the lingual*
latter appear more analogous with his linguals, and he
tip of the

European words.

in writing

The dentals are one of the Indo-European original muteIn

their occurrence in Sanskrit they are just about as freclasses.
classes taken together.
quent as all the other four
48.

40. Labial series:

q^p, C^ ph, SJ^b, ^bh, ^m.
These sounds are called osfchya labial by the Hindu grammarians also. They are, of course, the equivalents of our

m.

p, b,

50. The numerical relations of the labials are a little peculiar.

to the absence (or almost entire absence) of b in Indo-Euro-

Owing

b also is greatly exceeded iu frequency by bh,

common of all the sonant aspirates, as ph is the
least common of the surd. The nasal m (notwithstanding its frequent
euphonic mutations when final: 212 ff.) occurs just about as often as

pean, the Sanskrit

which is the most

all

the other four

a.

From an

members of the

series together.

early period in the history of the language, but increasingly

exchange with one another, or fail to be distinguished in the

later,
manuscripts. Thus, the double root-forms br/h and vr/h, bSdh and vadh, and
so on. In the Bengal manuscripts, v is widely* written instead of more original b.

and

Semivowels:

r, SM,
JT^y, ^"
q^v.
sounds
a.
by the Hindu grammarians is
either from their character as utterances
antahstha standing between
intermediate between vowel and consonant, or (more probably) from the cir-

51.

The name given

to this class of

cumstance of their being placed between the mutes and spirants in the arrange-

ment

of the consonants.

b. The semivowels are clearly akin with the several mute series
in their physical character, and they are classified along with those
series
though not without some discordances of view
by the

Hindu grammarians.

They

are said to be produced with the organs

slightly in contact (isatsprs^a), or in imperfect contact (duhsprs^a;.

52.

The

is

clearly

shown by

its

influence in the

euphonic processes of the language to be a lingual sound,

or one

made with

the dome

smooth

r,

the tip of the

of the palate.

and, like this,

It

thus

seems

to

tongue turned up into

resembles

the

English
have been untrilled.

[55

SEMIVOWELS.
a.

The Paniiiean scheme reckons r

None

as a lingual.

of the Praticakh-

however, does so nor aie they entirely consistent with one another in its
description. For the most part, they define it as made at "the roots of the
yas,

This would give

teeth".

it

a position like that of the vibrated r ; but no au-

thority hints at a vibration as belonging to

it.

b. In point of frequency, r stands very high on the

it

sonants;

by

is

nearly equal with v, n,

m, and

y,

list

of con-

and only exceeded

t.

The

53.

sT 1 is

a sound of dental position, and

defined and classed by

a.

The peculiar

all

is

so

the native authorities.

character of an /-sound, as involving expulsion at the

side of the tongue along with contact at its tip, is not noticed

by any Hindu

phonetist.

b. The semivowels r and 1 are very widely interchangeable in Sanskrit,

both in roots and in suffixes, and even in prefixes there are few roots containing a 1 which do not show also forms with r; words written with the one
letter are found in other texts, or in other parts of the same text, written with
:

In the later periods of the language they are more separated, and the

the other.

becomes decidedly more frequent, though always much rarer than the r (only
as 1 to 7 or 8 or 10).

54. Some of the Vedic texts have another /-sound, written with
a slightly different character (it is given at the end of the alphabet,
5), which is substituted for a lingual 4 as also tne same followed
(

by h

when occurring between two vowels. It is, then,

one made by breach (at the side of the tongue)
a lingual

for a <Jh)

doubtless

/,

of the lingual instead of the dental mute-closure.

a.

Examples

milhuse,

for

are:

iflfotj

lie,

for

midhuse, but

^J

I<Je,

jfttoT*?

but

^ iya; Hloo^M

midhvan.

It

is

in the Rig-Veda and its auxiliary literature that this substitution

55.

The

IT

or long);

is

usual.

in Sanskrit, as in other languages gene-

rally, stands in the

(short

especially

closest relationship

the two

with the vowel

exchange with one another in

cases innumerable.
a. And in the Veda (as the metre shows) an i is very often to be read
where, in conformity with the rules of the later Sanskrit euphony, a y is written. Thus, the final i- vowel of a word remains i before an initial vowel ; that
itself unchanged before an ending; and an ending of derihas i instead of y. Such cases will be noticed in
ya, tya
more detail later. The constancy of the phenomenon in certain words and
classes of words shows that this was no merely optional interchange.
Very
probably, the Sanskrit y had everywhere more of an i-character than belongs

of a

stem maintains

vation

to the

as

corresponding European sound.

2*

60]

II.

SYSTEM OP SOUNDS.

20

56. The y is by its physical character a palatal utterance; and

classed as a palatal semivowel by the Hindu phonetists. It is
one of the most common of Sanskrit sounds.
it is

57.

The

5f

is

(German w) by the

pronounced as English or French v

modern Hindus

except

when

pre-

ceded by a consonant in the same syllable, in which case

it has rather the sound of English w; and European scholars

same practice (with or without the same

follow the

exception)

By

a.

-vowel.

whole treatment

in the euphony of the language,

stands related to an w-vowel precisely as y to an
then, a v only according to the original Roman value

its

however, the

It is,

that is to say, a to-sound in the English sense;

though (as was stated above for the y) it may well have been less
markedly separated from u than English w, or more like French ou in
out etc. But, as the original w has in most European languages been
changed to v (English), so also in India, and that from a very early
time: the Paninean scheme and two of the Praticakhyas (VPr. and
TPr.) distinctly define the sound as made between the upper teeth
and the lower lip
which, of course, identifies it with the ordinary
modern v- sound. As a matter of practice, the usual pronunciation
need not be seriously objected to; yet the student should not fail
to note that the rules of Sanskrit euphony and the name of "semivowel" have no application except to a tc-sound in the English sense
a r-sound (German w} is no semivowel, but a spirant, standing on
the same articulate stage with the English ^-sounds and the /.

of that letter

58.

The v

is

ical authorities.

It

by the Hindu phonethas a somewhat greater frequency than the y.

classed as a labial semivowel

a. In the Veda, under the

is to

same circumstances as the

(above,

55

a).

be read as a vowel, u.

As

b.

59.

to the interchange of

and b, see above,

50

a.

Spirants. Under the name usman (literally heat,

which is usually and well represented by
some of the Hindu authorities include all the

steam, flatus],
spirant,

remaining sounds of the alphabet; others apply the term

only to the three sibilants and the aspiration
will here also be restricted.

to

which

it

a.

The term

tises the guttural

and anusvara,

is

and

not found in the Paninean scheme

by different treaand the visarga, or all these

the sibilants and h) called u?man

labial breathings, these

are also (in addition to

[62

SIBILANTS.

21

The organs of utterance are described as being in

(see APr. i. 31 note).
the position of the mute-series to which each spirant belongs respectively,
but unclosed, or unclosed in the middle.

60.

The

Of

H^s.

or surd spirants,

the three sibilants,

one of plainest and least questioned character

a hiss expelled between
the ordinary European s

this is the
it

is

the tongue and the roof of the

mouth

directly "behind the

upper front teeth.

a. It is, then,

as

dental,

it is

classed

by

all

the Hindu author-

Notwithstanding the great losses which it suffers in Sanskrit

euphony, by conversion to the other sibilants, to r, to visarga, etc.,

ities.

very high among the consonants in the order of frequency,

considerably more common than both the other two sibilants

it is still

or

together.

61.

there

is

The ^

9.

As

to the character of this sibilant, also,

no ground for

real question

in the lingual position,

verted into the

dome

it is

the one produced

or with the tip of the tongue re-

of the palate.

It

is,

then, a kind of

and by European Sanskritists it is pronounced

an
as
ordinary sh (French cA, German sch)j no attempt
being made (any more than in the case of the other lingual
$A-sound;

sounds: 45) to give

and

it is

it its

proper lingual quality.

shown by its whole euphonic influence,
described and classed as lingual by all the Hindu author-

a. Its lingual

character

is

APr. adds,

i. 23, that the

tongue in its utterance is troughaudible quality, it is a sA-sound rather than a s-sound;
and, in the considerable variety of sibilant-utterance, even in the
same community, it may coincide with the sh of some among

ities

(the

shaped).

In

its

Yet the general and normal sh is palatal (see below, 63

and therefore the sign 9, marked in accordance with the other lingual letters, is the only unexceptionable transliteration for the Hindu
ourselves.

character.
b. In modern pronunciation in India, s is much confounded with kh;
Some later gramto exchange the characters.

and the manuscripts are apt

matical treatises, too, take note of the relationship.

62. This sibilant (as was noticed above, 46, and will be more
particularly explained below, 180 ff.) is no original sound, but a
product of the lingualization of s under certain euphonic conditions.

The exceptions are extremely few (9 out of 145 noted occurrences:

75
and of a purely sporadic character. The Rig- Veda has (apart
,

62-]
from

II.

sab,

182b

SYSTEM OF SOUNDS.

22

only twelve words which show a 9 under other

conditions.
a. The final a of a root has in some cases attained a more independent value, and does not revert to 8 when the euphonic conditions are
removed, but chows anomalous forms (225 6).

63.
ities

The

classed

thing in

on

its

its

$^9.

This sibilant

and described
history or

its

character as such.

is

as

by

all

palatal,

the native author-

nor

there

is

any-

euphonic treatment to cast doubt

It

is,

then,

made with

the

flat

of the tongue against the forward part of the palatal arch

that

is to say,

European

scholars

it is

it is

the usual and normal sA-sound.

more

variously pronounced

By

often,

perhaps, as s than as sh.

a. The two sA-sounds, 9 and 9,
mouth (the s probably rather further
the tongue

are made in the same part of the

back), but with a different part of
and they are doubtless not more unlike than, for example, the

two ^-sounds, written $ and t; and it would be not less proper to pronounce them both as one sh than to pronounce the linguals and dentals

To neglect the difference of a and 9 is much

alike.
The very near relationship of g and 9 is attested by

less to

be approved.

their euphonic treat-

ment, which is to a considerable extent the same, and by their not infrequent confusion by the writers of manuscripts.

64.

As was mentioned above

(41), the

9,

like

c,

comes from

corruption of an original fc-sonnd, by loss of mute -contact as

well as forward shift of the point of production.
In virtue of this
derivation, it sometimes (though less often than c) "reverts" to
the

that is, the original k appears instead of it (43) while, on the

other hand, as a sA-sound, it is to a certain extent convertible to s.
In point of frequency, it slightly exceeds the latter.
;

65.

The remaining

like the usual

spirant,

^ h,

is

ordinarily pronounced

European surd aspiration

a. This is not, however, its real character.

h.

It is defined

by

all

the native

authorities as not a surd element, but a sonant (or else an utterance inter-

mediate between the two); and its whole value in the euphony of the language is that of a sonant: but what is its precise value is very hard to
The Paninean scheme ranks it as guttural, as it does also a: this
say.

means nothing.
ral class;

The Praticakhyas bring it into no relation with the guttuone of them quotes the opinion of some authorities that "it has

the same position with the beginning of the following vowel"

(TPr. ii. 47)
which so far identifies it with our h. There is nothing in its euphonic
influence to

mark

it

as retaining

any trace of gutturally articulated character.

VlSARGA.

23

of the native phonetists

By some

it is

identified with the aspiration of the

with the element by which, for example, gh differs

sonant aspirates
from g. This view is supported by the derivation of h from the aspirates
(next paragraph), by that of 1+h from $h (54), and by the treatment of

initial

after a final

mute (163).

66. The h, as already noticed, is not an original sound, but

in nearly all cases from an older gh (for the few instances of
derivation from dh and bh, see below, 223g). It is a vastly more

comes
its

frequent sound than the unchanged gh (namely, as 7 to 1): more frequent, indeed, than any of the guttural mutes except k. It appears,
like j (219), to include in itself two stages of corruption of gh: one
corresponding with that of k to c, the other with that of k to 9 ;
see below, 223, for the roots belonging to the two classes respectLike the other sounds of guttural derivation, it sometimes
ively.
exhibits "reversion" (43) to its original.

67.

The

h, or visarga (visarjamya, as

it is

uniformly

by the Prati9akhyas and by Panini, probably as be-

called

longing to the end of a syllable), appears to be merely a surd

A-sound

breathing, a final

(in

the European sense of

h),

uttered in the articulating position of the preceding vowel.

One Praticakhya (TPr.

a.

ii.

48) gives just this

last description of it.

by various authorities classed with h, or with h and a: all of them

are alike sounds in whose utterance the mouth-organs have no definite

It is

shaping action.

68. The visarga

not original, but always only a substitute

which is allowed to maintain itself unchana
is
It
ff.).
ged (170
comparatively recent member of the alphabetic
system the other euphonic changes of final a and r have not passed
is

for final a or r, neither of

through visarga as an intermediate stage. And the Hindu authorities

are considerably discordant with one another as to how far h is a
necessary substitute, and how far a permitted one, alternative with

sibilant, before

a following

initial surd.

69. Before a surd guttural or labial, respectively, some of the

native authorities permit, while others require, conversion of final a
or r into the so-called

jihvamuhya and upadhmanlya

spirants.

It

may
fairly questioned, perhaps, whether these two sounds are not
pure grammatical abstractions, devised (like the long J-vowel: 23a)
At any
in order to round out the alphabet to greater symmetry.
be

rate, both manuscripts and printed texts in general make no account

of them. Whatever individual character they may have must be,
it would seem, in the direction of the (German) ch- and /-sounds.

When

written at

all,

they are wont to be transliterated by * and

<f.

70]

SYSTEM OP SOUNDS.

II.

70.

The

anusvSra, n or m,

which

that closure of the organs

mute

nasal

is

24

a nasal sound lacking

is

required to

make a

or contact-sound (36); in its utterance there is

nasal resonance along with

some degree of openness of the

mouth.
71. There is discordance of opinion among both the Hindu pbonetists
and their modern European successors respecting the real character of this
element; hence a little detail is necessary here with regard to its occurrence and their views of

it.

nasals in Sanskrit are of servile character, always to be

assimilated to a following consonant, of whatever character that may be.
a. Certain

Such are

final

in sentence-combination (213), the penultimate nasal of

a root, and a nasal of increment (255) in general.

If one of these nasals
stands before a contact-letter or mute, it becomes a nasal mute corresponthat is, a nasal utterance in the same position of the
ding to the latter
mouth-organs which gives the succeeding mute. If, on the other hand, the
following consonant does not involve a contact (being a semivowel or spirant), the nasal

element

is

also

without contact:

The

with unclosed mouth-organs.

question

is,

it

is

a nasal

utterance

now, whether this nasal

utterance becomes merely a nasal infection of the preceding vowel, turning

nasal vowel (as in French on, en, un, etc., by reason of a similar

it into a

loss of

nasal mute); or whether it is an element of more individual

place between the vowel and the consonant; or, once

character, having

more,

whether

The opinions
b.

it

sometimes

is

the one thing and sometimes the other.

of the Prati^akhyas and Panini are briefly as follows:

The Atharva-Praticakhya holds

that the result

is

everywhere a

or
is assimilated to a following 1; in
nasalized vowel, except when
that case, the n or
becomes a nasal 1: that is, the nasal utterance is

made

in the 1-position, and has a perceptible 1-charaoter.

C. The other Prati^akhyas teach a similar conversion Into a nasal

counterpart to the semivowel, or a nasal semivowel, before y and 1 and v
In most of the other cases where the Atharva-Prati(not before r also).
cakhya acknowledges a nasal vowel
namely, before r and the spirants

the others

teach

element, called the

the intervention after

anusvara

d. Of the nature of this nasal

clear account is given.

the vowel of a distinct nasal

after-tone.

afterpiece to the vowel no intelligibly

(RPr.) to be either vowel or consonant;

it is
declared (RPr., VPr.) to be made with the nose alone, or (TPr.) to
be nasal like the nasal mutes; it is held by some (RPr.) to be the sonant
It is said

tone of the nasal mutes; in

there is (RPr.) no contact.
e.

There

are,

its

As

formation, as in that of vowel and spirant,

to its quantity, see further on.

however, certain cases and classes of cases where these

So, especially, wherever

other authorities also acknowledge a nasal vowel.

a final

and

treated

is

also in a small

(2088)
number

as if it

uncertain and inconsistent in

f.

In Panini,

everywhere; and

finally,

were ns

of specified

doctrine of nasal Towel instead of

is

[73

ANUSVARA.

25

(its historically

words.

anusvara

as

older form);

They also mention the

held by some (and TPr.

choice between the one and the other).

its

the prevailing doctrine is that of

anusvara

even allowed in many cases where the PraticAkhBut a nasal semivowel is also allowed
yas prescribe only a nasal mute.
instead before a semivowel, and a nasal vowel is allowed in the cases (menit is

tioned above) where some of the Pratic,akhyas require

tainty

Hindu

of the

in different

by exception.

it

evidently a fair question whether this discordance

g. It is

classes

phonetists
of

is

owing

to

and in different

cases

what

real

and uncer-

difference of utterance

localities,

or

whether

to

everywhere the same utterance.

If anusvara is a nasal element following the vowel, it cannot well be any
thing but either a prolongation of the same vowel-sound with nasality added,
different scholastic analysis of

or a nasalized bit of neutral-vowel

altering influence of an i or
ted,

which

is really

sound (in the

latter case,

u-vowel on a following 8 ought

however, the
be preven-

to

not the case: see 183).

is

72. The assimilated nasal element, whether viewed as nasalized

vowel, nasal semivowel, or independent anusvara, has the value of
something added, in making a heavy syllable, or length by position (79).
a.

of the

The

Pratic.akhyas (VPr., RPr.) give determinations of the quantity

a short and with a long vowel respect-

anusvara combining with

ively to

make

a long syllable.

Two

- and ., are found in the manusound here treated of. Usually they are
written above the syllable, and there they seem most naturally to
imply a nasal affection of the vowel of the syllable, a nasal (anunasika)
vowel. Hence some texts (Sanaa- and Yajur-Vedas), when they mean
a real anusvara, bring one of the signs down into the ordinary conbut the usage is not general. As between the two
sonant-place
signs, some manuscripts employ, or tend to employ, the r where a
nasalized (anunasika) vowel is to be recognized, and elsewhere the
i; and this distinction is consistently observed in many European
printed texts; and the former is called the anunasika sign: but the
two are doubtless originally and properly equivalent.

73.

a.

different signs,

scripts, indicating the nasal

b. It is a very common custom of the manuscripts to write the

for any nasal following the vowel of a syllable, either
before another consonant or as final (not before a vowel), without

anusvara-sign

any reference to whether it is to be pronounced as nasal mute, nasal

semivowel, or anusvara. Some printed texts follow this slovenly and
undesirable habit; but most write a nasal mute whenever it is to be
pronounced
(213).
excepting where it is an assimilated

73-1

II.

c. It is

similated

SYSTEM OF SOUNDS.

26

convenient also in transliteration to distinguish the asspecial sign, m, from the anusvara of more inde-

by a

pendent origin, A; and this method will be followed in the present

work.
74. This

is

the whole system of sounds recognised

by

the written

character; for certain other transitional sounds, more or less widely

recognised in the theories of the Hindu phonetists, see below, 230.

75.

The whole spoken

alphahet, then,

may be

arranged

in the following manner, in order to show, so far as

sible in a single

is posscheme, the relations and important classi-

fications of its various

Son.

members:

27

[79

QUANTITY.

Quantity of sounds and syllables.

III.

76.

the

The Hindu grammarians take

of a

quantity

consonant

the pains to define

(without

distinction

among

consonants of different classes) as half that of a short vowel.

77.

also

They

quantity of a long (dlrgha)

define the

vowel or diphthong
making no distinction in

as twice that of a short (hrasva)

this respect

vowel

between the guna-

and the vyddhi-diphthongs.

78. Besides

these

third,

acknowledge

two

vowel-quantities,

called

pluta

(literally

the

Hindus

swimming),

and having three moras or three times the

quantity of a short vowel. A protracted vowel is marked

or protracted,

by a following

figure 3: thus,

5TT$

&3.

a. The protracted vowels are practically of rare occurrence (in

RV., three cases; in AV., fifteen; in the Brahmana literature, decidedly more frequent). They are used in cases of questioning, especially of a balancing between two alternatives, and also of calling
to a distance or urgently.
The protraction is of the last syllable in
a word, or in a whole phrase and the protracted syllable has usually
the acute tone, in addition to any other accent the word may have;
sometimes it takes also anusvara, or is made nasal.
;

b. Examples

was
fti

it,

are:

adhah avid aslad upari avid as!3t (BY.)

it,
forsooth, above? idam bhuyas idcbm
more, or is that? agnasi patmvsbh Bomam

below? was

forsooth,

(AV.) saying, is this

Agni! thou with thy spouse! drink
(TS.)

piba

thus,

C.

diphthong

to

ii,

is protracted

the soma.

by prolongation of

its first or

a-element

to fisu.

d. The sign of protraction is also sometimes written as the result of

accentual combination, when so-called kaxnpa occurs: see below, 90 c, d.

79.

For metrical purposes,

syllables

(not

vowels)

are

distinguished by the grammarians as heavy (guru) or light

(laghu).

syllable is

heavy

if its

vowel

is

long, or short

and followed by more than one consonant ("long by poAnusvara and visarga count as full consonants in
sition").

79-]

II.

making a heavy

mary

SYSTEM OF SOUNDS.

The

syllable.

division of a verse)

28

last syllable of

a pSda (pri-

reckoned as either heavy or

is

light.

The

a.

between the difference of long and short

distinction in terms

vowel-sonnd and that of heavy and light in syllable-construction

able, and should be observed.
in

The phenomena of accent

marians of

all

by the Hindu gramdescribed and treated as depend-

ages alike,

are,

ing on a variation of tone or pitch; of

stress involved,

81.

two:

they make no

The primary tones

higher

(anudatta

or

(svara)

raised),

or grave.

a term of doubtful meaning)

being (when not enclitic

is

any difference of

account.

or

(udatta

nqt raised),

valu-

Accent.

IV.

80.

is

accent-pitches

acute;
third

and

(called

are

lower

svarita:

always of secondary origin,

see below, 85) the result of actual

combination of an acute vowel and a following grave vowel

into one syllable.
It is also uniformly defined as compound
in pitch,

union of higher and

limits of a single syllable.

character with the

entitled to

It

is

lower tone

within the

thus identical in physical

Greek and Latin circumflex, and

fully

be called by the same name.

82. Strictly, therefore, there is but one distinction of tone in

the Sanskrit accentual system, as described
by the native grammarians
and marked in the written texts the accented syllable is raised in tone
above the unaccented; while then further, in certain cases of the
:

fusion of an accented

and an unaccented element into one

that syllable retains the

syllable,

compounded tone of both elements.

83. The svarita or circumflex is

only rarely found on a pure
long vowel or diphthong, but almost always on a syllable in which
a vowel, short or long, is preceded
by a y or v representing an originally acute i- or u-vowel.
a. In transliteration, in this
work, the udatta or acute will be
marked with the ordinary sign of acute, and the svarita or circumflex (as being a downward slide of the voice
forward) with what is

usually called the grave accent: thus, d, acute,

yaorva,

circumflex.

[85

ACCENT.

29
84. The

and name separately the circum-

distinguish

Pratic.akhyas

flexed tones arising by different processes of combination

thus, the circum-

flex is called

Ksaipra

a.
is

b.

Jatya

(from kua),

acute

u-vowel

or

(short

or long)

vowel of grave tone: thus,

dissimilar

apsvantar from apsu antar.

or nitya (oton),
when the same combination

the

make-up

and so

of a stem or form,

circumstances of

all

is

occurrence:

its

constant,

thus,

kva

svar (suar), nyak (niak), budhnya (budhnia), kanya

(nadi-as), tanvg, (tanu-a).

nadyas

(kanfa),

before

word in

or belongs to the

The words

syllable: thus,

of both the above classes are in the Veda, in the great maof the acute vowel as a separate

be read with restoration

jority of cases, to

them

(native)

lies further back, in

C.

or

from vi-apta,

vyapta

when an

(quick),

converted into

apsu antar, suar, nadias,

are written correspondingly: thus,

In some texts, part of

etc.

suvar, tanuva, budhniya.

d. Praqlista, when the acute and grave vowels are of such characthey are fused into a long vowel or diphthong (128 c): thus

ter that

divl Va (RV. AV. etc.), from divi iva; sudgata (TS.),

gata; nai Va 'cmyat (QB.), from na eva a^nlyat.

from su-ud-

e. Abhinihita, when an initial grave a is absorbed by a final acute

e or 6 (135 a): thus, te *bruvan, from te abruvan; so 'bravlt, from
so abravit.

85.

But

Hindu grammarians

further, the

claring the (naturally

following an acute,

syllable

grave)

whether in the same or in another word,

circumflex

unless,

acute or circumflex

This

is

called

indeed,
in

be

it

which case

by European

it

agree in de-

to

itself

be svarita or

followed by an

retains its grave tone.

scholars the enclitic or depend-

ent circumflex.
a. Thus, in tena and te ca, the syllable na and word ca are
regarded and marked as circumflex; but in tena te and te ca svar

they are grave.

b. This seems to

mean

that the

voice,

which

is

borne up at the

higher pitch to the end of the acute syllable, does not ordinarily drop to
grave pitch by an instantaneous movement, but descends by a more or less

No Hindu authorperceptible slide in the course of the following syllable.

theory of a middle or intermediate tone for the enclitic,

ity suggests the

any more than for the independent circumflex. For the most part, the two
are identified "with one another, in treatment and designation. The enclitic

circumflex

different

names

is
:

likewise

divided

they are of too

into

little

number

consequence

to

of sub-varieties,

with

be worth reporting.

86]
86.

essential difference of the

The

30

SYSTEM OP SOUNDS.

II-

two kinds of circumflex

is

1. the independent circumflex

clearly enough by these facts:
takes the place of the acute as the proper accent of a word, while

shown

shadow following an acute, and following it

2. the independent
precisely as in the same word;
circumflex maintains its character in all situations, while the enclitic
before a following circumflex or acute loses its circumflex character,
the enclitic

is

the mere

word

in another

and becomes

gr.ave

moreover,

3.

in

many

of the systems of marking

accent (below, 88), the two are quite differently indicated.

87.

is marked in manuscripts only of the

namely, in the primary Vedic texts, or Baxhhitas,

The accentuation

older literature:

two of the Brahmanas (Taittinya and Qatapatha), in the TaittiriyaAranyaka, in certain passages of the Aitareya-Aranyaka, and in the
Suparaadhyaya. There are a number of methods of writing accent,
more or less different from one another; the one found in manuscripts of the Rig-Veda, which is most widely known, and of which
most of the others are only slight modifications, is as follows.
in

a.

The acute

syllable is left

unmarked; the circumflex, whether

independent or enclitic, has a short perpendicular stroke above and

the grave next preceding an acute or (independent) circumflex has a
short horizontal stroke below. Thus,
;

tanva; ifr kva.

SffiTR^agnfm; sJ<liri juhoti; fp^T
b. But the introductory grave stroke below cannot be given if an
acute syllable is initial hence an unmarked syllable at the beginning
of a word is to be understood as acute and hence also, if several
;

grave syllables precede an acute at the beginning of a sentence, they

must all alike have the grave sign. Thus,

p^; indrah;

hf^M'

ft te;

karisyasi; HNsJIHI tuvijata.

All the grave syllables, however, which follow a marked circumflex are left unmarked, until the occurrence of another accented
syllable causes the one which precedes it to take the preparatory
c.

stroke below.

Thus,
i^

but

H<^il=rwfcJJ

sudrc, ikasaihdrk ;

iqiH^sudftlkasamdfg gavam.

an independent circumflex be followed by an acute (or by

another independent circumflex), a
figure 1 is set after the former
circumflexed vowel if it be short, or a figure 3 if it be long, and
d. If

the signs of accent are applied as in the

following examples:
;

apsv aintah
;

ray6;J

vanih

(from apsii antah);

'from

rayd avanih*.

ACCENT.

31
The

rationale of this

Prattyakhyas give no
lable

so

called

kampa
e.

or

understood

the

it.

vikampana.

The accent-marks

being added after the text

88

of designation is not -well

In the scholastic utterance of the sylmade a peculiar quaver or roulade of the voice,

account of
is

designated

mode

89

with red ink in the manuscripts,

are written

and perhaps often by another hand.

is written,

Rig-Veda method of designa-

a. Nearly accordant with this, the

ting accent, are the methods employed in the manuscripts of the AtharvaVeda, of the Vajasaneyi-Samhita, and of the Taittiriya-Samhita, Brahmana.

and Aranyaka.

Their differences from

are of trifling importance,

it

consis-

ting mainly in peculiar ways of marking the circumflex that precedes an

In some manuscripts of the Atharva-Veda, the accentacute (87 d).

marks are dots instead of strokes, and that

in the syllable instead of above

for the circumflex is

b. In most manuscripts of the Maitrayani-Samhita,

lable itself, besides its surroundings,

cular stroke above

made with-

it.

is

marked

namely,

the

acute

syl-

by a perpendi-

the syllable (like that of the ordinary circumflex in the

The independent circumflex has a hook beneath the syland the circumflex before an acute (87 d) is denoted simply by a

RV. method).
lable,

figure 3, standing before instead of after the circumflexed syllable.

C.

The

^atapatha- Brahmana uses only a single accent-sign, the

beneath the syllable (like the mark for grave in RV.).

horizontal stroke

This is put under an acute, or, if two or more acutes immediately follow
one another, only under the last of them. To mark an independent circumThe method is an imperfect
flex, it is put under the preceding syllable.
one, allowing

d.

many

ambiguities.

The Sama-Veda method

is

the most intricate of

all.

It

has a dozen

and letters combined, all placed

different signs, consisting of figures, or of figures

above the syllables, and varying according both to the accentual character
Its origin is obscure; if anyof the syllable and to its surroundings.
thing more is indicated by it than by the other simpler systems, the fact
has not been demonstrated.

89. In this work, as everything given in the devanagari charis also given in transliteration, it will in general be unneces-

acters

sary to mark the accent except in the transliterated form; where,

however, the case is otherwise, there will be adopted the method
of marking only the really accented syllables, the acute and the independent circumflex the latter by the usual svarita-sign, the former by
a small u (for udatta) above the syllable thus,
:

indra,
a.

H ane,

These being given, everything

svar,
else

nizes as dependent on and accompanying

as implied.

which the Hindu theory recog-

them can

readily

be understood

90]
and

SYSTEM OP SOUNDS.

32

90. The theory of the Sanskrit accent, as here given (a consistent

body of phenomena), has been overlaid by the Hindu theoof the Praticakhyas, with a number of added features, of

intelligible

especially

rists,

II.

much more

questionable character.

The unmarked grave

a.

Thus

syllables following a circumflex (either at the

end of a sentence, or till the near approach of another acute) are declared
They are
to have the same high tone with the (also unmarked) acute.
called pracaya or pracita (accumulated: because liable to occur in an
indefinite series of successive syllables).

b. The

circumflex,

whether independent or

enclitic,

is

declared to

begin on a higher pitch than acute, and to descend to acute pitch in ordinary cases: the concluding instant of it being brought down to grave pitch,
however, in the case of an independent circumflex which is immediatelyfollowed by another ascent of the voice
pendent circumflex (a kampa syllable

to higher pitch,

in acute or inde-

87 d).

ambiguous name of eka<jruti (monotone] to the

and says nothing of the uplifting of the circumflex to
a higher plane; he teaches, however, a depression below the grave pitch
for the marked grave syllable before acute or circumflex, calling it saunaC. Paniui gives the

pracita

syllables,

tara (otherwise anudattatara).

to

91. The system of accentuation

assumed in the traditional

have

as

marked in the Vedic texts appears

of the Brahmanic schools

recitation

and artificial form, in which the designated syllables, grave and

circumflex (equally the enclitic and the independent circumflex), have acquired a conspicuous value, while the undesignated, the acute, has sunk

a peculiar

into insignificance.

92. The Sanskrit accent taught in the native grammars and

represented by the accentuated texts is essentially a system of wordaccent only.
No general attempt is made (any more than in the
Greek system) to define or mark a sentence-accent, the effect of the
emphasis and modulation of the sentence in modifying the independent accent of individual words.
The only approach to it is seen
in the treatment of vocatives
a.

vocative

of a sentence
b.

and personal verb-forms.

usually without accent except at the beginning

for further details, see 314.
is

personal verb-form is usually accentless in an independent

clause, except when standing at the beginning of the clause: for
further details, see 591 ff.

93. Certain other words also are, usually or always, without

accent.
a.

The

particles ca, vS, u, sma, iva, cid, svid, ha, and the Vedic
kam), gha, bhala. samaha, im, aim, are always without
also yatha in RV.
(sometimes also elsewhere) in the sense of iva,

kam

(or

accent

at the

end of a

pada

or verse-division.

ACCENT.

33
b.

The same

is true of certain

me, nau, nas, tva,

sama

te,

pronouns and pronominal stems:

vam, vae (491 b), ena

ma,

(600), tva (503b),

(513c).

The cases of the pronominal stem a are sometimes accented and

sometimes accentless (502).
c.

d. An accentless word is not allowed to stand at the beginning

of a sentence; also not of a pada or primary division of a verse; a
pada is, in all matters relating to accentuation, treated like an inde-

pendent sentence.
94.

Some words have more than a

single

accented syllable.

Such are:
a. Certain

dual copulative compounds in

the

Also, a few
mitravaruna, dyavapytbivf.
(see 1267d), as brhaspati, tanunapat.

Veda

1255), as
compounds

(see

Vedic

other

b. In a few cases, the further compounds and derivatives of such

compounds, as dyavapythivivant, brhaspatipranutta.
c.

Infinitive

in

datives

tavai (see 972 a),

as

etavai, apabhar-

tavai.
d.
(see

word naturally barytone, but having

its final syllable

protracted

78a).
e.

The

95.
krit

particle

On

is

no

number

the

following syllables.
inflection

regard to

(in the

Brahman as).

the place of the accented syllable in a Sans-

word there

either

vava

or

restriction

or the

or

of the

quantity

The accent

derivation

any thing

whatever depending upon

rests

preceding or

where the

composition place

rules

of

without

it,

else.

a. Thus, indre, agnau, indrena, agnina, agnlnam, bahucyuta,

anapaeyuta, parjanyajinvita, abhimatisaha, anabbimlatavarna,
abhi9asticatana, hiranyavagimattama, catuqcatvarinQadaksara.

96. Since the accent

ture,

is

and the statements

marked only in the older

of the

deduced rules of accentuation, are

to settle all

cases,

grammarians,
far

from being

litera-

with the
sufficient

the place of the stress of voice for a

considerable part of the vocabulary

is

undetermined.

Hence

a general habit with European scholars to pronounce

Sanskrit words according to the rules of the Latin accent.
3
Whitney, Grammar. 2. ed.

it is

HI- EUPHONIC COMBINATION.

97]

34

97. In this work, the accent of each word and form will in
there is authority determining its place
general be marked, so far as
and character. Where specific words and forms are quoted, they
will only be so far accentuated as they are found with accent in

accentuated texts.

CHAPTER

IE.

RULES OP EUPHONIC COMBINATION.

Introductory.

The words in Sanskrit, as in the other languages related

are in great part analysable into roots, suffixes of derivation,
and endings of inflection, these last being added mostly to stems
98.

with

it,

containing suffixes, but also sometimes directly to roots.

a.

There

are, of course,

indeclinables, particles

and

a certain

also not a

number

of uninflected voids

few that are incapable of analysis.

99. The Sanskrit, indeed, possesses an exceptionally analysable

character; its formative processes are more regular and transparent
than those of any other Indo-European tongue. Hence the prevailing
method of the Hindu native science of grammar, which sets up a cer-

body of roots, and* prescribes the processes by which these may

be made stems and words, giving the various added elements, and
laying down the rules by which their combination is effected. And
the same general method is, for like reason, followed also by European

tain

grammarians.
100. The euphonic laws, accordingly, which govern the combination of suffix or of ending with root or stem, possess a high

and require to be laid

the topics of declension and conjugation.
practical importance,

down

in preparation for

the formation of compounds, by joining two

is extremely frequent in Sanskrit; and this
kind of combination has its own peculiar euphonic rules. And once

101.

or

Moreover,

more simple stems,

more, in the form of the language as handed down to us by its litewords composing a sentence or paragraph are adapted to
and combined with one another by nearly the same rules which govern
the making of compounds so that it is impossible to take apart and
rature, the

understand a Sanskrit sentence without knowing those rules.

Hence

[103

INTRODUCTORY.

35

an increased degree of practical importance belonging to the subject

of euphonic combination.
This euphonic interdependence of the words of a sentence

a.

is

un-

any other language in anything like the same degree; and it

cannot hut he suspected of being at least in part artificial, implying an
erection into necessary and invariable rules of what in the living language

known

to

This is strongly indicated, indeed, by the

evidence of the older dialect of the Vedas and of the derived Prakritic

were only optional practices.

dialects, in both of

tus: see

113)

which some of the rules (especially that

as to the hia-

are often violated.

The roots which are authenticated by their occurrence in

monuments of the language, earlier and later, number
between eight and nine hundred. About half of these belong fully
to the language throughout its whole history; some (about a hund102.

the literary

red and

fifty)

are

limited

to

the earlier or pre-classical

period;

make

appear-

some, again (over a hundred and twenty),

ance in the later language.

their

first

There are in this number roots of very diverse character.

a*

Those

occurring only later are, at least in great part, presumably of secondary

origin; and a certain number are even doubtless artificial, used once or

twice because found in the root-lists

of the

Hindu grammarians (103).

some are plainly secondary, while others are quesand not a few are variations or differentiated forms of one another.
tionable
Thus, there are roots showing respectively r and 1, as rabh and labh,
But

also

of the rest,

mruc

and mluc, kfar and ksal; roots with and without a strengthenvand and vad, mand and mad; roots in & and in a nasal,

ing nasal, as
as

kha

a,

as

and khan, ga and gam, ja and jan; roots made 'by an added
tra from tr, mna from man, psa from bhas, ya from i; roots

the product of reduplication, as jakf from ghas, dudh from dim; roots
with a final sibilant of formative origin, as bhaks and bhiks from bhaj,

naks from

na<j, gru^ from ^ru, has from

a well-established discordance of inflection

probably different sides of one

root,

as

kr

root-forms held apart by

and meaning, which yet are
drag and k^jf plough, vid know

ha;

and vy choose^ and so on. In many such cases

it is doubtful whether we ought to acknowledge two roots or only one;
and no absolute rule of distinction can he laid down and maintained.
and vid

find,

vy

enclose

The list of roots given hy the Hindu grammarians contains

103.
about two thousand roots, without including all those which students of
the language are compelled to recognize.
Considerably more than half of
this

these

way

then, are unauthenticated by use; and although some of

yet come to light, or may have existed without finding their
into any of the preserved literary documents, it is certain that most

number,

may

are fictitious:

made

as their derivatives,

in part for the explanation of words

but in the main

for

falsely

described

unknown and perhaps undiscover-

able reasons.

3*

103]

EUPHONIC COMBINATION.

III.

The

a.

of in this

36
made no account

miauthenticated by traceable use will be

roots

grammar

if noticed,

or,

will be specified as of that character.

roots as here used will be found to

from those given by the native grammarians
and adopted by some European works. Thus:

The forms of the

104.

differ in certain respects

Those roots of which the

a.
to

and $

beginning with

and

11

and s are regularly converted

classify as simple roots

this

number

didhi, jagy, daridra;

as

ones,

by the Hindu grammarians given

no western authority follows

The Hindus

b.

reduplicated

initial

prefixes are

after certain

as

example.

of derived stems

present-stems,

as

urnu;

and denominative stems, as avadhir, kumar, sabhag, mantr, santv,

arth, and the like. These are in European works generally reduced to
their true value.

C.

number

of

roots

ending in an a which

is

irregularly treated

in the present-system are written in the Hindu lists with diphthongs

e or Si or o; here they will be regarded as a-roots (see 251). The o of

such root-forms, especially, is purely

made from the roots justify it.

The

d.

ur (242)
f here

roots

arbitrary;

no forms or derivatives

showing interchangeably y and ir and ir or ur and

by the Hindus with r or with f, or with both. The

are written

also is only

formal, intended to

mark the

roots as liable to certain

Such

modifications, since it nowhere shows itself in any form or derivative.

work be written with

roots will in this

The

e.

ar

(rarely

the native

roots,

ra)

on the other hand, showing a variation between r and

will be here written with r, as by

weak and strong forms

as

grammarians, although
So long as

other or strong form.

vid and

mud

9!, in

quire that

we

many European authorities prefer the

we write the unstrengthened vowel in

and bhu, and their

and kr also

write it in srj

reference to what

105.

f.

In

may have been

many

such

cases

according to their

rather of an Indo-European comparative

mar.

We must

be content

to

consistency seems to re-

in all cases alike, without

the more original Indo-European form.

cases of roots showing

tion of a representative form is a matter

deal with

like,

more than one form, the

of comparative
historical

selec-

indifference.

To

character is the part

grammar than of a Sanskrit gramseem to have

accept as roots what elements

on the whole that value in the existing condition of the language.

106.

Stems as well as roots have their variations of form (311;.

usually give the weaker form as the normal
one, and derive the other from it by a strengthening change; some
European authorities do the same, while others prefer the contrary

The Hindu grammarians

method the choice is of unessential consequence, and may be determined in any case by motives of convenience.
;

107.

We

shall accordingly consider first of all,

chapter, the euphonic principles

in the present

and laws which govern the combi-

[109

INTRODUCTORY.

37

elements of words and of words as elements of the

sentence; then will be taken up the subject of inflection, under the
two heads of declension and conjugation; and an account of the
nation of the

words

classes of uninflected

will follow.

(tense and mode-stems

also participles and infinitive) will be taught, as is usual, in connection with the processes of conjugational inflection; that of uninflected
a.

The formation of conjugational stems

words, in connection with the various classes of those words.

But

the general subject of derivation, or the formation of declinable stems,

will be taken up by itself later (chap. XVII.}; and it will be followed
by an account of the formation of compound stems (chap. XVIII.).

108.

It

is

by no means

to

be expected of beginners

in the language that they will attempt to master the rules

of euphonic combination in a body, before going on to learn
the paradigms of inflection.

On

the contrary, the leading

paradigms of declension may best be learned outright,

without attention, or with only a minimum of attention,
to
is

In taking up conjugation, however,

euphonic rule
practically, as

forms
tion to

well as theoretically,

combinations

as

of stem

better to

it

learn the

and ending, with atten-

such laws of combination as apply in the particular

cases concerned.

erning the

The

rules of external combination,

gov-

make-up of the sentence out of words, should

be grappled with only when the student

is

prepared to begin

the reading or the formation of sentences.

Principles of Euphonic Combination.

109.
are in

The

rules of combination (sarhdhi putting together)

some respects

a. to

different,

the internal

according as they apply

make-up of a word, by the

addition

of derivative and inflectional endings to roots and stems;

b. to the

more external putting together of stems to

stems, and the yet looser and more acci-

make compound

dental collocation of words in the sentence.

c.

Hence they

are usually divided into rules of internal

combination, and rules of external combination.

110]

III.

EUPHONIC COMBINATION.

38

In both classes of cases, however, the general principles

and likewise, to a great extent, the

110.

of combination are the same

The differences depend in part on the occurrence or

specific rules.
non-occurrence of certain combinations in the one class or the other
in part, on the difference of treatment of the same sound as final of
a root or of an ending, the former being more persistent than the
;

latter; in part, on the occurrence in external combination of certain

changes which are apparently phonetic but really historical; and, most
frequent and conspicuous of all, on the fact that (157) vowels and
semivowels and nasals exercise a sonantizing influence in external
combination, but not in internal. Hence, to avoid unnecessary repe-

tition as well as the separation of

what

rules for both kinds of combination

really belongs together, the

are given below in connection

with one another.

Moreover, before case-endings beginning with bh and

bhis, bhyas, su), the treatment of the finals of
stems is in general the same as in the combinations of words (pada
with one another
whence those endings are sometimes called
111.

a.

a (namely,

bhyam,

pada-endings, and the cases they form are known as pada-cases.

b. The importance of this distinction is somewhat exaggerated by the
In

ordinary statement of it

fact,

ending occurring in conjugation,

their treatment is in

with the

as

dh is the only sonant mute

bh in declension and the
;

part owing to the one

final of a root

and the other

initial of

an

difference of

coming into collision usually

and in part to the fact

of an ending,

dh, as a dental, is more assimilable to palatals and linguals than bh.

more marked and problematic distinction is made between su and the
verbal endings si, sva, etc., especially after palatal sounds and B.
that

c.

Further, before certain of the suffixes of derivation the final

is sometimes treated in the same manner as that of a

of a stem

word

in composition.

d.

This

is

markedly distinct

the case

suffixes having a
and vant, the abstractof material maya, and so on; and it is much

especially

before

like the possessive

office,

secondary

mant

making tva, the suffix

more frequent in the later language than in the earlier. The examples arc
sporadic in character, and no rule can be given to cover them: for details,
see the various suffixes, in chap. XVII. In the RV. (as may be mention-

garutmant, kakudetc.), dhrsadvin

(beside namasvin etc.), gagma (beside ajma, idhma, etc.), mrnmaya
(beside manasmaya etc.), and ahamyu, kimyu, gamyu, and anhoyu,
duvoyu, aBkrdhoyu (beside namasyu, vacasyu, etc.) and the AV.

ed here) the only examples are

mant,

etc.),

pfsadvant

vidyunmant

(beside

(beside

datvant, marutvant,

sahovan (RV. sahavan).

adds only

112.

108)

The leading

are those

rules

which are

the language, since his

first

of

of internal combination (as already stated:

to a beginner in

most immediate importance

task is to

master the principal paradigms of

[117

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

39

inflection; the rules of external combination

better be left untouched

may

until he comes to dealing with words in sentences, or to translating.

Then,

however, they are indispensable, since the proper form of the words that
compose the sentence is not to be determined without them.

The

a.

general principles of combination underlying the euphonic

classification, may be stated as follows:

and determining their

rules,

Hiatus.

In general, hiatus is forbidden; every

syllable except the initial one of a sentence, or of a word
or phrase not forming part of a sentence, must begin with
118.

a consonant (or with more than one).

For

a.

details,

and

for exceptions, see

125

ff.

In the earlier language, however, hiatus in every position was

abundantly admitted. This appears plainly from the mantras, or metrical
b.

parts of the Veda, where in innumerable instances

and

are to be read

as i and u, and, less often, a long vowel is to be resolved into two vowels,
in order to make good the metre e. g., varyanam has to be read as va:

also,

we

find

satyam
further

as

svaqvyam

ri-a-na-am,

tvac, svar,

as

trisyllables,

su-a<j-vi-am, and BO on.

dyaus

described
as of four

rajanya

as

In the Brahmanas,

dissyllables,

syllables,

vyana and

and the

like.

See

129e.

114.

De aspiration.

An

aspirate

lose its aspiration, being allowed to

mute

is

liable

to

stand unchanged only

before a vowel or semivowel or nasal.

Assimilation.

The

body of euphonic
changes in Sanskrit, as elsewhere, falls under the general
which takes place both between
head of assimilation
115.

great

sounds which are so nearly alike that the difference between

them is too insignificant to be worth preserving, and between
those which are so diverse as to be practically incompatible.

116.

In

one sound

part,

assimilation involves

to another of the

articulating position

in part,

same
it

series,

the conversion of

without change of

involves a change of position,

or transfer to another series.

117. Of changes within the series, the most frequent and important occur in the adaptation of surd and sonant sounds to one

117]
another

EUPHONIC COMBINATION.

III.

but the nasals and

assimilative influence.
a.

40

have also in certain cases their special

Thus;

In the two classes of non-nasal mates and spirants, surd and sonant

are wholly incompatible ; no surd of either class can either precede or follow

a sonant of either.

mute, sard or sonant, is assimilated by being changed to its

correspondent of the other kind of the spirants, the sard s is the only one
having a sonant correspondent, namely r, to which it is convertible in exb.

ternal combination

(164

ff.).

The nasals are more freely combinable a nasal may either precede
a mate of either kind, or the sonant spirant h; it may also follow

c.

or follow

no nasal, however, ever precedes a sibilant in the

;
changed instead to anusvaraj and in external combination their concurrence is usually avoided by insertion of a sard mate.
a sard spirant (sibilant)

interior of a

d.

word

(it is

semivowel has

still less

both are freely .preceded

in the interior of a word.

of all:
class,

sonantizing influence ; and a vowel least

and followed by sounds of every other

e. Before a sibilant, however, is found, of the semivowels, only r and

very rarely 1. Moreover, in external combination, r is often changed to its
sard correspondent 8.

Bat
In composition and sentence-collocation, initial vowels and semif.
vowels and nasals also require the preceding final to be sonant And
Before

g.

.a

nasal and

the assimilative process is sometimes carried

mate to a nasal or 1 respectively.

1,

farther, by the conversion of a final

118. Of conversions involving a change of articulate position,

the most important are those of dental sounds to lingual, and, less
often, to palatal. Thus:
a. The dental a and n are very frequently converted to s and n by
the assimilating influence of contiguous or neighboring lingual sounds : the s,

even by sounds
namely, i- and u-vowels and
selves no lingual character.

b.

non-nasal dental mute

combination) made lingual

c.

The

when

it

is

which have them-

(with a few exceptions in external

collision with a lingual sound.

comes into

dental mutes and sibilant are

made

palatal

by a contiguous

palatal.

But

also:

d.

m (not radical)

is

assimilated to a following consonant, of what-

ever kind.
e.

For certain anomalous cases, see 151.

119.

The euphonic combinations of the

palatal mutes, the pala-

and the aspiration, as being sounds derived by phonetic

alteration from more original gutturals (42 ff.), are made peculiar
tal sibilant,

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

41

124

and complicated by two circumstances: their reversion to a guttural

form (or the appearance of the unaltered guttural instead of them:
43) and the different treatment of j and h according as they represent one or another degree of alteration
the one tending, like c,
;

more

to the guttural reversion, the other showing,

and lingual character.

like

9,

a more

sibilant

120.
dental

s),

The

lingual sibilant

shows as radical

s,

also of derivative character (from

final peculiar

and problematic phenomena

of combination.

Extension and abbreviation of conso-

121.

The

nant-groups.

native grammarians allow or require

by duplication or insertion, of groups of

consonants. And, on the other hand, abbreviation of certain other groups is allowed, and found often practised in
certain extensions,

the manuscripts.
122.

Permitted Finals.

of consonants at
stricted.

the last

nor a

The permitted occurrence

the end of a word is quite narrowly re-

In general, only one consonant is allowed after

vowel; and that must be neither the aspiration,

sibilant,

nor a semivowel (save rarely

aspirate mute, nor a sonant mute

123.

more or

if

1),

nor an

not nasal, nor a palatal.

Increment and Decrement.

Besides these

changes accompanying the combination

of the parts that make up words, there is another class of
a different character, not consisting in the mutual adaptations

less regular

of the parts,

but

in strengthening

or weakening

changes of the parts themselves.

124. It is impossible to carry through a perfectly systematic
arrangement of the detailed rules of euphonic combination, because
the different varieties of euphonic change more or less overlap and
intersect one another. The order observed below will be as follows
:

1.

2.

Rules ot vowel combination, for the avoidance of hiatus.

Rules as to. permitted finals (since these underlie the further

treatment of

final

final

consonants in external combination)

Rules for loss of aspiration of an aspirate mute.

4.
Rules of surd and sonant assimilation, including those for
s and r.
3.

124)
5.

III.

EUPHONIC COMBINATION.

42

Rules for the conversion of dental sounds to lingual and

palatal.
6.
Rules for the changes of final nasals, including those in
which a former final following the nasal re-appears in combination.
7.
Rnles regarding the special changes of the derivative sounds
the palatal mutes and sibilant, the aspiration, and the lingual sibi-

lant.
8.
9.

Eules as to extension and abbreviation of consonant groups.

Rules for strengthening and weakening processes.

Everywhere, rules for more sporadic and less classifiable cases

be given in the most practically convenient connection and the
Index will render what help is needed toward finding them.

will

Rules of Vowel Combination.

125.

The concurrence

of two vowels, or of vowel

diphthong, without intervening consonant,

is

the euphony of the later or classical language.

and

forbidden by
It is avoided,

according to the circumstances of the case, either by fusion

of the two concurrent sounds into one, by the reduction of

one of them

to a

semivowel, or by development of a semi-

vowel between them.

a.

For the not infrequent cases of composition and sentence-combior y or v between vowels leaves

nation in which the recent loss of a a

a permanent hiatus, see below, 132 ff., 175

7; for certain final vowels
which are maintained unchanged in sentence-combination before an initial
vowel, see 138.

A very few words in their admitted written form show interior

such are titaii sieve (perhaps for titasu, BR.), praiiga wagonpole (for prayuga); and, in RV., suutf.
b.

hiatus

c.

The

texts of the older dialect are written according to the euphonic

rules of the later language, although in them (see 113b) the hiatus is
Hence they are not to be read as written,
really of frequent occurrence.

but with constantly recurring reversal of the processes of vowel- combination

which they have been made artificially to undergo. See further 129e.
d.

Also in the later language, hiatus between the two

primary divisions of a

unknown
e.

metrical line

is

tolerably

frequent,

in sporadic cases even in the interior of a

The

and

padas
it is

or

not

pada.

rules of vowel combination, as regards both the resultand its accent, are nearly the same in internal and in

ing sound
external samdhi.

VOWEL COMBINATION.

43
126.

Two

[127

similar simple vowels, short or long, coalesce

and form the corresponding long vowel thus, two a-vowels

(either or both of them short or long) form =^T a two i-vow:

els,

two u- vowels,

jj

form

els

but

r.

practically occurs.

it

is

T37

and, theoretically, two y- vow-

questionable whether the case ever

^Examples are:

sa ca 'prajah (ca -{- aprajafc)

Va

ati

(ati

iva)

suktam (su-uktam);
raja "sit (raja

+ asit);

adhi9varah (adhi-i9varah)

juhupabhyt (juhu

upabhyt).

As the above examples

indicate, it will be the practice everywhere

in transliteration (not in the devanagari text), to separate
independent words; and if an initial vowel of a following word has coalesced

a.

in this work,

with a

the preceding, this will be indicated by an apostrophe

the
initial
be
if
it
of
the
vowel
the
be
the
double
single
shorter,
longer,
two different initials which in every case of combination yield the same result.

final of

if

An

a-vowel combines with a following i-vowel to

e; with an u- vowel, to 5T o; with ?J y, to 3^ ar; with
127.

T 1
ETC

(theoretically), to

o or

au, to

a|t

Tf

^^f al; with

au.

e or

ai, to

ai;

with

Examples are:

rajendra (raja-indra);
(hita-upade9ah
hitopade9a
maharsih (maha-rsih);
1

Va

sai

(sa-j-eva);

rajai9varyam (raja-ai9varyam);
:

divaukasa^ (diva-okasah) ;

jvarausadham (jvara-aufadham).
a.

In the Vedic texts, the vowel y

is

ordinarily written

unchanged

maharsih

instead of

after the a-vowel, which, if long, is shortened: thus,

maharsih. The two

b.
first

When

vowels, however, are usually pronounced as one syllable.

successive words like

combination, to indra,

indrai"

'hi,

is

from indra e

made
'hi).

indra a ihi

first,

and the

are to be combined, the

result is

indre

"

'hi (not

128]

III.

44

EUPHONIC COMBINATION.

it is
regards the accent of these vowel combinations,
matter of course, the union of acute with
acute yields acute, and that of grave with grave yields grave; that
of circumflex with circumflex cannot occur; 2. a circumflex with

As

128.

to be noticed

that, 1. as a

element of the former

following acute yields acute, the final grave
acute does the
being raised to acute pitch; a grave with following
same, as no upward slide of the voice on a syllable is acknowledged
in the language; but, 3. when the former of the fused elements is
acute and the latter grave, we might expect the resulting syllable
to be in general circumflex, to represent both the original tones.
Panini in fact allows this accent in every such case; and in a single
accentuated Brahmana text (QB.J, the circumflex is regularly written.
But the language shows, on the whole, an indisposition to allow the
circumflex to rest on either long vowel or diphthong as
and the acute element is suffered to raise the other to

its sole basis,

own

its

level

of pitch, making the whole syllable acute. The only exception to

and i, which bethis, in most of the texts, is the combination of
comes i: thus, divi 'va, from divi iva; in the Taittiriya texts alone

such a case follows the general rule, while

u: thus, sudgata from sii-udgata.

The

129.

i-vowels, the

u-vowels,

dissimilar vowel or a diphthong,

each into

its

u and

are

and

u, instead,

ft

y,

make

before

regularly converted

own corresponding semivowel,

3J

or

ef^v

or

Examples are:
ity Sha (iti+Sha);

r.

madhv

iva

(madhu

+ iva);

duhitrarthe (duhitr-arthe);
stry asya (strl-j-asya);
cjtr

vadhvai (vadhu-ai).

a. But in internal combination the i and u-vowels are not

seldom changed instead to iy and uv
and this especially in monosyllables, or after two consonants, where otherwise a group of consonants difficult of pronunciation would be the result.
The cases
will be noticed below, in explaining inflected forms.

b.

radical i-vowel is converted into

fect tense-inflection
c.

so

In a few sporadic

composition:

e. g.,

ninyima
cases,

triyavi (tri

become iy and

avi),

viyanga (vi

and

-f-

y even

before

in per-

(nini-j-ima).

uv

even in word-

+ afiga),

suvita

(su -h ita): compare 1204b,c.

d.

Not very seldom, the same word (especially as found in different

more than one form, showing various treat-

texts of the older language) has

VOWEL COMBINATION.

45
inent of an i or u-vowel

nya

or

e. g.

budhmya, ratryai

svar

or

[131

suvar, tanve

or ratriyai.

or taniive, budhFor the most part, doubtless,

these are only two ways of -writing the same pronunciation, su-ar, budhniand so on; and the discordance has no other importance, historical or
There is more or less of this difference of treatment of an i- or
phonetic.
a,

after a consonant in all periods of the language.

In the older language, there is a marked difference, in respect
to the frequency of vowel-combination for avoiding hiatus as compared with

u-element
e.

that of non-combination

and consequent hiatus, between the

class of cases

where two vowel-sounds, similar or dissimilar, would coalesce into one (126,
127) and that where an i- or u-vowel would be converted into a semivowel.
to

Thus, in word-composition, the ratio of the cases of coalesced vowels

RV. as five to one, in AY. as nineteen to one,

those of hiatus are in

while the cases of semivowel-conversion are in RV. only one in twelve, in

AV. only one in five; in sentence-combination, the cases of coalescence

RV. and AV. about as seven to one, while those of semivowelRV. only one in fifty, in AV. one in five.
For certain cases of the loss or assimilation of i and u before y
f.
and v respectively, see 233a.
130. As regards the accent
here, as in the preceding case
(128), the only combination requiring notice is that of an acute ior u-vowel with a following grave: the result is circumflex; and
such cases of circumflex are many times more frequent than any and
are in both

conversion are in

all others.

Examples are:

yuti

EP-WlH abhyarcati;

(vi-u9ti);

nadyau

(nacU-au);

cF^nianvas

vista (su-ifta);

(tanu-as).

Of a similar combination of acute f with following grave, only a

single case has been noted in accented texts: namely, vijnatr etat (i. e.
vijnatf etat: B. xiv. 6. 8 ") the accentuation is in accordance with the
rules for i and u.
a.

131.

ed

Of a diphthong, the

final i- or

to its corresponding semivowel,

*J

u-element
or

^v,

is

chang-

before any

vowel or diphthong: thus, IJ e (really ai: 28 a) becomes

3^ay,
and Jt o (that is, au: 28 a) becomes SR av; ^ ai becomes

mU ay,

and

au becomes

No change

5^

av.

each original
syllable retains its syllabic identity, and hence also its own tone.
b. Examples can be given only for internal combination, since in
a.

of accent, of course, occurs here

external combination there are further changes

see the next paragraph. Thus,

*R naya (ne-a); ^TR naya (nai-a);

v& bhava (bho-a); HT3 bhava (bhau-a).

132]

III.

46

EUPHONIC COMBINATION.

we have the important

semivowel
additional rule that the
resulting from the conversion of the final element of a diphthong is in general
132. In external combination,

dropped; and the resulting hiatus

is

left

without further

change.
133.
case)
5f

That

is

to

Ef

see 135, below),

a:

and a

final

3TT a.

Thus,

^
:

in

ai,

a final

say,

becomes simply

a before an

(the

initial

most frequent
vowel (except

and both then remain unchanged;

manner, becomes (everywhere)

like

ta agatafc (te

+ agatafc);

nagara iha (nagare -f- iha) ;

tasma adadat tasmai -j- adadat) ;
:

3WT
The

a.

later

striya

uktam

(striyai

grammarians allow the

-f-

uktarn).

in such combinations to be either

retained or dropped; bnt the uniform practice of the manuscripts, of every

age, in accordance with the strict requirement of the Vedic grammars (Pratic,akhyas), is to

omit the semivowel and leave the hiatus.

The persistence

b.

of the hiatus caused by this omission is a plain

indication of the comparatively

recent loss of the intervening consonantal

sound.
c.

Instances,

however, of the avoidance of hiatus by combination of

the remaining final vowel with the following initial according to the usual
rules are met with in every period of the language, from the RV. down;

but they are rare and of sporadic character.

of the hiatus after a lost final s,

Compare the similar treatment

1767.

d. For the peculiar treatment of this combination in certain cases by

the MS., see below, 176d.

134.

The diphthong o

(except as phonetic alteration of

an unusual final, appearing only in the stem
go (361 c), in the voc. sing, of u-stems (341), in words of which
the final a is combined with the particle u, as atho, and in a few
final

a.

as: see 175

interjections.

138

a)

is

In the

last

two

classes

it

is

the vocatives sometimes retain the

uncombmable

v and

(below,

sometimes lose
it (the practices of different texts are too different to be briefly
stated) go (in composition only) does not ordinarily lose its final element, but remains gav or go. A final as becomes a, with following
hiatus, before any vowel save a (for which, see the next paragraph).
c,f);

VOWEL COMBINATION.

47

The

b.

of

^v

from

Sfl^av

[135

au

Sft

is

usually retained:

thus,

tav eva (t5u-f-eva);

ubhav indragni (ubhau -f indragnl)

In the older language, however, it is in some texts

dropped before an u-vowel: thus, ta
ubhaiijL in other texts it is treated like ai, or
c.

loses its

u-element before every

initial

ta eva,

vowel:

thus,

an

initial

ubha

in-

dragnl.

135. After final

e or

5TT o,

a disappears.

The

resulting accent is as if the a were not dropped, but

rather absorbed into the preceding diphthong, having its tone
duly
represented in the combination.
If, namely, the e or o is grave or
a.

circumflex and the a acute, the former becomes acute if the e or

is acute and the a grave, the former becomes circumflex, as usuIf both are
ally in the fusion of an acute and a grave element.
;

acute or

both

Examples

are:

grave,

no change, of course,

'bruvan

(te

so *bravit

abruvan)

(safc

seen in the result.

is

abravit

) ;

fn; hinsitavyo *gnih (hinsitavyah agnih);

indro 'bravlt (yad indrah. abravit);

yad raj any 6 *bravit (yad rajanyah
abravit).
b. As

to

see above, 16.

ing, will be

the use of the

avagraha

sign in

used in this work to represent

case of such an elision,

it.

This elision or absorption of initial

in the later language is the invariable rule,
c.

sional occurrence.

an

tlie

In transliteration, the reversed apostrophe, or rough breath-

after

is ir.

final

the

e or

Veda

o,

which

only an occa-

Thus, in the RV., out of nearly 4500 instances of such

metre shows, to be really omitted only about seventy

initial a, it is, as the

times; in the AV.,

work

less than

300 times out

of

about

1600.

In neither

accordance in respect to the combination in question

between the written and spoken form of the text: in RV., the a is (as
is

there

any

written) elided in more than three quarters of the cases; in AV., in about
two thirds ; and in both texts it is written in a number of instances where

the metre requires

d.

its

omission.

In a few cases,

an

initial

is

thus

elided,

especially

that of

atman.
e.

To

the rules of vowel combination, as above stated, there

Some of the more isolated of these will be

are certain exceptions.

135]

III.

noticed where they

48

EUPHONIC COMBINATION.

come up

in the

processes of inflection

etc.;

few require mention here.

In internal combination:

136.

The augment a makes with

a.

combinations

Su,

ai,

fir

the initial vowel of a root the

(vr ddhi-vowels

235), instead of

by 127: thus, aita

(guna-vowels),
(a+ubhnat), ftrdhnot (a+rdhnot).
b. The final o of a stem (1203a) becomes av
as required

(originally ia:

The

c.

e, o,

ar

aubhnat

before the suffix

ya

1210a).
final

vowel of 'a stem

added (1203a).
d. For the weakening and

fix is

(a-f-ita),

tions, see below,

249 ff.,

is often

dropped when a secondary suf-

loss of radical Towels,

and

for certain inser-

2578.

In external combination:

137.

final a or a of a preposition, with initial r of a root,

makes ar instead of ar: Thus, archati (S-f-rchati), avarchati (ava-frchati), upanjati ($B.: upa+r?ati; but AV. uparsanti).
b. Instances are occasionally met with of a final a or ft being lost

The

a.

e or o: thus, in verb-forms, av' efyamas AB.,

AV.; in derivatives, as upetavya, upetr; in compounds,
yathetam, and (permissibly) compounds with ostha (not

entirely before initial

up* esatu
as

etc.

da9oni,

(not quotable), odana, as adharostha or adharaustha, tilotilaudana; and even in sentence-combination, as iv.' etayas,
a9vin* eva, yath* ocie (all RV.), tv' eman and tv' odman B. and

rare),

otu

dana

or

om

or omkara.
always with the exclamation
c.
The form uh from }/vah sometimes makes the heavier or vrddhi
(235) diphthongal combination with a preceding a- vowel thus, praudhi,
:

aksauhinl (from pra

udhi,

etc.).

138. Certain final vowels, moreover, are uncombinable

(pragrhya), or maintain themselves unchanged before any

following vowel.

Thus,

I, u, and e as dual endings, both of declenand of conjugational forms. Thus, bandhu asate imau; girl
arohatam.
b. The pronoun aim (nom. pi. 501); and the Vedic pronominal forms asme, yusme, tve (492 a).
A final o made by combination of a final a-vowel with the parc.

a.

The vowels

sional

ticle

u
d.
e.
f.

g.

mo, no.
Vedic locative case from an i-stem (336f).
A protracted final vowel (78).
The final, or only, vowel of an interjection, as aho, he, a,

(1122b):

The

thus, a dual I
after o, as

thus, atho,

final I of a

older language shows

combined with a following

atho

i,

u.

exceptions to these rules :

as nrpati Va; an a elided

occasional
i,

'si; a locative I turned into a semivowel, as

vedy asyaxn.

[141

PERMITTED FINALS.

49

Permitted Finals.

The sounds allowed

189.

to occur as finals in Sanskrit

words standing by themselves (not in euphonic combination

with something following) are closely limited, and those

which would etymologically come

occupy such a position

are often variously altered, in general accordance with their
treatment in other circumstances, or are sometimes omitted
altogether.
The
a.
{

variety

of

to

consonants that would ever come at the end of

either an inflected form or a derivative

stem in the language is very small

in forms, only t (or d), n, m, s;in derivative stems, only t, d,
n, r, a (and, in a few rare words, j). But almost all consonants occur as
:

namely,

finals of roots; and every root is liable to be found, alone or as last

ber of a compound, in the character of a declined stem.

mem-

140. All the vowel sounds, both simple and diphthongal,

be sounded at the end of a word.

may

But neither r nor

a.

neuter sing, of a stem in

j*

ever actually occurs; and r is rare (only as

ar, or as final of such a stem in compo-

or

sition).

Thus, indra, Qivaya, akari, nadl, datu, camu, janayitr, agne,

agnau.

(jivayai, vayo,

Of

141.

the non-nasal mutes,

the non-aspirate surd,

series,

aspirate,

and both sonants

is

only the

allowed

first

in each

the others

surd

whenever they would etymo-

logically occur, are converted into this.

Thus, agnimat for agnixnath, suhrt for suhrd, virut for virudh,
tris^up

for

a.

loses

tristubh.

In a few

its

roots,

aspiration,

when

their final (sonant aspirate) thus

the original sonant

aspiration of the

reappears: compare <g h, below, 147.

Thus, dagh becomes dhak, budh becomes bhut, and so

initial

on.

The

roots exhibiting this

b.

There was some question among the Hindu grammarians as to

final mute is to be estimated as of surd or of sonant quality;

change are stated below,

155.

whether the

but the great weight of authority, and the invariable practice of the manuscripts, favor the surd.

Whitney, Grammar.

2. ed.

142}

EUPHONIC COMBINATION.

III.

The

142.

50

however, form here

palatals,

often else-

(as

No

where) an exception to the rules for the other mutes.

palatal

ginal

allowed as

is

The

final.

k: thus, ^TR vSk,

Sfj

(only quotable in the root

The

5TRT pra$.

sj^

becomes

t,

convertible to

common,

ppRf bhi^ak,
is

the nasals, the

31

The

virat.

fsTfTE

tK

jh

m and
m and H

*T

JT^

s are of all final

(*T

the

Hf

are extremely

allowed, but

is

is

found (remaining after the loss of a folin a very small number of words (386 b,c,

quite rare; "g

fi

com-

by the native grammarians declared

consonants the most frequent)

lowing

original guttural or

$.

especially the former

407 a)

its

ch

$: thus.

in accordance with its treatment in other

does not occur, but

Of

H$

"

The

prach) becomes

either reverts to

binations (219): thus,

143.

^c
^IH^ anhomiik.

reverts (43) to its ori-

k)

is

n never

occurs.

final m of a root is changed to n (compare 212 a,

akran from kram, agan, ajagan, aganigan from gam,
anan from nam, ayan from yam, praQan from 9am no other cases

But the

a.

below): thus,

are quotable.

Of

144.
final,

and

y and
145.

very rare.

it is

correspondent,
2T^

Sf

Of

s: 145)

v there

is

The

The

changed

q^

a breathing, the visarga.

nearest surd

k, or, in
its

wise changed to

some

changes

$:

The change of a

Of

(which of

The

roots, is

in

thus,

stand unaltered at the

may

is,

final

all

like

^ r,

consonants

changed

to

9 either reverts (43) to its

changed to ^ \ (in accorand derivation: see

inflection

below, 218): thus, fefi

^ "^ dik, but

a.

is (like its

alone

as final to visarga.

would otherwise be the commonest)

dance with

an admitted

no occurrence.

the sibilants, none

end of a word.

original

is

the semivowels, the FT

jifj

^R?^

to t is of rare

The

vit.

*T

s' is like-

-S

-s

pravrJ.

occurrence

see below,

226 d.

Final radical 8

b.

said

is

by the grammarians

but no sure example of the conversion

is

quotable:

be changed to t;

to

168; and com-

see

555 a.

pare

The compound

146.
as

[150

PERMITTED FINALS.

51

Ef

simple

the case

prescribed to be treated

is

k by

150, below). But

becoming Sfi
one, and its actual treatment in the older

(not

a rare

is

^[

language irregular.
In the only RV. cases where the ks has a quasi-radical character
a.
the connamely anak from anaks, and amyak from j/myaks
is to k.
Also, of forms of the s-aorist (see 890), we have adhak,
asrak, araik, etc. (for adhaka-t etc.) but also apra^, aya$, ava$, aara$
And RV. has twice ayaa from >/yaj, and AV. twice
(for apraks-t etc.).
sras from |/ayj (wrongly referred by BR. to ^'arana), both 2d sing., where
the personal ending has perhaps crowded out the root-final and tense-sign.

Tersion

The numeral sas

b.

with

ks

its

The

147.
itself,

six

perhaps better to be regarded as saks,

is

treated as s, according to the accepted rule.

but

aspiration

and

51

(like

sT

is

not allowed to maintain

9) either reverts to

guttural form, appearing as 31 k, or

both in accordance with

its

is

changed

its

original

to t

treatment in inflection

see be-

And, also as in inflection, the original sonant

aspiration of a few roots (given at 155b) reappears when their
final thus becomes deaspirated.
Where the ^ h is from

low, 222.

original

^ dh.

148.
ical finals

the former

s or

final

is

t.

nowhere etymologonly the substitute for an original

are

the latter occurs as final only so far as

H^
a substitute for

it is

becomes

it

[223 e),

The visarga and anusvara

^m

(213 h).

149. Apart from the vowels, then, the usual

nearly in the order of their frequency, are
SR

cT t,

k, ^ p,

t;

those

n,

is

allowed to stand at the end of a word;

HI

fc,

m,

finals,

^ n,

of only sporadic occurrence are

T 1,

n; and, by substitution,

m.

150. In general, only one consonant, of whatever kind,

if

two or more

would etymologically occur there, the last is dropped, and

again the last, and so on, till only one remains.
4*

150]

52

EUPHONIC COMBINATION.

III.

a. Thus, tudants becomes tudant, and this tudan; udanc-s

becomes udaflk (142), and this udan; and achantst (a-aor., 3d sing.,
of /chand [890 b]) is in like manner reduced to achan.
b. But a non-nasal mute, if radical and not suffixal, is retained
after r thus, tbk from urj,(vark from j/vyj, avart from j/v?t, amSr$
from i/mrj, suhart from suhard. The case is not a common one.
:

For relics of former double finals, preserved by the later language

c.
under the disguise of apparent euphonic combinations, see below, 207 ff.

Anomalous conversions of a
met with. Examples are:

151.

final

mute

to

one of another

class

are occasionally

a*

Of

final t

k:

to

1.

thus,

in a few words that have assumed a

jyok, tftjak (beside tajat), fdhak (beside

rdhat), prthak, drak; and of kindred character is khadagdant (TA.);
2. in here and there a verbal form, as savisak (AV. and VS. Kan.),
special value as particles, as

aharat);
(Apast), aviayak (Parask.), fihalak (VS. MS. ;
in root-finals or the t added to root-stems (383 e), as -dhr-k for -dhrt

dambhiaak
3.

(Sutras and later) at the end of compounds, susruk (TB.), prksu (SV.) ;
4. we may further note here the anomalous enkava (AB. ; for intsva,

and

yidh) and avaksam (AB.), and the feminines

in ta

(1176
b.

Of

in

knT from masculines

d).

final

or

t to

a lingual:

thus,

pad

in Vedic

pacjgfbhi, pa<Jbl9a; upanaflbhyam ft!B.); vy avS$ (MS.

yVaa shine), and perhaps apa 'ra$ (MS. ; or yraj ?).
c.

Of

vi9vaaft (TS.

or j

to t,

K.), and

in an isolated example or two, as

prayatau (VS.

d. In Taittiriya texts,

anustuk

guttural: as,
e.

Of a

TS.;

of the final of

ca, tristugbhis,

labial to a dental:

in

padbhfs,
iii.

4.

9;

samyat, asrt,

AV. -kau).

anustiibh and tristubh

to a

anustugbhyas.

kakud

for

and beside

kakubh;

in

(TS.) from va?P; and in adbhfa, adbhyas, from ap or

Excepting the first, these look like cases of dissimilation; yet

samsfdbhis

(393).
examples of the combination bbh are not very rare in the older language:
thus, kakubbhyam, tristubbhis, kakubbhanda, anustub bhi.
ftp

f.

The forms pratidhusas, -aa

(Taittiriya

texts)

from pratiduh

are isolated anomalies.

152.

that

is to

For

all

the processes of external combination

say, in composition

a stem-final or word-final
having, not

its

is

and sentence-collocation

in general to be regarded as

etymological form, but that given

rules as to permitted finals.

From

this,

it

by the

however, are to be

excepted the s and r: the various transformations of these

sounds have nothing to do with the visarga to which as

DE ASPIRATION.

53

[155

before a pause they have

finals

doubtless

Words

will be stated as for the

and the

be

to

work be written

will everywhere in this

with final s or r instead of

a com-

come

paratively recent period of phonetic history

reduced.

at

rules of combination

two more original sounds, and not

for the visarga.

Deaspiration.

An

153.

aspirate

mute

before another non-nasal

mute

is

changed

a non-aspirate

to

or before a sibilant

it

stands

unaltered only before a vowel or semivowel or nasal.

Such a case can only arise in internal combination, since the
a.
processes of external combination presuppose the reduction of the aspirate
to a non-aspirate surd (152).
b.
the rules as to changes of aspirates concern
Practically,
also,
almost only the sonant aspirates, since the surd, being of later development
and rarer occurrence, are hardly ever found in situations that call for their
application.

154. Hence,

if

such a mute

doubled by prefixing

is

to

own corresponding

its

But in the manuscripts, both Vedic and

not seldom found written double
especially, if
a.

is

rence: for example (RV.),

dh,

thus loses
or

or

H bh;

also

its aspiration,

^b)

That

it

is

non-aspirate.
an aspirate mute

later,
it

be one of rare occur-

akhkhali, jajhjhati.

when

155. In a few roots,

gh,

be doubled,

becomes

a final sonant aspirate

h, as representing an original

the initial sonant consonant

(51

gh)

(IT

aspirate.

the original initial aspirate of such roots is restored, when its presence does not interfere with the euphonic law, of comparatively recent origin, which (in Sanskrit as in Greek) forbids a root to
both begin and end with an aspirate.
a.

b.

also

The

is to say,

roots which

in

gh

dagh

in

original

grah
in
in

(for

show

this peculiar

change are:

gh)

dah, dih, duh, druh, dyrih, guh; and

(in the later desiderative jighr>k$a);

dh
bh

bandh, badh, budh;

dabh

(but only in the later desiderative dhipsa, for which

the older language has dipaa).

155]

III.

EUPHONIC COMBINATION.

54

The same change appears when the law as to finals causes the
end of the root: see above, 141.

C.

loss of the aspiration at the

But from dah, dub, druh,

d.

also forms without the restored

duduksa
e.

etc.;

and

guh

initial aspirate:

are

thus,

found in the Veda

daksat; aduksat
;

juguksa; mitradruk.

The same analogy

is followed by dadh, the abbreviated substidadha, from j/dha (667), in some of the forms of
dhatthas from dadh+thas, adhatta from adadh-f-

tute of the present-stem

conjugation: thus,
ta,

adhaddhvam
No

from

adadh + cthvam,

etc.

met with of the throwing back of an

combination with the 2d sing. impv. act. ending dhi:
f.

daddhi

case is

upon
dugdhi,

aspiration
thus,

dhugdhvam, dhaddhvam.

(RV.), but

Surd and Sonant Assimilation.

156.

Under

this head, there is especially

one very mark-

ed and important difference between the internal combinations of a root or stem with suffixes and endings, and
the external combinations of stem with stem in composition

and of word with word in sentence-making: namely

157.
a. In internal combination, the initial vowel or
semivowel or nasal of an ending of inflection or derivation
exercises no altering influence upon a final consonant of the
root or stem to
b.
vatives

To

c.

initial

1 1 1

d;

added.

it is

this rule there are

noted at

(957 d); and

which

final

some exceptions:

thus, some of the deriof a root before the participial suffix na

the forms noted below,

In external

161 b.

combination,

sonant of whatever

class,

on the other hand, an

even a vowel or semivowel

or nasal, requires the conversion of a final surd to sonant.

d. It has been pointed out above (152) that in the rules of external
combination only admitted finals, along with a and r, need be taken
account of, all others being regarded as reduced to these before combining
with initials.

158. Final vowels,

to

nasals,

and

are

nowhere

liable

change in the processes of surd and sonant assimilation.

a. The r, however, has a
corresponding surd in B, to which it is

sometimes changed

in external combination,

favor a surd utterance (178).

under circumstances that

[161

ASSIMILATION.

55

With

159.

exceptions above

the

the

stated,

of surd and sonant sounds

is

and, regularly and

by assimilating the

following

in

Thus,
4- si etc.)

internal

avoided in combinations

by regressive

assimilation.

9agdhvam (j/qak + dhi etc.)

abhud ayam, jyog jiva, sad aQitayah,

dig-gaja, sad-aha,

arcad-dhuma, brhad-bhanu,

?T t

or

51

external

tristub api,

ab-ja.

th of an ending, the assimilation

the other direction, or progressive

sonant, and the aspiration of the

is

in

however, a final sonant aspirate of a root

If,

followed by

above)

final to the

combination: atsi, atti, atthas, atta (>/ad

9agdhi,

combination,

160.

or

initial,

usually,

collision

the combination

final (lost

is

is

is

in

made

according to 153,

transferred to the initial of the ending.

Thus, gh with t or th becomes gdh ; dh with the same becomes

ddh, as buddhi (j/budh -f ta), runddhas (j/rundh -j- thas or tas);
bh with the same becomes bdh, as labdha (j/labh -f- ta), labdhva
(>/labh
a.

+ tva).
Moreover,

h, as representing original gh,

is

treated in the

same manner: thus, dugdha, dogdhum from duh

rudha and lidha from ruh and lib, etc., 222 b.
b.

In

this

combination,

as

and compare

the sonant aspiration is not lost hut

(155) does not take place.

transferred, the restoration of the initial aspiration

dadh from |/dha (155e), the more normal method is

dh is made surd, and the initial aspirated thus, dhatthaa,
dhattas. And RV. has dhaktam instead of dagdham from ]/dagh;
and TA. has inttam instead of inddham from j/idh.
In

c.

followed

the

161. Before a nasal in external

mute may be simply made sonant, or

combination, a final

may be still further assimilated, being changed to the nasal of its own class.
Thus, either tad namas or tan namas, vag me or van me,
bid xnahan
a.

ban mahan,

or

tristub

nunam

In practice, the conversion into a nasal

it

or tris^um
is

nunam.

almost invariably made

in the manuscripts, as, indeed, it is by the Pratic.akhyas required and not

permitted merely. Even by the general grammarians it is required in the

compound sannavati, and before matra, and the

thus,

suffix

maya

(1225):

vanmaya, mrnmaya.
b.

Even

same assimilation is made in

111 d, and In the na-participles (057 d).
are met with even in verb-inflection: thus,

in internal combination, the

some

of the derivatives noted at

And

a few sporadic instances

101]

III.

EUPHONIC COMBINATION.

56

stinnoti, stinnuyat (MS. for stighn-), mrnnita (LS. for mydn-),

janmayana (KS. for jagm-); these, however (like the double aspirates,
154 a), are doubtless to be rejected as false readings.
162. Before 1, a final t is not merely made sonant, but fully
;

becoming

assimilated,

168. Before

1: thus, tal

mute

bination), a final

labhate, ulluptam.

(the case occurs only in external

is

made sonant; and then

com-

the <g

remain unchanged or be converted into the

may
sonant aspirate corresponding with the former: thus, either
either

cji^

tad hi or ftfe tad dhi.

In practice, the latter method is almost invariably followed; and

a.
the grammarians of the Pratifakhya period are nearly unanimous in requirThe phonetic difference between the two is very slight.
ing It.

Examples are vag ghutah, saddhota feat

anustub bin.
:

(tat

hota), taddhita

-f-

+ hita),

Combinations

of final

^8

The euphonic changes of

164.

considered together,

because

as corresponding surd

becomes

?T

of the

the two sounds, in composition

and sonant

and
s

r.

and

^~

practical

r are best
relation

of

and sentence-collocation,
:

in a host of cases

^s

r in situations requiring or favoring the occur-

rence of a sonant

where a surd

is

and,

much

r
less often,
^~

becomes

H^

required.

In internal combination, the two are far less exchangeable

with one another and this class of cases may best be taken up first.
a.

165. Final r radical or quasi-radical (that is, not belonging to

an ending of derivation) remains unchanged before both surd and sonant
sounds, and even before su in declension: thus, piparai, caturtha,
catursu, pursu.

166. Final radical 8 remains before a surd in general, and usually before s, as in c,assi, qassva, asse, 09188.11 (the last is also
written a^ihsu: 172): but it is lost in asi (j/as
si: 636). Before
a sonant (that is, bh) in declension, it is treated as in external com-

bination

thus, a<jirbhis. Before a sonant (that is, dh) in conjugation,

appears to be dropped, at least after long a: thus, <?adhi, c^adlii,
cakfidhi (the only quotable cases); in edhf (Vas-f-dhi: 636) the
root syllable is irregularly altered; but in 2d perss. pi., made with
:

it

dhvam,

as

adhvam, <jadhvam, aradhvam (881

a),

vadhvam

(|/va

FINAL a AND

57
clothe),

it

is,

[169

r.

on account of the equivalence and interchangeably of

(232), impossible to say whether the a is omitted or

dhv and ddhv

converted into d.
a.

treats

Final radical a

is

aghaa from y/ghas

RV.

very rare;

(twice,

both 2d pers.

sing.)

in the same manner as any ordinary word end-

ing in as.

b. For certain cases of irregular loss of the a of a root or tense-

233 b

stem, see

e.

167. In a very few cases, final radical a before a is changed to

by dissimilation) they are, from j/vaa dwell (also sporadically from vaa shine, QB., and vaa clothe, Har.), the future vatayami
t (perhaps

and

avataam; from

aorist
a.

]/ghas, the desiderative stem jfghataa.

For t as apparent ending of the 3d sing, in s-verbs, see

168. According

to

555

a.

the final a of certain other

the

grammarians,
used as noun-stems, becomes t at the end of the word, and before
and su: thus, dhvat, dhvadbhia, aradbhyaa, aratau. But genuine

roots,

bh

examples of such change are not quotable.

a. Sporadic cases of a like conversion are

found in the Veda

madbhis and madbhyas from mas; usadbhis

bhyaa from avatavaa; svavadbhis etc. (not

namely,
from uaaa; svatavadquotable) from avavaa.

But the actuality of the conversion here

to grave

seems the substitution of a t-stem

is

open

change of vans to vat in the declension

The stem ana^Lvah (404), from anaa-vah,
b.

In

the

compounds

169.

As

the

final

first

is

it

rather

true of the

of perfect participles
is

(458).
anomalous and isolated.

ducchuna (dua-guna)

(parua-qepa), the final a of the

doubt;

The same

for a s-stem.

member

is

and

parucchepa

treated as if a t (203).

consonant of derivative stems and of inflected

forms, both of declension and of conjugation, a is extremely frequent;

and its changes form a subject of first-rate importance in Sanskrit
euphony. The r, on the other hand, is quite rare.
a.

The r

found as original

is

final in certain

case-forms of stems in

and ur from

roots in f (383 b) ;
svar, ahar and udhar (beside
ahan and adhan: 430), dvar or dur, and the Vedic vadhar, usar-,
vaaar-, vanar-, grutar-, sapar-, sabar-, athar- (cf. 176c); in a
few particles, as antar, pratar, punar; and in the numeral catur

or

ar (369

in a small

(482

ff.)

number

in root-stems in ir
of other

stems,

as

g).

b. The euphonic treatment of a and r yielding precisely the same

a and a, there are certain forms with regard

result after all vowels except

to

which

it is

uncertain whether they end in 8 or r, and opinions differ

Such are ur (or ua) of the gen.-abl. sing, of r-stems

respecting them.

(371

c),

and ua (or ur) of tbe 3d plur. of verbs (550 c).

170]

EUPHONIC COMBINATION.

III-

170.

The H

a.

s,

58

as already noticed

(145),

becomes

visarga before a pause.

b. It

or

?T t

51^

unchanged only when followed by

retained

is

th, the

surd mutes of

its

own

class.

Before the palatal and lingual surd mutes

c.

and ^" ch,

and

T.

it is

fh

assimilated, becoming the

namely S^ 9 or
d. Before the guttural and labial surd mutes
it is also theoretically
and IJ^kh,
P and Cfi ph
sibilant of either class respectively,

9.
efi

assimil-

becoming respectively the jihvSmuliya and upadhma-

ated,

nlya spirants

but in

(69);

unknown, and the conversion

Examples are

these

practice
is

breathings are

to visarga.

caksus te ; to c. tata$ ca, tanalah kamam, purusah khanati;

to b. tatas te,

sy&9 chaya; padas talati; to d.

ya9ah prapa, vrksah phalavan.
171. The first three of these

rules are almost universal; to the

one there are numerous exceptions, the sibilant being retained (or,
by 180, converted into B), especially in compounds; but also, in the
Veda, even in sentence combination.
last

a.

In the Veda,

the retention of the sibilant in compounds is the

are detailed in the Vedic grammars.

general rule, the exceptions to which

b. In the later language, the retention is mainly determined by the

intimacy or the antiquity and frequency of the combination.
Thus, the
final sibilant of a preposition or a word filling the office of a preposition
before a verbal root is
derivative

wont

of j/kr, before

to be preserved; and that of a stem before a

pati, before kalpa and kama, and so on.

Examples are namaskara, vacaspati, ayuskama, payaskalpa.

C.

ed in
final

The Vedic retention of the

full in

of a

the

preposition

before a governing
tive before

Pratic.akhyas.
or its

noun

classes

of cases are:

dyau

is

either assimilated,

the

divas

verbal form; 2. of a genitive

putrah, Idas pade ; 3.' of an abla-

as

as

1.

like before a

himavatas pari; 4. of other less classifiable

trf? putva, yas patih, paridhfs patsti, etc.

pari:
pita,

as

sibilant in sentence-collocation is detail-

The chief

172. Before an initial sibilant

5^9,

becoming the same

cases:

^9, H^s
sibilant,

H^s
or

it is

changed into visarga.

APr.

a.

The

ii.

40, note) as to which of these changes

native

grammarians are in

some measure

at

variance

(see

should be made, and in

COMBINATIONS OF FINAL

59
part they allow

the

conversion

of the

is also

manuscripts

the

is

prevalent practice, though

written, especially in South-

European editors generally write visarga; but the

and

later dictionaries

visarga

to

not infrequently found

also

sibilant is

Indian manuscripts.

word the same

The usage

either at pleasure.

the

discordant;

[175

s.

make

generally

glossaries

as if the sibilant

manuh svayam

Examples are:

the

alphabetic place

of a

were read instead.

or

maims svayam; indrah

9\irah or in drag $urah; tah sat or tas sat.

173. There are one or two exceptions to these rules:

mute

a. If the initial sibilant has a surd

and by some authorities

dropped altogether

after
is

it,

the final 8

required

to

may be

be so drop-

vayava stha or vayavah. stha; catustanam or catuhWith regard to this point the usage of the different manuscripts

Thus,

ped.

stanam.

and editions

is greatly

at variance.

b. Before ts, the s

is

allowed to become visarga, instead of being

retained.

either vowel

174. Before a sonant,

cept ^~ r: see 179),
it

unless, indeed,

^s

is

changed

be preceded by

or consonant (ex-

to the sonant

a or

^"

TT a.

Examples are devapatir iva, $rir iva ; manur gacchati, tanur

apsu; svasrr ajanayat; tayor adrstakamah sarvair gunaih; agner
:

manve.
duda9a, dunacja, see below, 199d.
The exclamation bhos (456) loses its s before vowels and sonant

a. For a few cases like

b.

bho naisadha

consonants: thus,

(and the 8

is

sometimes found omitted

also before surds).

c.

The endings TO

as and ^TTF as (both of which are ex-

tremely common) follow rules of their own, namely:

175.

a.

before short

Final
51 a,

is

TO

any sonant consonant and

and the 5f a after
5TT o

as, before

changed

to

it is lost.

b. The resulting accentuation, and the fact that the loss of a is

only occasional in the older language of the Veda, have been pointed out

135 a, c.
Examples are: nalo nama, brahmanyo vedavit; manobhava;
hantavyo 'ami; anyonya (anyas
anya), yaqorthaxn (yaqas-f
artham).
before any other vowel than % a loses
c. Final
above,

its

s,

TO^as
becoming simple

sioned remains.

a;

and the hiatus thus occa-

in. EUPHONIC COMBINATION.

175]
d. That

the

is to say,

o from as

132

ed in the same situation: see

Examples are

is treated as

60
an original e

is treat-

3.

brhada<jva uvaca, aditya iva, namaiikti, vasya-

176. Exceptions to the rules as to

final

as are:

The nominative masculine pronouns sas and esas and (Vedic)

syas (405 a, 499 a, b) lose their s before any consonant: thus, sa
dadarca he saw, esa purusah this man; but so 'bravit he said, purusa
a.

esah.
b. Instances are met with, both in the earlier and in the later language, of effacement of the hiatus after alteration of as, by combination
of the remaining final a with the following initial vowel: thus, tato

'vaca (tatas
uvaca), payosm (payas^-j- usm), adhasana (adhas-fasana): compare 133c, 177b. In the Veda, such a combination is
sometimes shown by the metre to be required, though the written text
has the hiatus. But sa in RY. is in the great majority of cases combined
e. g., se 'd for sa id, sa 'smai for sa asmai,
sa osadhlh; and similar examples are found also in

with the following vowel

'sadhih

saii

for

the other Vedic texts.

c.

Other sporadic irregularities iu the treatment of

as

final

occur.

Thus, it is changed to ar instead of o once in RV. in avas, once in

SV. in avas (RV. avo), once in MS. in dambhifas; in bhuvas (second
of the trio of sacred utterances

viz.

bhus, bhuvas, svar), except in its

Brahmana passage (TS.

occurrences; in a series of words in a

liest

ear-

K.),

jinvar, ugrar, bhimar, tvesar, grutar, bhutar, and (K.only)

in janar and mahar ; and some of the ar-s terns noted at 160 a

putar;

On the other hand, as

RV. before a surd consonant; and sas

are perhaps of kindred character.

changed

to

in

is several

twice,

times

and yas

once, retains its final sibilant in a like position.

d. In MS., the final

left

before hiatus by alteration of either

as

(o) or e (133) is made long if itself unaccented and if the following initial vowel is accented
thus, sura eti (from suras
eti), nirupyata
mdraya (from -yate+ind-), and also karya eka- (from karyas, because

virtually

karias); but aditya fndrah (from adityas-j-fndrah), eta {tare

(from ete+ftare).

177. Final

consonant,

^TTT^as

.loses

its

before any sonant, whether vowel or

s,

becoming simple

5TT

and a

hiatus thus occasioned remains.

a. The maintenance of the hiatus in these cases, as in that of o and
e and ai (above. 133 4), seems to indicate a recent loss of the intermediate sound. Opinions are divided as to what this should have been.

Some

of the native grammarians assimilate the

case

of as to that of ai,

COMBINATIONS OP FINAL

61

assuming the conversion

to

ay

[180

r.

but probably only as a

in both alike

matter of formal convenience in rule-making.

Here, too (as in the similar cases of e and ai and o:

b.

133c,

there are examples to be found, both earlier and later, of efface-

176b),

raent of the hiatus.

178. Final
*T

r, in

same form which

general, shows the

would show under the same conditions.

Thus, it becomes visarga when final, and a sibilant or visarga

before an initial surd mute or sibilant (170): thus, rudati punah,
dvas tat, sva9 ca, catuQcatvarinqat ; and (1 lie, d) pratastana, ana.

tastya, catustaya, dhustva; pratah karoti, antahpata.

b. But original final r preceded by a or a maintains itself unchanged before a sonant: thus, punar eti, pratarjit, akar jyotih,
ahar damna, vardhi.
c. The r is preserved unchanged even before a surd in a number of
Vedic compounds: thus, aharpati; svarcanas, svarcaksas, svarpati,
svar sa, svar sati ; dhur sad, dhursah ; purpati, varkary a, a9irpada,
punartta; and in some of these the r is optionally retained in the later

The RV.

language.

also

has

avar tamah once

in sentence-combination.

On

the other hand, final ar of the verb-form

And r is
before a sonant in several cases in RV.

or

two cases in the same text: thus, aksa induh,

d.

avar
lost,

is

changed to

like B, in one

aha eva.

179.
double r is nowhere admitted if such would occur, either
of an original r or by conversion of s to r, one r is
retention
by
omitted, and the preceding vowel, if short, is made long by compen:

sation.

rajati, matii

puna ramate, nrpati

Thus,

rihan, jyotiratha,

durohana.
some Vedic

a. In

texts, however, there are instances of

before initial r: thus,

Conversion of

The

ar changed

to

svo rohava.

H^s

to 3T 9.

is changed to the lingual

H^s
ET 9, if immediately preceded by any vowel save 5f a and
be final, or folunless the
5Tf 5, or by 5R k or ^ r
H^s
lowed by ^~ r.

180.

a.

The assimilating

semivowel
be due

dental sibilant

is

to a

influence

somewhat

lingual vowels and

and the other vowels appears to

of the preceding

obvious enough; that of

retracted position of the tongue in the

mouth during

180]

III.

EUPHONIC COMBINATION.

their utterance, causing its tip to reach the roof

at a point further

62
mouth more

of the

easily

back than the dental one.

b. The general Hindu grammar prescribes the same change after a 1

but the Pratic,akhyas give no such rule, and phonetic considerations,
Actual cases of the
the 1 being a dental sound, are absolutely against it.
also;

combination do not occur in the older language, nor have any been pointed out in the

later.

The vowels

c.

that cause the alteration of s to B

may be

called

for brevity's sake "alterant" vowels.

181. Hence, in the interior of a Sanskrit word, the dental s

not usually found after any vowel save a and
the lingual s. But

a, but,

instead of

is
it,

a. A following r prevents the conversion: thus, uara, tisras,

tamisra. And it is but seldom made in the forms and derivatives of
a root containing an r-element (whether r or y), whatever the position
of that element thus, sisarti, sisrtam, sarlsypa, tistire, parisrut.
To this rule there are a few exceptions, as vis0r, vistara, niatrta,
vispardhas, gavisthira, etc. In ajusran the final s of a root is pre:

served even immediately before

r.

This dissimilating influence of a following r,

b.

the invariable assimilating influence of a preceding r,

as

is

compared with

peculiar and prob-

lematical.
c. The recurrence of s in successive syllables is sometimes avoided
by leaving the former s unchanged: thus, sisaksi, but siaakti; yasisisthas, but yasislmahi. Similarly, in certain desiderative formations: see

184e.

below,

d. Other cases are sporadic: RV. has the forms sisice and sisicus
(but sisicatus), and the stems rblsa, kiata, bisa, busa, brsaya ; a
single root pis, with its derivative pesuka, is found once in
B.; MS.

has

mrsmrsa; musala

grow more numerous;

for

begins to be found in AV.; and such cases

and the roots nine and hins, see below,

pums

183 a.
182. On the other hand

(as

occurrence of a in Sanskrit words

was pointed out above,

62),

the

nearly limited to cases falling

under this rule others are rather sporadic anomalies
except where
s is the product of 9 or ks before a dental, as in drastum, caste,
tvastar: see 218, 221. Thus, we find
is

a.

and

is

Four

roots,

kas, las, bhas, bhas, of which the

last

is

common

found as early as the Brahmanas.

b. Further, in RV., asa, kavasa, casala, casa, jalasa, pasya,

baskaya, vasat (for vaksat?), kastha; and, by anomalous alteration
of original s, -sah
(turasah etc.), asadha, upastut, and probably
apastha and asthlvant. Such cases grow more common later.
c.

The numeral sas,

as already noted

(146

b),

is

more probably saks.

CONVERSION OF

63

TO

[185

a.

183. The nasalization of the alterant vowel

or, in other words,
does not prevent its altering effect
being followed by anuavara
upon the sibilant: thus, havmsi, parunsi. And the alteration takes
place in the initial s of an ending after the final s of a stem, whether
the latter be regarded as also changed to a or as converted into viits

sarga: thus, haviaau or havihau, paruaau or paruhau.

a.

But the s of

pums

because of

its

(394)

sense of

account of the retained

its

remains
value as

nnchanged,

pums;

apparently

on

that of yliins,

also

value as bins (hinasti etc.); j/nina (RV. only)

more

is

questionable.

184. The principal cases of alteration of s in internal combination are these:

a.

au;

si,

In endings, inflectional or derivative, beginning with a

thus,
ava; a of sibilant-aorist, future, and desiderative suffixes

se,

after a final alterant vowel or consonant of root

ana, ami, aya, etc.
or stem, or a union-vowel thus, juhosi, 9686, anaiaam, bhavisyami,
:

QUQruse, desna, jisnu, viksu, akarsam.

b. The final a of a stem before an ending or

ha visas,

etc.,

suffix

thus, haviaa.

fromhavia; Qaksusmant, ^ociska, manusa, manuaya,

jyotiatva.
having a final sibilant (except 9) after an alterant vowel
with the exception of fictitious ones and pia, nins, bins
regarded as ending in s, not a; and concerning the treatment of this a, in comC. Roots

are

bination, see below,

d.

The

225

initial a

6.

of a root after a reduplication: thus,

aiayade,

auavapa, aiaaaati, coakuyate, aaniavanat.

Excepted is in general an initial radical a in a desiderative stem,
the desiderative-sign becomes s: thus, aiairaati from j/ay, aiaank-

e.

when

And

aati from ysanj.

from ytraa), etc.

are other scattering

there

185. But the same change occurs

also,

cases,

on a considerable

in external combination, especially in composition.

a.

Both

in verbal forms

and

tresus

as

Thus

(perf.

scale,

in derivatives, the final i or

of a

preposition or other like prefix ordinarily lingualizes the initial a of

the root to which it is prefixed; since such combinations are both of
great frequency and of peculiar intimacy, analogous with those of root
or stem and affix: thus, abhisac, pratiatha,
svadham, auaeka; the cases are numberless.
b. The
already laid

principal

down

exceptions

with

the

principles

But there are also others,

would take place.
and the complete account of the treatment
a prefix would be a matter of great detail, and

more irregular character

of initial radical

accordance

namely, when the root contains an r-elemeut. and when

a recurrence of the sibilant

of a

are in

nisikta, visita; anu-

a after

not worth giving here.

El. EUPHONIC COMBINATION.

1863

Not infrequently,

C.

the

initial

8,

usually altered

64
after

a certain

even after an interposed a of augment

altered sibilant
prefix, retains the

or reduplication: thus, aty as^hat, abhy astham, pary asasvajat, vy

asahanta, ny asadama, nir asthapayan, abhy asincan, vy astabhnftt; vi tagthe, vi tasfhire.
d. Much more anomalous is the occasional alteration of initial radiSuch cases are ava stambh (against
cal 8 after an a-element of a prefix.

ni

stambh and prati stambh) and

(according to the grammarians)

ava

svan.
186. In other compounds, the

final

alterant vowel of the first

member not

infrequently (especially in the Veda) lingualizes the ini8 of the second: for example, yudhi$thira, pitysvasr, gostha,

tial

agnis^oma, anus^ubh, trisamdbi, divisad, paramesthm, abbisena,

pitps&d, purus.tuta.

a.

very few cases occur of the same alteration after an a-element

sas^ubh,
ysah, when its

thus,

avaatambha, savyas^ha,
final,

apas^ha,

by 147, becomes \: thus,

upastut;

also

satrasa$ (but satra-

saham).
187. The final 8 of the first member of a compound often bes after an alterant vowel thus, the s of a prepositional prefix,

comes

as nisBidhvan, dustara (for dusstara), aviskrta; and, regularly, a

s retained instead of being converted to visarga before a labial or
guttural

mute (17 la), as havispa, jyotiskrt; tapuspa.

188. Once more, in the Veda, the same alteration, both of an initial
and of a final 8, is not infrequent even between the words composing a
sentence. The cases are detailed in the Pratifikhya belonging to each text,
Thus:

and are of very various character.

a.

The

of particles: as

initial s, especially

also of

svit;

pronouns: as hi

8,

ah;

su, bi

sma,

kam u

of verb-forms, especially

from

hi stha, divi stha;

and in other scattering cases: as u stuhi,
s'fhirani, tri sadhastha, adhi snoh, nakih sah, yajuh skannam,

I/as: as

nu

agnih stave.
b.

final 8, oftenest before

pronouns (especially toneless ones): as

but also in
agnis tva, nis te, lyiis te, ^ucis tvam, sadbis tava;
other cases, and wherever a final s is preserved, instead of being turned
into visarga, before a guttural or labial (171): as trie putva, ay us
krnotu, vastos patih, dyaus pita, vibhis patat.

Conversion of
189.

The

R^n

to

m^-

followed
^n, when immediately
inis
turned
m
or
or Tf y
^ v,
IT

dental nasal

by a vowel or by ^ n or
to the lingual
if
Hl^n

preceded in the same word by the

CONVERSION OP n TO

65

[191

n.

lingual sibilant or semivowel or vowels

by

9,

IJ"

or f? y or

r,

and

that

this,

indeed,

there intervene (a

the tongue

not only

if

the

the nasal, but at

altering letter stands immediately before

whatever distance from the

is to say,

may be found: unless,

consonant moving the front of
latter it

namely) a palatal (except

IT y),

a lingual, or a

dental.
a.

We may

thus

to

figure

ourselves

the rationale of the process

in the marked proclivity of the language toward lingual utterance, especially

of the nasal, the tip of the tongue, when once reverted into the loose lingual position by the utterance of a non-contact lingual element, tends to
hang there and make its next nasal contact in that position; and does so,
unless the proclivity is satisfied by the utterance of a lingual mute, or the
organ is thrown out of adjustment by the utterance of an element which
causes it to assume a different posture. This is not the case with the gutturwhich do not move the front part of the tongue (and, as the
influence of k on following s shows, the guttural position favors the succesals or labials,

sion

of a lingual):

and the

is too

weakly palatal

to

interfere with

the

alteration (as its next relative, the i- vowel, itself lingualizes a B).

b. This is a rule of constant application; and (as was pointed

out above, 46) the great majority of occurrences of n in the language
are the result of it.

190. The rule has force especially

a.

When

suffixes,

of inflection

or

derivation, are added

stems containing one of the altering sounds:

to

roots

or

rudrena, rudranam,
varine, varini, vartni, datrni, harani, dvef ani, krinami, 9rnoti,
ksubhana, ghrna, karna, vrkna, rugna, dravina, isani, purana,
reknas, caksana, cikirsamana, krpamana.
b.

When

the final

n of

thus,

a root or stem comes to be followed, in inflecit to feel the effect of a prece-

tion or derivation, by such sounds as allow

ding altering cause: thus, from )/ran, rananti, ranyati, rarana,

aranisus; from brahman, brahmana, brahmani, brahmana, brah-

manya, brahmanvant.
c.

The form pinak (RV.: 2d and 3d

sing,

impf.),

from j/pif,

is

wholly anomalous.

191. This rule

(like that for

the change of s to

9)

applies strictly

and especially when the nasal and the cause of its alteration both lie
within the limits of the same integral word but (also like the other)
it is extended, within certain limits, to
and even,
compound words
in the Veda, to contiguous words in the sentence.
;

Whitney, Grammar.

2. ed.

&

192]

III.

EUPHONIC COMBINATION.

66

102. Especially, a preposition or similar prefix to a root, if it

contain r or end in euphonic r for s (174), very often lingualizes the
n of a root or of its derived stems and forms. Thus
a. The initial n of a root is usually and regularly so altered, in all
:

forms and derivatives, after para, pari, pra, nir (for nis), antar,
(for

dur

dus): thus, para naya, par! nlyate, pra nudasva; paranutti,

Roots suffering this change are

parinama, pranava, nirnfj, durna^a.

written with initial

portance are nrt,

b. The final

The only exceptions

nabh, nand, and na$ when its 9 becomes s

in the native root-lists.

some

of a root is lingnalized in

im-

of

(as in

forms of

of the

and nan: thus, pra 'niti, prana, pra hanyate, prahanana.

c. The class-signs nu and na are altered after the roots hi and

an

mi

pari hinomi, pra minanti (hut the latter not in the Veda).
d. The 1st sing. impv. ending ani is sometimes altered: thus, pra
bhavSni.
thus,

e. Derivatives

of a preposition
f.

The

by suffixes containing

thus,

of the preposition ni is

of a root, after another preposition: thus,

193. In compound words, an

lingualizes a

n, or

sometimes have

influence

initial

pranipata, pranidhi.

member

in its inflectional or derivative ending.

compound, or

n by

sometimes altered, like the

altering cause in

of the next following

influence can be seen to

of the

prayana.

one member sometimes

either its initial

The

or final

exercise of the altering

closeness or frequency

depend in part upon the

by being made the base

its integration

of a derivative.

gramani, trinaman, urunasa; vrtrahanam etc. (but

vrtraghna etc.: 195 a), nrmanas, drughana; pravahana, nrpana,
puryana, pitryana; svargena, durgani, usrayamne, tryanganam.
Examples

are:

194.

Finally, in the Veda, a

(usually initial)

is

occasionally lingual-

by an altering sound in another word. The toneless pronouns

nas and ena- are oftenest thus affected: thus, pari nas, pra! 'nan, indra
enam; but also the particle na like: thus, var na; and a few other

ized even

cases, as

var naxna, punar nayamasi, agner avena.

and perhaps

aksan ava
195.
or labial
etc.,

More anomalous,
be rejected as false readings, are such as trin iman and
and suharn nah (MS.), and vyran va (Apast.).

to

a.

The immediate combination

seems in some cases

of a

with a preceding guttural

to hinder the conversion to

thus,

vrtraghna

ksubhnati, trpnoti (but in Veda trpnu), kaepnii, susumna.

b. The RY. has the exceptions ustranam and rastranam.

Conversion of dental mutes to linguals and palatals.

196.

When

a dental mute

lingual or palatal
assimilated,

mute or

comes in contact with a

sibilant,

the

dental

is

becoming lingual or palatal respectively.

usually

DENTAL MUTES TO LINGUALS AND PALATALS.

The

[109

cases are the following:

A dental surd mute or nasal, or the dental sibilant, when

immediately preceded by a Q, is everywhere converted into the corresponding lingual.
a. Under this rule, the combinations st, s$h, and an are very com197.

mon; SB
sibilant

is rarely so written, the visarga being put instead of the former

(172): thus, jyotihsu instead of jy6tisBU.

Much

b.

less often,

dh

changed to <Jh

is

tense-stem, with loss of the s or

Those cases in which

c.

226 b)

do not, of course,

fall

its

final

after

8 becomes $ before

under

s of a root or

final

conversion to d: see

226 c.

su

(e.

dvitsu:

g.

this rule.

1 98. In the other (comparatively infrequent) cases where a dental

preceded by a lingual in internal combination, the dental (except of
BU loc. pi.) becomes lingual. Thus:

is

a.

A n

single

n made

following immediately a

189, above

or,

as

subject to

is

may be

it

expressed,

the lingualization :

kBunna, kavinna, chynna, tynna;

parivinna, visanna, visyanna.

such by the rule given at

a double as well as a

thus, the participles

arnna,
(185 a), nisanna,
But TS. has adhiskanna, and BY.
and, after prefixes

yajuh skannam.

i$e and ai^a from ylfj;

saddha and sodha), and sannam (sas+nam: anomalous

b. Only a very few other instances occur:

saddha

(also

gen. pi. of

fas : 483).

small

external combination: see below,

c.

number

of words follow the

same rule in

199.

But ta<Jhi (Vedic: yta^+dbi) shows loss of the final lingual

and compensatory lengthening.

after assimilation of the dental,

d.

Some

of the cases of abnormal

similar way, as results of a lingualized

occurrence of

<J

are explained in a

and afterward omitted sibilant before

Vpid from pisd, ^mrd from mrsd.

words exhibiting a like change in composition, see below, 199c.
d: thus nida from nisda,

For

199. In external combination

a.

final

thus, tat-tika,

is directed to

be assimilated

to

an

initial

lingual

mute:

tad dayate, tat-thalini, tad dhaukate: but the

never occurs in the older language, and very rarely in the

n before a lingual, see 205 b.

later.

For

case
final

b. An initial dental after a final lingual usually remains unchanged; and BU of the loc. pi. follows the same rule: thus, Ba^triA$at, anad divah, ekarat tvam; satsii, ra^su.

as six showing double n

are: a few compounds with
sannavati, sannabhi (and one or two others not
quotable); and IB. has san niramimita.
c. Exceptions

(198b): namely,

d. In a few compounds, moreover, there appears a lingualized dental,

with compensatory lengthening, after a lost lingual sibilant or its represen-

5*

199]

III.

EUPHONIC COMBINATION.

68

namely, in certain Vedic compounds with dus : dudabha, dudac, ,

dudhl, dunacja, dunaqa (compare the anomalous purodaQ and -da?a:
puras+ydac,); and, in the language of every period, certain compounds

tative

of sae, with change of its vowel

and BOdhuin :
e.

Between

final

some

according to

or,

to

an alterant quality (as in vodhum

and saddha), sodant.

224 b) goda^a, sodha (also saddha

$ and initial 8, the insertion of a t is permitted

required: thus, sat sahasrah or satt

authorities,

sahaarah.

200. The cases of assimilation of a dental to a contiguous

occur almost only in external combination, and before an
There is but one case of internal combination, nainitial palatal.

palatal

mely:

201.

^ n coining

nal combination

is itself

to follow a palatal

made

a.

similated to

A final

it,

rT^t

c),

yajna, jajne, ajnata,

before an initial palatal

^o

becoming

inter-

palatal.

Thus, yacna (the only instance after

rajna, rajm.

202.

mute in

mute

as-

is

before rM* or ^T ch, and

sT j

jh does not occur).

before

sfj (<K
Thus, uc carati, etac chattram, vidyuj jayate; yatayajjana,

vidyujjihva, brhacehandas, saccarita.

b.

final

c. All the

to j;

but

it is

is

assimilated before

s[J, becoming o^fi.

grammarians, of every period, require this assimilation of

R^n

more often neglected,

or only occasionally

made, in the

manuscripts.
d. For

before a surd palatal, see below,

203. Before the palatal sibilant

are

assimilated,

both

FT

and ^ n

becoming respectively %T c and 3Hi; and

may be, and in practice almost

then the following

5T^9
always is, converted to

208.

ST 9t

ch.

Thus, vedavic churah (-vit 9U-), tac chrutva, hrcchaya (hrt

^aya) ; brhan chef ah or Qesah, svapan chete or 9ete.
a. Some authorities regard the conversion of 9 to ch after t or n as

everywhere obligatory, others as only optional; some except, peremptorily

or optionally, a
9 followed by a mute. And some require the same conafter every mute save m, reading also vipat chutudri, anat
chuci, anufftup charadl, Quk chuci. The manuscripts generally write
ch, instead of cch, as result of the combination of t and 9.

version

b. In the MS., t und 9

tan <jatam, etavaric,a8.

are anomalously

combined into

ft

9:

e.

g.

[207

COMBINATIONS OP FINAL n.

Combinations

of final

n.
V.

204. Final radical

assimilated in internal combination to a

is

following sibilant, becoming anusvara.

Thus, vansi, vansva, vansat, mansyate, jighansati.

a. According to the grammarians,

declension as in external combination.

it is

treated before

Bat the

bh

and sr in

cases are, at best, excess-

RV. has rinsu and vansu (the only Vedio examples).

of a derivative suffix is regularly and usually dropped
in composition, even
before a consonant in inflection and composition
and a radical n occasionally follows the same rule see
before a vowel
421 a, 439, 1203 c, 637.

ively rare, and

b. Final

c.

For assimilation of

preceding palatal, see 201.

to a

The remaining cases are those of external combination.

205. a. The assimilation of n in external combination to a

follow-

ing sonant palatal and the palatal sibilant 9 have been already treated
(202 b, 203).
b.

The n

also declared to be assimilated (becoming n) be-

is

fore a sonant lingual

206.
(like

An

(,

<Jh, n),

but the case rarely

if

also assimilated to a following initial

a nasal 1.

is

m: 213d)

ever Qccurs.
1,

becoming

The manuscripts

to a great extent disregard this rule, leaving the

and that, either
they in part attempt to follow it
by writing the assimilated n (as the assimilated m, 213f, and just as
reasonably) with the anusvara-sign, or else by doubling the 1 and put-

a.

unchanged

but

also

ting a sign of nasality above; the latter, however, is inexact,

way would be

to separate the

a nasal sign above.

two

of these

writing the

first

with

and a better

virama and

Thus (from trin lokan):

manuscripts

The second

1's,

miM^;
methods

is

better

the one oftenest followed in printed texts.

207. Before the lingual and dental sibilants, a. and a, final n

but a t may also be inserted between the nasal
and the sibilant: thus, tan sat or tant sat; mahan san or ma-

remains unchanged;

hant san.
a.

According

to

most of the grammarians of the Pratic.akhyas (not

t in such cases is a necessary one.
In the

RPr.), the insertion of the

manuscripts

very frequently made, but not uniformly. It is probably

phenomenon, a transition-sound to ease the double change
surd and nasal to non-nasal utterance
although the not

it is

a purely phonetic
of sonant to

infrequent cases in which final n stands for original nt (as bharan, abharan, agniman) may have aided to establish it as a rule. Its analogy
with the conversion of n 9 into nch (203) is palpable.

208]

III

EUPHONIC COMBINATION.

70

208. Before the surd palatal, lingual, and dental mutes, there is
n a sibilant of each of those classes respectively,
before which the n becomes anusvara : thus, devaruj ca, bhavanc. chiinserted after final

dyate,

kumarans

trin,

abharans tatah, dadhan? (425 c) carum.

a. This rule, which in the classical language has established itself in

a phonetic rale of unvarying application, really

the form here given, as

The large majority of cases of final n in the

language (not far from three quarters) are for original ns; and the retention of the sibilant iu such cases, when once its historical ground had been
involves a historic survival.

forgotten,

was extended by analogy

to all others.

b. Practically, the rule applies only to n before c and t, since cases

involving the other initials occur either not at all, or only with extreme
In the
rarity (the Veda does not present an example of any of them).
Veda, the insertion is not always made, and the different texts have with
regard to it different usages, which are fully explained in their Pratic.akhWhen the 9 does not
yas; in general, it is less frequent in the older texts.

appear between

and

c, the

is of

course assimilated, becoming

209. The same retention of original

(203).

and

s after a nasal,

final

consequent treatment of (apparent) final an, In, tin, rn as if they were

ans, Ins, uns, rns (long nasalized vowel with final B), shows itself
also in other Vedic forms of combination, which, for the sake of unity,
may be briefly stated here together:

an becomes an (nasalized a) before a following vowel that

ins, with nasal vowel, is treated like as, with pure vowel
(177): thus, devan e 'ha, upabaddhan iha, mahan asi. This is an
extremely common case, especially in RV. Once or twice, the 8 appears
a. Final

is

to

say,

as

before

p:

thus,

svatavanh payuh.

b. In like manner, s is treated after nasal I, u, r as it would he

after those vowels when pure, becoming r before a sonant sound (174),
and (much more rarely) h before a surd (170): thus, ra^minr iva,

sununr yuvanyunr
c.

lit,

RV. has once -in

nrnr abbi; nfnh patram

before y.

(and

MS. usually has an

nrns

p-, MS.).

instead of an.

210. The nasals n, n, n, occurring as finals after a short vowel,

are doubled before any initial vowel thus, pratyann ud es i, udyann
:

adityah, asann-isu.
a. This is also to

be regarded as a

historical

survival,

the

second

nasal being an assimilation of an original consonant following the first. It

is always written in the
manuscripts, although the Vedic metre seems to

show

that the duplication

was sometimes omitted.

The RV. has the com-

pound vrsana^va.

211. The nasals n and

k and t

sert respectively

somah.

before a sibilant are allowed to in-

as

(207) inserts t: thus, pratyank

COMBINATIONS OF FINAL m.

71

Combinations of

final

similated to

JJ

anusvara; in the former,

becoming
the same

R^m.

in internal combination,

m,
a following mute or spirant

212. Final radical

class

[213

as-

is

in the latter case,

becoming the nasal of

with the mute.

v (as when final: 143 a), it is changed to n: thus,

I/gam come aganma, aganmahi, ganvahi, jaganvans (which

a. Before

from

or

According to the grammarians, the

appear to be the only quotable cases).

same change

is

made

pra^anbhis, pra9ansu (from pragam

thus,

bh and su:
pra+j/<?am). No derived

in the inflection of root-stems before

:

noun-stem ends in m.
b. The

KS.

B. and

have

kamvant

and qamvant, and ChU. has

kamvara.
213. Final

I?
-v

external combination

in

is

a servile

sound, being assimilated to any following consonant. Thus

a. It remains unchanged only before a vowel or a labial mute.
:

b. But also, by an anomalous exception, before r of the root raj in

samraj and
c.

its

derivatives

samrajni and samrajya.

Before a mute of any other class than

labial, it

becomes the

nasal of that class.

d. Before the

semivowels y,

1,

it

becomes, according to the

Hindu gramarians, a nasal semivowel, the nasal counterpart of each

respectively (see 71).
e.

Before

r,

a sibilant, or h,

it

becomes anusvara (see 71).

The manuscripts and the editions in general make no attempt to

distinguish the nasal tones produced by the assimilation of in before a followf.

ing semivowel from that before a spirant.

g. But if h be immediately followed by another consonant (which
Is allowed to be assimilated to
can only be a nasal or semivowel), the
that following consonant.
This is because the h has no position of the

mouth-organs peculiar
sound.

to itself,

but

is

uttered in the position

notice of the case.

next

final
appears to be
vowels being then combined

h. Cases are met with in the Veda where a

dropped before a vowel, the

into

of the

The Pratieakhyas do not take any

one.

The pada-text

final

then

and

initial

generally

gives

wrong interpretation.

pada-text -nana
ubh-; SV. -nanam).
is
i. It has been pointed out above (73) that the assimilated
generally represented in texts by the anusvara-sign, and that in this
work it is transliterated by
(instead of a nasal mute or A).
Thus,

samvanano 'bhayamkaram

(RV.

viii. 1.

HI. EUPHONIC COMBINATION.

214]

The palatal mutes and

sibilant,

72

and

h.

214. These sounds show in some situations a reversion (43)

from which they are derived. The treatment of j and h, also, is different, according as they represent the
one or the other of two different degrees of alteration from their
to the original gutturals

originals.

215. The palatals and h are the least stable of alphabetic sounds,
undergoing, in virtue of their derivative character, alteration in many
cases where other similar sounds are retained.
216. Thus, in derivation, even before vowels, semivowels; and
form is by no means rare. The cases are

nasals, reversion to guttural

the following:
a. Before a of suffix a, final c becomes k in anka, c.vanka, arka,
paka, vaka, Quka, parka, marka, vrka, pratika etc., reka, seka,
final j becomes g in
moka, roka, 9 oka, toka, mroka, vraska;
tyaga, bhaga, bhaga, yaga, anga, bhanga, sanga, svanga, rnga,
tunga, yunga, varga, marga, mrga, varga, sarga, nega, vega, bhoga,
final h becomes gh in agha, magha,
yuga, yoga, loga, roga;
argha, dirgha (and draghiyas, draghistha
degha, megha, ogha,
dogha, drogha, mogha; and in dughana and meghamana. Jn neka
(j/nij) we hare farther an anomalous substitution of a surd for the final
),

sonant of the root

b. In another series of derivatives with a, the altered sound appears

examples are aja, yaja, (juca, coca, vraja, veviji, yuja, urja, doha.
c. Before the suffixes as and ana, the guttural only rarely appears:
namely, in ankas, okas, rokas, 9 okas, bhargas, and in rogana; also
in

abhogaya.
d. Before an ivowel,

the altered sound appears (except in abhogi,

ogiyans, tigita, moki, sphigl): thus,

rocisnu.
e.

thus,

Before

ftji,

tuji, ruci,

9&C1, vivici,

u, the, guttural reappears, as a rule (the cases are few):

anku, vanku, reku, bhifeu, marguka, raghu (and raghlyaris).

f. Before n, the examples of reversion are few, except of j (becoming

g) before the participial ending na (957 o): thus, reknas, vagnu (with
the final also made sonant); and participles bhagna, rugna, etc.; and

apparently

prgna from

g. Before

]/prc.

ma, man, mant, min), the guttural generally

appears: thus, rukma, tigma, yugma, fgma (with sonant change); takman, vakman, sakman, yugman; rukmant; rgmin and vagmin
but ajxnan, ojman, bhujman.
(with sonant change):
(of

h. Before y, the altered sound is used

ynjya, bhujyu.

Such cases

less secondary derivatives

as

from

thus, pacya, yajya, yajyu,

bhogya, yogya, negya, okya are doubt-

bhoga

etc.

[218

COMBINATIONS OF FINAL PALATALS.

73
i.

Before r, the cases are

and the usage apparently divided,

few,

takra, sakra, vakra, 9ukra, vigra, ugra, tiigra, mrgra, vankri; but vajra and pajra(?).
thus,

etc., and participial vans)

rkva, pakva, vakva; vakvaii,
fkvan, rikvan, 9ukvan, mrgvan, tugvan, yugvan; fkvant, prkvant vagvin, vagvana, vagvanu (with further sonant change vivakvans, ririkvans, vivikvans, rurukvans, 9U9ukvans; QUQukvana,
j.

Before

the guttural

is

(of the suffixes

va, van, vin,

regularly preserved: thus,

9U9ukvani:
exception

is

union-vowel

also before the

i in

k. The reversion of

which

1.

much

is

once).

An

The

final

in derivation is comparatively rare.

analogous with 9 (219) shows

than that which corresponds with c.

okivans (RV.,

yajvan.

some extent in conjugational

radical becomes guttural

like reversion shows itself also to

stem-formation and inflection.

Thus, the

less proclivity to reversion

initial

after the reduplication in the present or perfect or desiderative or intensive

stems, or in derivatives, of the roots ci, cit, ji, hi, nan, and in jaguri (>/jy);
and nan becomes ghn on the elision of a (402, 637). The RV. has

vivakmi

vavakre from }/vanc; and SV. has sasrgmahe

ran etc. of 3d pi. mid. we have g for radical j
asrgram, asasrgram (all in RV.).

from }/vac and

(RV.-syj-).
in asrgran,

And

before

217. Final

?f

c of a root or stem,

if

followed in in-

by any other sound than a vowel or

semivowel or nasal, reverts (43) to its original guttural value,

ternal combination

and shows everywhere the same form which a

show in the same situation.

Sfi

k would

Thus, vakti, uvaktha, vakai, vaksyami, vagdhi ; vagbhis, vakBU; ukta, uktha, vaktar.
a.

And, as

final

c becomes

(above 142), the same rule applies

also to c in external combination: thus,

vak

Examples of c remaining unchanged

riricre, vaci,

ca,

vag

api,

5T

9 reverts to

combination, only before the

(whence, by 180,

^k)

its

before

original

Sfi

s of a verbal

ucyate,

cT t

and

^ th,

k,

t?

and

in internal

stem or ending
it

(whence, by 197, ^
and H su of the loc. pi., as when final
H^bh,
gularly becomes the lingual mute (^t or 3^4)

becomes

van me.

inflection are:

mumucmahe.

218. Final

in

everywhere

"& ?th); before q^da,

(145), it re-

Thus, aviksata, veksyami; vasti, vista, didestu;

vidbhfs.

dididdhi,

218]

III.

EUPHONIC COMBINATION.

74

But a few roots exhibit the reversion of final 9 to k before

su, and also when final (145): they are di$, df9, spr/9, and
optionally na?; and vi$ has in V. always viksii, loc. pi., but vf$,
a.

bh and

etc.

vi^bhis,

Examples are diksam<jita, drgbhis, hrdispyk, nak

(or nat).

Examples of 9 remaining unchanged before vowels

etc. are

vi9f,

vivisyas, avi9ran, a<?nomi, va9mi, U9m&si.

b.

A 9 remains irregularly unchanged before p in

219. Final

and in another

is

sf j

the compound vi<jpati.

in one set of words treated like

c,

set like 3T 9.

Thus, from yuj: ayukthas, ayukta, ynnkte, yukti, yoktra,

yokeyami, yuksu; yungdhf, ayugdhvam, yugbhis.
amrksat, sraksyami ; marsti, mrsta,
Again, from mrj etc.
systi, rastra; mrddhi, mrddhvam, radbhfs, ratsii, rat.
:

a. To the former or yuj-class belong (as shown by their quotable

forms) about twenty roots and radical stems: namely, bhaj, saj, tyaj (not

V.),

raj

color,

svaj, majj, nij,

anj, bhanj, 9inj

and 2 bhuj, yuj, ruj, vrj,

also, stems formed with
trsnaj, vanfj; and rtvij, though

tij, vij, i

urj, sraj, bhisaj, asrj

the suffixes aj and

(383. IV),

ij

as

containing the root yaj.

b. To the latter or mrj-class belong only about one third as many:

namely, yaj, bhrajj, vraj, raj, bhraj, mrj, srj.

c.

considerable

number

of j-roots are not placed in circumstances

but such roots are in part assignable to one or

the other class on the evidence of the related languages. The distinction

to exhibit the distinction;

appears, namely, only when the j occurs as final, or is followed, either in

or in derivation, by a dental mute (t, th, dh), or, in noun-

inflection

bh

or BU.
In derivation (above, 216) we find a g somemrj -class: thus, marga, sarga, etc.; and (2161) before
Vedic mid. endings, sasrgmahe, asrgran, etc. (beside saarjrire)
inflection,

by

times from the

while from the

with

j.

yuj-class occur only yuyujre,

has vi9vasfk from (^srj).

aynjran, bubhujrire,

And MS.

220. Final ch

falls under the rules of combination almost only

prach, in which it is treated as if it were 9 (pra9 bethus, praksyami, prsta, and also
ing, indeed, its more original form)
the derivative praqna. As final and in noun-inflection (before bh and
su), it is changed to the lingual mute: thus, pra<Jvivaka.

in the root

a.
is

Murta

is called

given to the same

murch, and a gerund murtva

They (with murti) must doubtless come from

the participle of

root.

a simpler form of the root.

b.

Of jh there

be treated like

c.

is

no occurrence

the grammarians require

it

to

[223

COMBINATIONS OP FINAL kf, h.

75

221. The compound ks is not infrequent as final of a root (generof

demonstrably secondary origin), or of a tense-stem (s-aorist:
ally
see below, 878 ff.)
and, in the not very frequent cases of its internal combination, it is treated as if a single sound, following the
;

rules for 9 : thus

tam, asra^a,

9&kse (caks

As

tvaafcar.

Thus, we

-f-

caksva ; caste, aeasta, asr as-

se),

to its treatment

when

see 146.

final,

make such forms

as
grammarians
goraj, goradbhia, gora^fu (from goraka); and we actually have sat,
For jagdha etc. from
sadbhis, sa$8u from aaka or sas (146b).
a.

are taught by the

to

233 f.

see

b. In the single anomalous root vra9<5, the compound 90

follow the rules for simple 9.

c reverts

Its

The

222.

two

it

are quotable the future

to

is said to

vraksyati,

(RV.), and the participle

in the derivative vraska.

vra$va (AV.) and vyktvl

the gerunds

vrkna.

From

roots in final <J h, like those in

sT j,

(957 c)

fall into

classes, exhibiting a similar diversity of treatment, ap-

pearing in the same kinds of combination.

a.

In the one class, as duh, we have a reversion of h (as of c)

and its treatment as if it were still its original gh:

to a guttural form,

adhukaam, dhoksyami; dugdham, dugdha; adhok, dhuk,

thus,

dh.ugbh.is,

dhuksu.

as ruh and sab, we have a guttural reonly before s in verb-formation and derivation: thus,
arukaat, roksyami, saksiya, saksani. As final, in external combination, and in noun-inflection before bh and su, the h (like 9) becomes a lingual mute: thus, turasat, prtanasad ayodhyah, turab. In the other class,

version (as of

9)

aadbhia, turasa$au.
inflection

cated:

it

makes

it

and

But before a dental mute

in derivation,

(t,

th, dh) in verb-

euphonic effect is peculiarly compliturns the dental into a lingual (as would 9); but it also
sonant and aspirate (as would dh: see 160); and further,
its

and the preceding vowel, if short, is lengthened:

ru<Jha, from leh with ti comes ledhi,
from guh with tar comes gudhar, from meh with turn comes medhum, from lib. with tas or thas comes licjh&s, from lih with dhvam
comes lidhvam, etc.
it

disappears

thus, from

itself,

ruh with ta comes

c. This is as if

we had

to

assume

as transition

sound a sonant aspi-

lingual sibilant ah, with the euphonic effects of a lingual and of a

sonant aspirate (160), itself disappearing under the law of the existing
rate

language which admits no sonant sibilant.

223. The roots of the two classes,

found in use, are:
a.

of the

first

or duh-class:

(and the final of usnih

is

as

shown by

dah, dih, duh, druh,

similarly treated)

their forms

muh, snih

223]

EUPHONIC COMBINATION.

III.

b. of the second or ruh-class

ruh, drnh,
c.

trfch,

vah, sah, mih, rih or

lih,

guh,

brh, ba&h, sprh(P).

muh forms

But

RV.) the

also (not in

mugdha

as well as

noun mudhar,

76

and

participle

mugdhar;

mudha

and agent-

druh and snih

forms as drudha

and

allowed by the grammarians to do likewise: such

and snidha, however, have not been met with in use.

are

d. From roots of the ruh-class we find also in the Veda the forms
gartaruk, nom. sing., and pranadhfk and dadhrk; and hence puruBprk
(the only occurrence) does not certainly prove j/sprh to be of the dubclass.

e. A number of other h-roots are not proved by their occurring forms

belong to either class; they, too, are with more or less confidence assigned to the one or the other by comparison with the related languages.

to

f.

of

In derivation, before certain suffixes (216),

from verbs of either

g.

The

nah

root

we have gh

instead

class.

comes from original

mute

dh

instead of gh, and

its

rever-

natsyami, naddha, upanadSo also the root grah comes from

bhis, upanadyuga, anupanatka.
(early Vedie) grabh, and shows labials in many forms and derivatives
accordingly to a dental

sion is

thus,

(though it is assimilated to other h-roots in the desiderative stem jighrksa).

In like manner, h is used for dh in some of the forms and derivatives of
ydha put; and further analogous facts are the stem kakuha beside

kakubha,

mahyam

the
beside

224.
a.

thus,

double

drdha,

the

dative

(491).

Irregularities of combination are

The vowel r

dhi and hi, and

ending

imperative

tubhyam

not lengthened after the loss of the h-element:

trdha, brdha (the only cases; and in the Veda their first
is

syllable has metrical value as heavy or long).

vah and sah change their vowel to o instead of lengvodhaxn, vodhaxn, vo<Jhar, sodhum. But from sah
language forms with a are more frequent thus, sadha, asadha
'sadhar. The root trnh changes the vowel of its class-sign

b. The roots

thening

it:

in the older
(also later),

na

into e

thus,

instead of lengthening

(the grammarians teach

also

it:

and, if ever actually in use,

false analogy with the others).

are quotable,

c.

trnedhi, trnedhu, atrnet

thus,

trnehmi and trneksi: but no

These anomalous vowel-changes seem

the fact that the cases showing

them

are

such forms

thay must have been

to stand in

made by

connection with

the only ones where other than

ah alterant vowel (180) comes before the lingualized sibilant representative

of the h.

Compare sodaqa

etc.

d. Apparently by dissimilation, the

compound anadvah

is

changed

to

final

of

vah

instead of <J: see

in

the

404.

anomalous

COMBINATIONS OP FINAL

77

The

lingual sibilant

Since the lingual sibilant, in

its

[226

9.

^s.
usual and normal occurren-

(182) the product of lingualization of a after certain alterant

sounds, we might expect final radical s, when (in rare cases) it comes
to stand where a s cannot maintain itself, to revert to its original,
and be treated as a s would be treated under the same circumstances.
That, however, is true only in a very few instances.
ces, is

a. Namely, in the prefix dus (evidently identical with |/dus); in

sajus (adverbially used case-form from >/jus) ; in (KV.) vives and avives,
from Xvis; in aiyes (RV.), from |/is; and in a^fs, from 913 as secondary form of j/Qas. All these, except the first two, are more or less open
to question.

226. In general, final lingual

Before t and th

a.

similated:
This

e.
is

in internal combina-

as palatal $T 9.

Thus

remains unchanged, and the latter are asdvistas, dvis^has, dveB$um.

g.

^9,

same manner

treated in the

tion, is

it

common and

perfectly natural combination.

and su, as also in external combination (145),

it becomes a lingual mute; and dh is made lingual after it:
e. g.
piri<J<Jhi, vicjcjhi, vivi<J4hi, dvi^cjhvam, dvicjbhis, dvi$su; bhinb. Before dh, bh,

navitka.
So also the

c.

dh

of

dhvam

after final s of a tense-stem,

verted to
this is

before

ambiguous

as ending of 2d pi. mid. becomes dh

whether the s be regarded as lost or as con-

it (the manuscripts write simply <Jhv, not <J<Jhv; but

see 232). Thus, after s of s-aorist stems (881 a), asto-

dhvam, avrdhvam, cyodhvam (the only quotable

dhvam etc.; but aradhvam from aras-f-dhvam.
stems (901a),

of is-aorist

cases),

from astos-jafter the s

Further,

aindhidhvam, artidhvam, ajanidhvam,

Yet
(the only quotable cases), from ajanis+dhvam etc.
the precative (924), as bhavisidhvam, if, as is probable

vepidhvam
again,

in

(unfortunately, no example of this person is quotable from any part of the

literature), the precative-sign s (s) is to be regarded as present in the
form.
According, however, to the Hindu grammarians, the use of <Jh or of

dh
iI

in the is-aorist and precative depends on whether the i

of if or of
which both in itself
not "preceded by a semivowel or h"
appears senseless and is opposed to the evidence of all the quotable forms.
Moreover, the same authorities prescribe the change of dh to dh, under
is or is

the same restriction as to circumstances, in the perf. mid. ending dhve

and no example
in this case, too, without any conceivable reason
also
:

of

dhve

is

d. The conversion of f to t (or <J) * s flnal al*d

parallel with the like conversion of 9, and of j and

in the

2d

pi.

perf. has

been pointed out in the

literature.

before

bh

and su

in the xnrj and

226]
ruh

8).

It

78

and perhaps with the occasional change of 8

classes of roots,

(167

EUPHONIC COMBINATION.

III.

occurring (save as it
only once in RV. and once in AV.

a very infrequent case,

is

to

may be

(-dvi$
sa)
and -pru$), although those texts have more than 40 roots with final 9 ;
in the Brahmanas, moreover, have been noticed further only -pru$ and vi$
(B.), and -q\.i\ (K.). From piAs, RV. has the anomalous form pinak
(2d and 3d sing., for pinas-s and pinas-t).

assumed in the case of

e.

Before s in internal combination (except BU of

thus, dveksi, dveksyami, adviksam.

loc. pi.) it be-

comes k:

f. This change
explanation.

is

of

anomalous phonetic character,

It is also practically of very rare

and

occurrence.

difficult

of

The only RV.

examples (apart from pinak, above) are viveksi, from y\ri$, and the
desid. stem ririksa from |/ris; AV. has only dviksat and dviksata,

and the desid. stem (jicliksa from

from Vj/kys and pif and vif (QB
the

Hindu grammarians prescribed

Other examples are quotable

]/9lis.

c,is (CB.); and they are by

be formed from about half-a-dozen

and

etc.),

to

other roots.

Extension and Abbreviation.

227. As a general rule, ch is not allowed by the grammarians to
stand in that form after a vowel, but is to be doubled, becoming cch
(which the manuscripts sometimes write chch).
a.

The various

this duplication.

either a long or a

and

after

authorities disagree with one

According

short vowel;

the particles

In RV., initial

to

ch

is

ch

Panini,
and,

as

a and ma, and

is

another in detail as to

doubled within a word after

initial,

optionally

necessarily

after

a short

everywhere after a long.

doubled after a long vowel of a only, and certain

For the required usage in

special cases after a short vowel are excepted.
the other Vedic texts, see their several Praticakhyas. The Kathaka writes
for original ch (not ch from combination of t or n with
9: 203) after
a vowel everywhere qch. The manuscripts in general write simple ch.

b. Opinions are still at variance as to how far this duplication has

an etymological ground, and how far it is only an acknowledgment of the
fact that ch makes a heavy syllable even after a short vowel (makes

As the duplication is accepted and followed by most

79).
European scholars, it will be also adopted in this work in words and sentences (not in roots and stems).

"position":

\\

228. After r, any consonant (save a spirant before a vowel) is

by the grammarians either allowed or required to be doubled (an aspirate, by prefixing the corresponding non-aspirate: 154).
Thus:

%3\ arka, or

3sife

arkka;

artha, or 5fr2T arttha;

cfinj

karya, or

3TOJ karyya;

dlrgha, or

lTf dlrggha.

EXTENSION AND ABBREVIATION.

79
a.
or

Some

of the authorities include,

more than one

b.

[231

along with r, also

or

or

v,

of them, in this rule.

doubled consonant after r

is

common

in manuscripts and

and in the

earlier editions pre-

very

inscriptions, as also in native text-editions

in later ones, the duplication

pared by European scholars

is

universally

omitted.

On

c.
after

the other hand, the manuscripts often write a single consonant

r where a double one

vartika,

for

is

etymologically required

229. The

first

a. This duplication

in both,

is

is

is

or initial

interior,

by the grammarians either allowed

allowed by Panini and required by the Prati-

with mention of authorities who deny

it

altogether.

the Praticakhyas; the meaning of the whole

too obscure to justify the giving of details here.

Foi certain exceptions,

matter

whether

consonant of a group

vowel of a preceding word

or required to be doubled.

after a

c.akhyas

kartikeya,

thus,

karttikeya, varttika.

see

230. Other cases of extension of consonant-groups, required by

some of the grammatical authorities, are the following
a. Between a non-nasal and a nasal mute, the insertion of so-called
:

yamas

(twins), or nasal counterparts, is taught by the Prati$akhyas (and

assumed in Panini' s commentary): see APr. i.99, note.

b. Between

and a following nasal mute the Praticakhyas teach the

insertion of a nasal sound called

c.

nasikya:

see APr. i.100, note.

Between r and a following consonant the Praticakhyas teach the

insertion of a

Some

svarabhakti

or vowel- fragment

assume

see APr.

i.

101

2, note.

a spirant; the
others regard it as twice as long before a spirant as before any other consonant
namely, a half or a quarter mora before the former, a quarter
or an eighth before the latter.
One (VPr.) admits it after 1 as well as r.
d.

authorities

It is variously described as a

this insertion only before

fragment of the vowel a or of

r-

(or 1).

The RPr. puts a svarabhakti also between a sonant consonant

and a following mute or spirant; and APr. introduces an element called
sphotana (distinguisher) between a guttural and a preceding mute of
e.

another class.
f.

For one or two other cases of yet more doubtful value,

see the

Praticakhyas.

231. After a nasal, the former of two non-nasal mutes niay

be dropped, whether homogeneous only with the nasal, or with both
thus, yundbi for yungdhi, yundhvam for vnngdhvam, antam for
anktam, panti for pankti, chintam for chinttam, bhintha for
bhinttha, indhe for inddhe.
:

a. This abbreviation, allowed by Panini, is required by APr. (the

other Pratic.akhyas take no notice of it). It is the more usual practice of
the manuscripts, though the full group is also often written.

232]

III.

EUPHONIC COMBINATION.

80

232. In general, a double mute (including an aspirate which is

doubled by the prefixion of a non-aspirate) in combination with any
other consonant is by the manuscripts written as simple.
a. That

usage of the manuscripts makes no

say, the ordinary

is to

between those groups in which a phonetic duplication is allowed

by the rules given above (228, 229) and those in which the duplication
As every tv after a vowel may also be properly written
is etymological.
difference

dattva and tattva may

datva and tatva. As kartana

ttv, so

(from kytti)

is

and almost invariably

be,
is

also properly

written as kartika.

So in

are, written as

karttana,

inflection,

so

karttika

we have

always,

majjna, from majjan. Even in composition and sentence-collocation the same abbreviations are made
thus,
hrdyota for hrddyota; chinaty asya for chinatty asya. Hence it
is impossible to determine by the evidence of written usage whether we
for

example,

majna

etc.,

not

adhvam or addhvam (from y&B), advi^hvam or advicj(from j/dvis), as the true form of a second person plural.

should regard

dhvam

233.

a. Instances are

after conversion to

sometimes met with of apparent loss (perhaps

semivowel) of

Thus, in the Brahnianas, tu and

or

before

or

respectively.

nu

with following val etc. often make

and other examples from the older lan-

tvaf, nvaf (also tvava, anvai) ;

guage are anvart- (anu+]/vart); paryan, paryanti, paryayat, parya-

na (pari+yan,
iyat);

etc.); abhyarti (abhi-t-iyarti) ; antaryat (antar+

carvac, carvaka, carvadana (caru-j-vac, etc.); kyant for

kiyant; dvyoga (dvi+yoga) ; anva, anvasana (anu+va, etc.); probably vyunoti for vi yunoti (BV.)' urva^i (uru-va^l), 9i9varl for
9! 9U-vari (RV.) vyama (vi-f-yama) ; and the late svarna for suvarna.
More anomalous abbreviations are the common trca (tri+rca); and
;

dvyca (dvi+yca:

and

S.)

trem (tri^-em:

Apast.).

Further, certain cases of the loss of a sibilant require notice.

the Hindu grammarians,

lost

b. According to
a short vowel in the 2d and 3d sing,

after

s of

middle

Thus

s-aorist stems is
:

thus,

adithas

adisi), alqrthas and akrta (1st sing, akysi). It

that
such cases are to be explained in a different
however, probable

and adita (1st

is,

the

manner: see

sing,

834 a.

c.

The

d.

The same omission

B between two mutes is lost in all combinations of the

stha and stambh with the prefix ud: thus, lit thus, utthita, ut thapaya, uttabdha, etc.

roots

kambhanena

is

now and then made

skambh-: RV.)

in other similar cases:

tasmat tute (for stute)

and puroruk tuta (for stuta: K.); the compounds rktha (rk+stha:
PB.) and utphulinga; the derivative utphala (>/sphal). On the other
hand, we have vidyut stanayanti (RV.), utsthala, kakutstha, etc.
thus cit

e.

So also the

(for

tense-sign of the s-aorist

is lost after

a final conso-

nant of a root before the initial consonant of an ending: thus, achantta

[235

ABBREVIATION OF CONSONANT-GROUPS.

81

(and for this, by 231, achanta) for achantsta, gapta for ^apsta, taptarn for tapstam, abhakta for abhaksta, amauktam for amaukstam.
These are the ouly quotable cases: compare 883.
f. A final s of loot or tense-stem is in a few instances lost after a
sonant aspirate, and the combination of mutes is then made as if no sibilant
had ever intervened.
Thus, from the root ghas, with omission of the
vowel and then of the final sibilant, we have the form gdha (for ghs-ta:

3d

sing, mid.), the participle

ghs-ti ; in sa-gdhi)

(for

gdha

end

agdhad), and the

(in

further,

derivative

gdhi

from the reduplicated form of the

root, or j/jaks, we have jagdha, jagdhum, jagdhva, jagdhi

(from jaghs-ta etc.); also, in like manner, from baps, reduplication of
bhas, the form babdham (for babhs-tam). According to the Hindu

same

grammarians, the same utter loss of the aorist-sign s takes place after a
sonant aspirate of a root before an ending beginning with t or th:
thus, from ]/rudh, s-aorist stem arauts act. and aruts mid., come the
final

dual and plural persons

active

ddha, and the middle

arauddham

singular persons

arauddham

and

and arau-

aruddhas and aruddha.

None

of

the active forms, however, have been found quotable from the literature,
ancient or modern and the middle forms admit also of a different expla;

nation

see

834, 883.

Strengthening and Weakening Processes.

234. Under this head, we take up first the changes that affect
vowels, and then those that affect consonants
adding, for convenience's sake, in each case, a brief notice of the vowel and consonant elements that have come to bear the apparent office of connectives.

Guna and Vrddhi.

235.

The

so-called

guna and vpddhi-changes

are the

most regular and frequent of vowel-changes, being of constant occurrence both in inflection and in derivation.
a.

guna-vowel (guna secondary

quality]

differs

from

the corresponding simple vowel by a prefixed a-element r

which

is

rules;

a vpddhi-vowel

combined with the other according

(vyddhi growth,

the corresponding guna

ing vrddhi is (a -|- e =) ^

5f a remains unchanged
Whitney,

Grammar.

2. ed.

is

Si.

(a-f-i=)

But

the usual

increment),

further prefixion of a to the guna-vowel.

^

to

by the

Thus, of ^

or

e; the correspond-

in all gunating processes

or, as it is

sometimes expressed,
6

in. EUPHONIC COMBINATION.

235]
5f

own guna;

its

is

The

236.

of corresponding degrees

series

then as

is

simple vowel

a a

ii

u u

guna

a a

?
ar

ai

au

ar

vrddhi
a.

of course, remains unchanged

CfT a,

guna and vrddhi.

for both

follows

82

There

is

al

nowhere any occurrence of r in a situation

to

undergo

vrddhi-change nor does 1 (26) ever suffer change to

vrddhi. Theoretically, r would have the same changes as y; and the
vrddhi of 1 would be al.
either

guna

or

b. In secondary derivatives requiring

(1204), the o of go (361 c)

is

vrddhi

strengthened to

of the

g&u:

first

thus,

syllable

g&umata,

gatuj^hika.

237. The

historical relations of the

members

of each vowel-series are

From

the special point of view

of the Sanskrit, the simple vowels wear the aspect of being in general the
original or fundamental ones, and the others of being products of their
still

matters of some difference of opinion.

so that the rules of

increment or strengthening, in two several degrees
formation direct a, i, u, r, 1 to be raised to guna or vrddhi respectively,

under specified conditions. But y hat long been so clearly seen to come
by abbreviation or weakening from an earlier ar (or Mp that many European grammarians have preferred to treat the guna-forms as the original
and the other as the derivative.
Thus, for example instead of assuming
certain roots to be bhr and vrdh, and making from them bharati and
vardhati, and bhrta and vrddha, by the same rules which from bhu
:

and nl and from

budh

cetati,

bhuta and

vardh

to

be the

and cit form bhavati and nayati, bodhati and

buddha and citta
they assume bhar and

nlta,

roots,

and give the rules of formation

In this work, as already stated (104 e), the r-form

238. The guna-increment

and

is in

many

them in

reverse.

an Indo-European phenomenon,

cases seen to occur in connection with an accent on

the increased syllable.

a.

is

for

is preferred.

It is

found

In root-syllables: either in inflection, as dvesti from ydvis,

from j/duh; or in derivation, as dvesa dohas, dveijtum,

dohmi
dogdhum.

b. In formative elements: either conjugational class-signs, as

tanoxni from tanu; or suffixes of derivation, in inflection or in further
derivation, as mataye from matf, bhanavas from bhanu, pitaram
from pity (or pitar), hantavya from hantu.

rence

239. The v^ddhi-increment is specifically Indian, and

is less frequent and regular.
It is found

its

occur-

GUNA AND VRDDHI.

83
a.

[242

In root and suffix-syllables, instead of guna:

thus,

stauti

from xstu, sakhayam from sakhi, anaisam from >/ni t akarsam

and karayati and karya from }/kr (or kar), dataram from datf (or
datar).
b. Especially often, in initial syllables in secondary derivation
thus,

manasa from manas, vaidyuta from vidyut, bhauma from

bhumi, parthiva from prthivi (1204).

But
240. The guna-increment does not usually take place in a heavy
syllable ending with a consonant
guna in processes of derivation

that

and

is to say, the rules

prescribing
inflection do not apply to a short

vowel which
final: thus,

>/ni,

is "long by position", nor to a long vowel unless it be

cetati from >/cit, but nindati from ]/nind; nayati from

but jivati from

a.

>/jiv.

The vrddhi-increment

is

not liable to this restriction.

b. Exceptions to the rule are occasionally met with thus, eha, ehas
from yih; hedayami, hedas, etc., from ]/hi<jl; cosa etc. from ycuq;
ohate etc. from }/uh consider,- and especially, from roots in Iv: dideva
devisyati, devana, etc., from ydlv; tiatheva from i/B^hiv; Brevayami,
on account of which it is, doubtless, that these
srevuka, from j/srlv
roots are written with iv (div etc.) by the Hindu grammarians, although
they nowhere show a short i, in either verb-forms or derivatives.
:

c.

few cases occur of prolongation instead of increment:

thus,

dusayati from j/dus, guhati from yguh.

The changes of y (more original ar or ra) are so various as to
call for further description.

241. The increments of ? are sometimes ra and ra, instead of

ar and ar: namely, especially, where by such reversal a difficult combination of consonants is avoided: thus, from i/dr<j, draksyami
and adraksam; but also prthu and prath, prch and prach, krpa
and akrapista.
242. In a number of roots (about a dozen quotable ones) ending
more original ar), the r exchanges both with ar, and more
or also with ur (espeirregularly, |n a part of the forms, with ir
which i*
cially after a labial, in pr, mr, vr, sporadically in others)
in r (for

and ur,

again, are liable to prolongation into ir

example, from ty

by

(or tar),

we have

and

Thus, for

tar.

tarati, titarti, tatara, atarisain,

regular processes; but also tirati, tiryati, tirtva, -tlrya, tlrna,

(V.) turyama, tuturyat, tarturana. The treatment of such

and even

roots has to be described in speaking of each formation.

a. For the purpose of artificially indicating this peculiarity of treatment,
such roots are by the Hindu grammarians written with long f, or with both
y and r: no y actually appears anywhere among their forms.
(i*

242]

The (quotable)

b.
ijif

f-roots are

2kp

84

Igp

$trew,

2gf

sing,

swallow,

wear out, tr, 19? crush.

c.

EUPHONIC COMBINATION.

III.

The (quotable) y and

sty, hv?.

f-roots are

r*

Idr

pierce,

Ipr

Imr

fill,

die,

vj* cftooae,

made also from other

carcurya, from j/car; spurdhan and spur-

d. Forms analogous with these are sometimes

roots

thus, cirna, cirtva,

dhase from j/spydh.

243. In

a few cases

y comes from the contraction of other

syllables

than ar and ra: thus, in trta and trtlya, from ri; in Qrnu, from ru; in
bhrku$i, from ru.

Vowel-lengthening.
244. Vowel-lengthening concerns especially i and u, since the
lengthening of a is in part (except where in evident analogy with
that of i and u) indistinguishable from its increment, and r is made

Lengthlong only in certain plural cases of stems in y (or ar: 309 ff.).
ening is a much more irregular and sporadic change than increment, and ita cases will in general be left to be pointed out in connection with the processes of inflection and derivation: a few only
will

be mentioned here.

245.
before

y:

a.

Final radical i

as in passive

and

are especially

and gerund and

liable

to

prolongatioa

so on.

b. Final radical ir and ur (from variable r-roots 242) are liable to

prolongation before all consonants except those of personal endings namely,
before y and tva and na: and in declension before bh and 8 (392).
:

Radical is has the same prolongation in declension (392).

246. Compensatory lengthening, or Absorption by a vowel of the time

Certain instances
by no means common.

of a lost following consonant, is

have been pointed out above (179, 198 c,d, 199d, 222 b). Perhaps
cases as pita for pitars (37 la) and dhani for dhanins (439)
are to be classed here.

of it

such

247. The

made

final

long, especially

vowel of a former member of a compound is often

in the Veda.
Prolongations of final a, and before

V, are most frequent; but cases are found of every variety.

Examples are:
devavi, vayunavfd, pravrs, rtavasu, mdravant, sadanasad, 9atamagha, vicjvanara, ekada^a; apiju, parinah, virudh, tuvimagha,
tvisimant, qaktivant ; vasuju, anurudh, sumaya, puruvasu.

248. la the Veda, the

less often i

and

is

final

in a large

vowel of a word

number

of

cases

generally a,

much

Usually
prolonged.
the prolongation takes place where it is favored by the metre, but sometimes even where the metre opposes the change (for details, see the various
Prati<?akhyas).

Words

of

which the

finals are

thus treated are:

VOWEL-LENGTHENING.

85

a. Particles: namely,

sma, na, anga,

ca,

[250

atha, adha, eva, uta, gha, ha, iha, iva,

kila, atra, yatra, tatra, kiitra, anyatra,

ubhay-

atra, adya, accha, apa, pra; at!, ni, yadl, nahi, abhi, vl; u, tu,

mi,

maksu.

sii,

b. Case-forms

and others;

especially instr. sing.

rarely gen.

sing.,

as

as

ena, tena, yena, svena,

asya, harinasya.

are few: so

sima, v?sabha, hariyojana

and (not rarely) puru.

Cases besides these

tanvi

(voc.);

(loo.);

uru

and

c. Verb-forms ending in a, in great number and variety thus (nearly

in the order of their comparative frequency), 2d sing. impv. act., as piba,
2d pi. act. in ta and tha, as stha, atta,
sya, gamaya, dharaya;
:

bibhrta, jayata, Qrnuta, anadata, nayatha, jivayatha (and one or

1st pi. act. in ma, as vidma,
two in tana: avii=$ana, hantana);

risama, rdhyama,
2d
-

ruhema, vanuyama, cakrma, marmrjma;

impv. mid. in sva, as yuksva, Idisva, dadhisva, vahasva;

1st and 3d sing. perf. act., as veda, vive9a, jagrabha; '2d sing. perf.
2d pi. perf. act., anaja, cakra. Of verb-forms ending
act., vettha;
in

sing.

i,

only the 2d sing. impv. act.

thus,

kydhi, kynuhl, ksidhl, 9mdhi,

<jynudhi, (jrnuhl, didihi, jahi.

d. To these

may be added

the

gerund in

ya (993

a),

as

abhi-

gtirya, acya.

Vowel-lightening

249. The alteration of short a to an i or u-vowel in the formative processes of the language, except in r or ar roots (as explained
above), is a sporadic phenomenon only.

250. But the lightening of a long a especially to an i-vowel

no other vowel is so un-

also its loss), is a frequent process;

stable.
(as

is

na

717

a.

Of the class-sign

in

weak forms changed to I, and before vowel-endings dropped

The final a of certain roots is treated in the same manner:

gether.

ma, ha,

etc.

(662

6).

(of the

kri-class of verbs:

And from some

so interchange that it is difficult to classify

roots,

them

the

ff.),

alto-

thus,

a- and I- or i-forms

or to determine the true

character of the root.

b. Radical a

is

certain verbal forms:

weakened
as

perfect

to the

semblance of the union-vowel

dadima

from

}/da

etc.

(794k);

in

aorist

adhithas from >/dha etc. (834 a) ; present jahimas from j/ha etc. (665).
c. Radical a is shortened to the semblance of stem-a in a number of
see 671
4; also in a
reduplicated forms, as tis^ha, piba, dada, etc.
few aorists, as ahvam, akhyam, etc.: see 847.
:

d. Radical

sam, deya.

a sometimes becomes

e, especially before

y:

as

stheya-

251]

III.

251. Certain

EUPHONIC COMBINATION.

86

a-roots, because of their peculiar exchanges with I and

Hindu

i-forms, especially in forming the present stem, are given by the

grammarians as roots ending in e or Si or o. Thus, from 2dha suck

(dhe)
come the present dhayati and participle and gernnd dhita, dhitva; the
other forms are made from dha, as dadhus, adhat, dhasyati, dhatave,
dhapayati. From 2ga sing (gal) come the present gayati, the participle and gerund gita and gltva, and passive glyate, and the other forms
from ga. From 3 da cut (do) come the present dyati and participle dita
or

dina, and the other forms from da. The irregularities of these roots
be treated below, under the various formations (see especially 761 d ff.).

will

252. By

ra

to r, the

ya

of a

a process of abbreviation essentially akin with that of

ar or

va

much

(usually initial) of a number of roots becomes u, and the

smaller number becomes i, in certain verbal forms and deriv-

Thus, from vao come uvaca, ucyasam, uktva, ukta, ukti,

uktha, etc. ; from yaj come iyaja, ijyasam, istva, ista, isti, etc. See

atives.

below, under the various formations.

a.

To

this

is given by European grammarians the name

adaptation of a term used in the native grammar.

change

samprasarana, by

of

253. A short a, of root or ending, is not infrequently lost between

consonants in a weakened syllable : thus, in verb-forms, ghnanti, apaptam,
jagrnus, jajnus, ajnata; in noun-forms, rajne, rajni.

254.

Union -vowel s.

All

the simple vowels come to assume in

certain cases the aspect of union-vowels, or insertions

between root or stem

and ending of inflection or of derivation.

a. That character belongs oftenest to i, which is very widely used
before the 8 of aorist and future and desiderative stems, as in ajivisam,
:

1.

jivisyami, jijivisami;

vima;

2. in tense-inflection,

occasionally also present,

as

jivita, khanituxn, janitf, rocifnu,

b.

Long

I is

especially perfect,

aniti, roditi;
etc.

3.

in

as jiji-

derivation,

as

etc.

used sometimes instead

of short:

thus,

agrahisam,

grahiyami;

braviti, vavaditi; tarltr, savitf ; it is also often introduced before s and t of the 2d and 3d sing, of verbs: thus, asis, asit.
c. For details respecting these, and the more irregular and sporadic
occurrences of u- and a-vowels in the same character, see below.

Nasal Increment.
255. Both in roots and in endings, a distinction of stronger and
weaker forms is very often made by the presence or absence of a
nasal element, a nasal mute or anusvSra, before a following consonant. In general, the stronger form is donbtless the more original
but, in the present condition of the language, the nasal has come in
great measure to seem, and to some extent also to be used, as an actually strengthening element, introduced under certain conditions in
formative and inflective processes.
;

NASAL INCREMENT.

87

[-260

a. Examples are, of roots: ac and anc, grath and granth, vid

and vind, da$ and danc,, eras and Brans, drh and drnh: of endings,
bharantam and bharata, manasi and manansi.

n, whether of stem or of root, is less stable than any

a weaker form is called for: thus, from rajan we
have raja and rajabhis, and in composition raja; from dhanin, dhani
and dhanibhis and dhani; from ]/han we have hatha and hata, etc.

256.

final

other consonant, where

final radical

is

sometimes treated in the same way

thus, from ]/ga,m,

gahi, gatam, gata, gati.

On the other hand, the nasal n has come to be

and, in the later history of the language, with increasthus,
frequency as a union-consonant, inserted between vowels

257. Inserted n.
used with great

ing

from agnf, agnfna and agninam; from madhu, xnadhunas, nrmdhnrn,

madhuni; from <;iva, 9ivena, givani, c,ivanam.
258. Inserted y. a. After final a of a root, a y is often found as
apparently a mere union-consonant before another vowel

thus, in inflection,

adhayi etc. (844), gayayati etc. (1042), qivayas etc. (363 c), gayati
etc.
(76 le); further, in derivation, -gfiya, -yayam, dayaka etc.;
-sthayika; payana, -gayana; dhayas, -hayas; sthayin etc. (many
cases), -hitayin, -tatayin; sthayuka.
b. Other more sporadic cases of inserted

such as that in the

pronoun- forms ay am, iyam, vayam, yuyam, svayam ; and in optative

will be pointinflection before an ending beginning with a vowel (565)

ed out below in their connection.

Reduplication.
259. Reduplication of a root (originating doubtless in its complete repetition) has come to be a method of radical increment or
strengthening in various formative processes : namely,
a. in

b. in

present-stem formation (642 ff.): as dadami, bibharmi;

perfect-stem formation, almost universally (782 ff.): as

tatana, dadb.au, cakara, rireca, lulopa;

c. in aorist-stem formation (856 ff.) as adidharam, acucyavam ;
d. in intensive and desiderative - stem formation, throughout
:

(1000

ff.,

1026

ff.):

as janghanti, johaviti,

marmrjyate; pfpasati,

jighansati;
e. in

the formation of derivative nonn-stems (1143e): as papri,

carcara, sasabi, cikitu, malimluca.

f.

Rules

for the treatment of the reduplication

in these several cases

be given in the proper connection below.

260. As, by reason of the strengthening and weakening changes
indicated above, the same root or stem not seldom exhibits, in the
will

processes of inflection and derivation, varieties of stronger and weaker

form, the distinction and description of these varieties forms an important part of the subjects hereafter to be treated.

261

IV. DECLENSION.

CHAPTER

88

IV.

DECLENSION.
261. The general subject of declension includes nouns, adjectives,

and pronouns, all of which are inflected in essentially the same manner.
But while the correspondence of nouns and adjectives is so close that
they cannot well be separated in treatment (chap. V.), the pronouns,
which exhibit many peculiarities, will be best dealt with in a separate
chapter (VII.) and the words designating number, or numerals, also
form a class peculiar enough to require to be presented by them;

selves (chap. VI.).

262. Declensional forms show primarily case and

but they also indicate gender

ber;

distinctions of gender are

they also appear, to

made

since,

num-

though the

partly in the stem

itself,

no inconsiderable extent, in the chang-

es of inflection.

Gender. The

genders are three, namely mascufeminine, and neuter, as in the other older Indo-Euro-

263.
line,

pean languages; and they follow in general the same laws

of distribution as, for example, in Greek and Latin.
a.

The only words which show no sign of gender-distinction are the perof the first and second person (491), and the nnmerals

sonal pronouns

above four (483).

264.
dual,

and

Number. The

numbers are three

singular,

plural.

few words are used only in the plural: as daras wife, apas
water; the numeral dva two, is dual only; and, as in other languages,
many words are, by the nature of their use, found to occur only in the
a.

singular.

265. As to the uses of the numbers,

it

needs only to be remarked

that the dual is (with only very rare and sporadic exceptions) used
strictly in all cases where two objects are logically indicated, whether
directly or by combination of two individuals: thus, Qive te dya-

vappthivi ubhe stam may heaven and earth both be propitious to thee!
daivaih ca manusam ca hotarau vrtva having chosen both the divine
and the human sacrificers; pathor devayanasya pitryanasya ca of
th& two paths leading respectively to the gofo and to the Fathers.

[288

CASES.

89
a.

The dual

Afvins

is

Indira's

vedam vedau vedan va

sas^e c,ate two hundred and

266. Case.

The

and

locative,

one Veda or two or more than two ; eka-

sixty -one.

cases are (including the vocative) eight:

nominative, accusative,
itive,

two bays ; but tasya dvav aqvau stah

But now and then the dual stands alone pregnantly:

fndrasya harl

he has two horses.

thus,

(without dva two) properly when the

well understood thus, acjvmau the two

used alone

is

duality of the objects indicated

instrumental,

dative, ablative,

gen-

vocative.

a. The order in which they are here mentioned is that established for
them by the Hindu grammarians, and accepted from these by Western scholThe Hindu names of the cases are founded on this order: the nomiars.

prathama

native is called
itive

sasthi

sixth

first,

the accusative dvitiya second,

vibhakti

(so.

division,

e.

i.

case),

etc.

the gen-

The

object

simply to set next to one another those cases

which are to a greater or less extent, in one or another number, identical
in form; and, putting the nominative first, as leading case, there is no
sought in the arrangement

is

other order by which that object

considered and

could be attained.

The vocative

is

not

named by the

native grammarians as a case like the rest;

in this work, it will be given in the singular (where alone it is ever dis-

tinguished from the nominative otherwise than by accent) at the end of the
series of cases.

compendious statement of the uses of the cases

is

given in

the following paragraphs:

267. Uses of the jfominative. The nominative is the case

of the subject of the sentence, and of any word qualifying the subject, whether attributively, in apposition, or as predicate.
268. One or two peculiar constructions
a.

predicate nominative,

middle verb-forms that signify regarding

accusative, is used with

one's self: thus,

drinking soma;

call for notice:

instead of an objective predicate in the

somam manyate papivan

or calling

(RV.) he thinks he has been

sa xnanyeta puranavit (AV.) he may regard himself

wise in ancient things;

durgad va aharta VocathSh

as

(MS.) thou hast

fndro brahman 6 bruvanah (TS.)

Brahman; katthase satyavadi (R.) thou boastest thyself truthful.
Similarly with the phrase rupam ky: thus, kysno
rupam krtva (TS.) taking on a black form (i. e. making shape for himclaimed to be a savior out of trouble;

Indra pretending

self as one that

to be a

is

black).

(1102) logically predicate to an object is

svargo loka iti yaih vadanti (AV.) what
they call the heavenly world; tam agnistoma ity acaksate (AB.) it
'ti viddhi
they style agnisjoina; vidarbharajatanayam damayantl
mam (MBh.) know me for the Vidarbha-king's daughter, Damayantl by
b.

word made by

iti

ordinarily nominative: thus,

IV. DECLENSION.

ajnaih hi balam ity ahuh

an ignorant man they give the

Both constructions are combined in

name.

eva tu mantradain (M.)

pite *ty
name of
c.

'child',

90

for to

but that of 'father' to one

who

imparts the sacred texts.

nominative, instead of a second vocative,

a vocative by

ca and;

sometimes added to

is

somam pibatam

fndrag ca

thus,

brhaspate

do ye two drink the soma,

Brhaspati! viqve
(RV.) together with Indra,
devft yajamana<j ca sidata (TS.)
ye AU-Qads, and the sacrificer, take
seats

269. Uses of the Accusative* The accusative is especially

the case of the direct object of a transitive verb, and of any word
qualifying that object, as attribute or appositive or objective predicate. The construction of the verb is shared, of course, by its participles

and

infinitives

but

also, in Sanskrit,

by a number of other

derivatives, having a more or less participial or

and even sometimes by nouns and adjectives.

As

infinitival character,

few prepositions

or goal
construed especially with verbs
found used more adverbially as ad-

are accompanied by the accusative.

of motion or action, the accusative

less direct object,

is

of approach and address. It is

junct of place or time or manner; and a host of adverbs are accusative cases in form. Two accusatives are often found as objects of
the same verb.

270. The use

of the accusative as

direct object

of a transitive

verb

and participles hardly needs illustration; an example

or two are: agnfm ide I praise Agni; namo bharantah bringing homage;
bhuyo datum arhasi thou shouidsi give more. Of predicate words qualiand of

its infinitives

fying the object, an example is tarn

(RY.) him I make formidable, him a

ugram krnomi

tain

brahmanam

priest.

271. Of verbal derivatives having so far a participial character that

they share the construction of the verb, the variety is considerable thus
:

a. Derivatives in

from desiderative stems (1038) have wholly the

thus, damayantim abhipsavah (MBh,)
didfkBur janakatmajam (K.) desiring to see
also, the verbal noun in & from such a root
thus,

character of present participles:

desiring to

win Damayanti

Janaka's daughter. Rarely,

svargam abhikanksaya

(R.) with desire of paradise.

b. So-called primary derivatives in in have the same character: thus,

mam

kamini (AY.) loving me; enam abhibhasim (MBh.) addressing

Even the obviously secondary garbbin has in QB. the same construction
thus, sarvani bhutani garbhy abhavat he became pregnant

him.

-.

with all beings.

c. Derivatives in

v&dakah (MBh.)

aka, in the

later

language

intending to salute you;

as,

bhavantam abhl-

mithilam avarodhakah

(R.)

besieging Mithila.

d.

Nouns in tar, very frequently

phrastic future forms

(942

ff.)

in

in the older language, and as peri-

the later:

thus,

hanta yo vrtram

[273

USES OP THE ACCUSATIVE.

91
sanito 'ta

vajam data maghani

on

seize

this

(RV.) who slayeth

the dragon, winneth

tan hi 'dam sarvam hartarau

booty, bestow eth largesses;

(JB.) for they

tyaktarah saxhyuge pranan (MBh.)

universe;

risking life

in battle.
e. The root itself, in the older language, used with the value of a
piesent participle at the end of a compound thus, yam yajnam paribhur
asi (RV.) what offering thou surroundest (protect estj ; ahim apah paristh
(RV.) the dragon confining the waters. Also a superlative of a root:

am

stem (468, 471): thus, tvam vasu devayate vaniB^hah (RV.) thou
art chief winner of wealth for the pious; ta somam somapatama
(RV.)
they two are the greatest drinkers of soma.
f.

The

derivative in i from

the older language

the (especially the reduplicated) root, in

babhrir vajram papih s6maxh dadir gah

thus,

the thunderbolt, drinking the

(RV.) bearing

atanih (RV.) extending

soma,

yajnam

bestowing feme,-

the sacrifice.

uka, very frequently in the Brahmana language:

vatsan9 ca ghatuko vfkah (AV.) and the wolf destroys his calves;
veduko vaso bhavati (TS.) he wins a garment; kamuka enam striyo
bhavanti (MS.) the women fall in love with him.
g. Derivatives in

thus,

h. Other cases are more sporadic: thus,

derivatives in

a,

as

indro

drdha cid arujah (RV.) Indra breaks up even what is fast; nai *va
'rhah paitrkam riktham (M.) by no means entitled to his father's estate;
in atnu, as vidu cid arujatnubhih (RV.) with the breakers of whatin atha, as yajathaya devan (RV.) ta make offering
ever is strong;
to the

in

gods;

tam nivarane

as

ana,

svamansam iva bhojane

ani, as

(R.) as

if in

(MBh.)

eating one's

samatsu turvanih pytanytin (RV.)

restraining

own

him;
in

flesh;

overcoming foes in combats

na tam dhurtih (RV.) there is no injuring him;

in van,
apatjcaddaghva 'nnam bhavati (MS.) he does not come short of food;
in snu, as sthira cin namayisnavah (RV.) bowing even firm
in ti, as

as

things.

272. Examples
are

corresponding

may be

to,

abhidhrsnu

Varuna.

anuka,

as

RV. has

mam kamena
273. The

or

faithful

accusative in virtue of the

tam antarvatih

to,

pratyanc

daring to cope with,

pratirupa
opposite to,

preposition

they

gods are inferior

pregnant with him; and AV. has

(MS.)

the

through loving me.

direct construction of

found prati, opposite

antar

an ordinary noun or adjective

anuvrata

anuka deva varunam

tively restricted in Sanskrit

of;

words as

regarded as taking an

contain; also
to

of an accusative with

such

only occasional:

to,

(1123

cases with

ff.).

in reference to, etc.

antara between;

rarely

prepositions is

With the
ati

also

accusative

anu

across;

are

comparaoftenest

after, in the course

abhi

against, to;

and

others (1129).
Case-forms which have assumed a prepositional value are
also often used with the accusative
as antarena, uttarena, daksinena,
:

avarena, urdhvam, fte.

274]

IV. DECLENSION.

92

274. The accusative is very often found_also as obj^tj^jrarbsjjrMch

in the related languages are not transitive.
as

a. It stands especially

bringing,

with verbs of going,

the goal of motion,

vidarbhan agaman (MBh.)

sending, and the like: thus,

they

divam yayuh

(MBh.) they went to heaven; vanagulman dhavantah (MBh.) running to woods and bushes: apo divam ud
vahanti (AV.) they carry up waters to the sky; devan yaje (AV.) / make
went

to

Vidarbha;

offering to the gods.

b. With verbs meaning go, this is an extremely common construction

and the use of such a verb with an abstract noun makes peculiar phrases
;

samatam

of becoming: thus,

eti he goes to equality

(i. e.

becomes equal);

sa gacched badhyatam mama (MBh.) he shall become liable to be slain

by me; sa pancatvam agatah (H.) he was resolved into the five elements
(underwent dissolution, died).
c.

Verbs of speaking follow the same rule

thus,

tarn abravlt he

prakro$ad uccair naiaadham (MBh.) she

Nishadhan; yas tvo Vaca (AV.) who spoke to thee.

said to him;
to the

d.
Sanskrit,

The assumption

of an accusative

and such an object

strictly of intransitive

might thou excellest

anta (MS.)
antar val

ma

phrase which

is'

sahasa pra *sy anyan (RV.) in

others ; deva vai brahma sam avad-

art ahead)
were discussing

the

from

were talking together)

(lit.

yajnad yanti (MS.)

are going between}

in

exceptionally easy

character: thus,

(lit.

the gods

object is

taken by a verb or

is often

cried out loudly

offering;

surely they

tarn

are

cutting

brahman;
me

off (lit.

sam babhuva (B.)

he

had

intercourse with her.

275. Examples of the cognate accusative, or accusative of implied

thus, tapas tapyamahe (AV.) we do penance;
te hai 'tarn edhatum edham cakrire (B.) they prospered with that
prosperity; usitva sukhavasam (R.) abiding happily.
object, are not infrequent

276. The

accusative

is

in more

often used

adverbial

constructions.

Thus:
a.

gantum

Occasionally,

(MBh.)

to

to

denote measure of space:

go a hundred ledgues

thus, yojana^atam
sa^ ucchrito yojanani (MBh.)

six leagues high.

b. Much more oftert, to denote measure or duration of time: thus,

sa samvatsaram urdhvo 'tis^hat (AV.) he stood a year upright; tisro
ratrlr diksitah syat (TS.) let him be consecrated three nights; gatva

trln ahoratran (MBh.) having traveled three complete days.

c.

Sometimes,

to

denote the point of space,

or,

oftener,

of time

yam

asya di9am dasyuh. syat (QB-) whatever region his enemy

"
may be in; tenai 'tarn ratrim saha jagama (<^B.) he arrived that
with
imam
night
him;
rajanim vyustam (MBh.) this current night.
thus,

d. Very often, to denote manner or accompanying circumstance.

Thus, the neuter accusative of innumerable adjectives, simple or compound

USES OF THE ACCUSATIVE.

93

used adverbially,

is

(1111),

[279

while certain kinds of compounds are thus

used to such an extent that the Hindu grammarians have made of them a
special adverbial class
e. Special

uvasa (B.)

are

met with

occasionally

he kept a term of studentship

ripen their fruit;

limit

(1313).

cases

gam divyadhvam

277. The

accusative

the same

verb,

as

is,

thus, brahmacaryam
phalam pacyante (MS.) they
:

(MS., S.) gamble for a cow.

of course,

freely

used with other cases to

And whenever

the sense requires.

it

usable

is

with a verb in two different constructions, the verb may take two accusatives, one in each construction: and such combinations are quite frequent
Thus, with verbs of appealing,

in Sanskrit.

having recourse:

asking,

as,

apo yacami bhesajam (RV.) 1 ask the waters for medicine tvam aham
satyam icchami (R.) / desire truth fromthee; tvam vayam 9aranam
;

gatah (MBh.) we

have resorted to thee for succor;

ing, sending, following, imparting, saying

as,

with verbs of bring-

gurutvam naram nayanti

mam

man to respectability; sita ca *nvetu

vanam
accompany me to the forest; supesasam ma Va syjanty
astam (RV.) they let me go home well adorned ; tarn idam abravit (MBh.)
this he said to her;
and in other less common cases: as, vrksam pa(H.) they bring a

(R.)

and

let

Situ

kvam phalam dhunuhi

(RV.) shake ripe

fruit

from

the tree

tarn

visam

eva 'dhok (AV.) poison he milked from her; jitva rajyam nalam (MBh.)
having won the kingdom from Nala; amusnitam panim gah (RV.) ye
robbed the Pani of the kine; drastum icchavah putram pa9cimadar-

^anam
a.

we wish

(R.)

sative objects

gods drink the

the plants bear

merchants

to see

our son for

the last time.

causative form of a transitive verb

to

regularly admits two

accu-

devan t^atah payaya havih (RV.) make the eager

oblation; osadhir eva phalam grahayati (MS.) he makes
he should cause the
fruit'; vanijo dapayet karan (M.)
thus,

pay

taxes.

But such a causative sometimes takes an instru-

mental instead of a second accusative

see

282 b.

278. Uses of the Instrumental. The instrumental is origit denotes adjacency, accompaniment, association
inally the with-case
passing over into the expression of means and instrument by the
:

same transfer of meaning which appears

in the English

prepositions

with and by.

a. Nearly all the uses of the case are readily deducible from this
fundamental meaning, and show nothing anomalous or difficult.

279. The instrumental is often used to signify accompaniment thus,

agnfr devebhir a gamat (RV.) may Agni come hither along with the
gods; marudbhi rudram huvema (RV.) we would call Budra with the
:

Maruts;

dvaparena sahayena kva yasyasi (MBh.)

whither wilt thou go,

with Dvdpara for companion ? kathayan naisadhena (MBh.) talking with

the Nishadhan.
But the relation of simple accompaniment is more often

helped

to plainer expression

by prepositions (saha

etc.:

284).

IV. DECLENSION.

280]

280. The instrumental

means

of

94

or instrument or agent is yet

more

frequent: thus, bhadram karnebhih Qr-nuyama (RV.) may we hear

with our ears what is propitious; gastrena nidhanam (MBh.) death by
the sword; kecit padbhyam hata gajaih (MBh.) some were slain by the
elephants with their feet

prthak panibhy am darbhatarunakair nava-

nltena 'ngusthopakanisthikabhyam aksini

the

thumb and

ajya

(AGS.) anointing

of the bunches of darbha-^rcras, with

two hands successively. And this pass-

with fresh butter, by help

their eyes

ring-finger, using the

es easily over into the expression of occasion or reason (for

more frequent)

tive is

krpaya

thus,

which the abla-

tena satyena

through pity ;

in vir-

tue of that truth.

281. Of

special applications, the following

may be

noticed:

thus, samarn jyotih

equal with the sun; yesam aham na
the dust of whose feet I am not equal.

a. Accordance, equality, likeness,

suryena (AY.) a brightness

padarajasa tulyah (MBh.) to

and the like

b. Price (by which obtained) thus, dagabhih krlnati dhenubhih

(RV.) he buys with ten kine; gavam (jatasahasrena diyatam gabalft
mama (R.) let Cabala be given me for a hundred thousand cows; sa te
:

'ksahfdayam data
thee the secret science

c.

raja, Njvahrdayena vai (MBh.) the king will give

of dice in return for that of horses.

Medium, and hence

also space or distance or road, traversed

thus;

udna na navam anayanta (.RV.) they brought [him] as it were a ship

by water e 'ha yatam patbibbir devayanaih (R V.) come hither by godtraveled paths; jagmur vihayaaft (MBh.) they went off through the air.
d.

Time passed through,

about: thus,
to

Vidarbha

or

by the lapse of which anything

is

brought

vidarbhan yatum icchamy ekahna (MBh.) / wish to go

in the course of one day; te % ca kalena mahata yauvanam

pratipedire (R.) and they in a long time attained adolescence; tatra

kalena jay ante manava dirghajivinah (M.) there in time are born men
This use of the instrumental borders upon that of the locative

long-lived.

and

ablative.

e.

The part

of the

body on

expressed by the instrumental:

a dog

is

cases as

what

carried

on

(or by)

the shoulder;

which anything

and

tulaya krtam (H.) put on

this construction
(i. e.

Not infrequent are such phrases as

is

the use

of

(i.

e.

is

gained &y)
life

to

borne

is

usually

to

is

Tiyate (H.)
extended to such

so as to be carried

fry)

a balance.

bahuna kim pralapena (R.)

much talking ? ko nu me jlvitenS
me? nlrujas tu kim ausadhaih

f.

'rthah (MBh.) what object is

(H.) but what has a well man

is

kukkurah skandheno

as,

do with medicines?

g. An instrumental of accompaniment is occasionally used almost or

quite with the value of an instrumental absolute: thus, na tvaya 'tra

maya Vasthitena ka
need'st feel

'pi cinta karya (Pane.) with me

no anxiety whatever on this point.

at

hand, thou

USES OF THE INSTRUMENTAL.

95

282. a. The construction of a passive verb (or participle) with an

instrumental of the agent is common from the earliest period, and becomes
decidedly more so later, the passive participle with instrumental taking to
no small extent the place of an active verb with its subject. Thus, yamena

dattah (RV.)

given by

Yama; ftibhir idyah (RV.)

vyadhena jalam vistirnam

to be prated by sages;
(H.) by the hunter a net [was] spread; tac

chrutva jaradgaveno 'ktam

gantavyam

(H.) / shaU go.

such a construction

tava 'nucarena

is,

(H.) Jaradgava, hearing thit, said; maya

predicate to the instrumental subject of

of course, also in the instrumental: thus,

maya sarvatha bhavitavyam

always be thy companion; avahitair

you must be attentive.
b.

causative

accusative as second

adhunfi

(H.) henceforth I shall

bhavitavyam bhavadbhih

(Vikr.)

verb sometimes takes an instrumental instead of an

object:

thus,

tarn 9vabhih

king should have her devoured by dogs; ta

he caused Varuna to seite them.
the

283. Many Instrumental constructions

khadayed raja

(M.)

varunenft 'grfthayat (MS.)

are

such as

call

in translation

than with or by; yet the true instrumental relation

usually to be traced, especially if the etymological sense of the words

for other prepositions

is

be carefully considered.
a. More anomalously, however, the instrumental
ably with

the

ablative

with words

is

used interchange-

signifying separation:

thus,

vatsafr

viyutah (RV.) separated from their calves; ma *ham Stmana vi radhisi (AY.) Ut me not be severed from the breath of life; sa taya vyayujyata (MBh.) he was parted from her; pSpman&i *vft 'nam vi punanti
The
(MS.) they cleanse him from evil (compare English parted with).
same meaning may he given to the case even when accompanied by saha
with: thus, bhartra saha viyogah (MBh.) separation from her husband.
284. The prepositions taking the instrumental (1127) are those signifying with and the like : thus, salia, with the adverbial words containing
sa as an element, as aakam, sardham, saratham;
and, in general,

a word compounded with sa,

sam, saha

But
complement.
takes sometimes the instrumental (cf.

lar

and

natural

takes an instrumental as its regu-

also

the

preposition

283 a).
285. Uses of the Dative. The dative

is

vina

without

the case of the

indirect object
of that toward or in the direction of or in order
to or for which anything is or is done (either intransitively or to a
direct object).
a. In
of the

more physical connections, the uses of the dative approach those

(the more proper to-case), and the two are sometimes

accusative

interchangeable ; but the general value of the dative as the toward- or forcase is almost everywhere distinctly to be traced.

286. Thus, the dative is used with

a. Words signifying give, share out, assign, and the like: thus, yo na
dadati sakhye (RV.) who gives not to a friend ; yaccha 'smai (jarma
(RV.) bestow upon him protection.

IV. DECLENSION.

286]
b. Words signifying

96
and the like: thus,

announce, declare,
(R.) show the bow to

show,

dhanur darqaya ramaya

Rama; avir ebhyo

abhavat suryah (KV.) the sun was manifested to them; rtuparnam bhimaya pratyavedayan (MBh.) they announced Rituparna to Bhima; tebhyah prat ij nay a (MBh.) having promised to them.
c.

Words signifying

give

have a regard or feeling,

attention,

aspire,

niveqaya mano dadhuh (MBh.) they set their minds

upon encamping; mate Va putrebhyo mrda (AV.) be gracious as a
and the like

mother
at

us?

thus,

to her sons; kirn asmabhyam hrnlse (RV.) why art thou

kamaya spyhayaty atma (Spr.) the soul longs for love.

d.

Words signifying

Words

e.

suit, conduce, and the like

thus, yad(M.) whatever is pleasing to Brahmans ; tad athat makes for immortality.

please,

yad rocate viprebhyah

nantyaya kalpate (KU.)

signifying inclination, obeisance,

namantam pradi^a9 catasrah

to

me; devebhyo

(RV.)

and the

like: thus,

the four quarters

let

namaskrtya (MBh.)

Words signifying hurling

f.

angry

mahyam

bow themselves

having paid homage to the gods.

or casting

as

yena dudage asyasi (AV.)

with which thou hurlest at the impious.

g. In

some of these constructions the genitive and locative are

also

used: see below.

287. In
of, with

its

reference

more distinctive sense, as signifying for, for the benefit

to, and the like, the dative is used freely, and in a

great variety of constructions.

And

this use

passes

dative of end or purpose, which is extremely

over into

common.

that of

the

{sum krngrhnami te sauThus,

vana asanaya (AV.) making an arrow for hurling;

bhagatvaya hastam (RV.) I take thy hand in order to happiness; r astray a
mahyam badhyatam sapatnebhyah parabhuve (AV.) be it bound
on in order

me, in order to destruction for my enemies.

much used predicatively (and oftenest with the
copula omitted), in the sense of makes for, tends toward; also is intended
for, and so must; or is liable to, and so can.
Thus, upadego murkhanam
a.

to royalty for

Such a dative

is

prakopaya na 9antaye

(H.) good counsel [tends] to the exasperation,

not the conciliation, of fools

and

he

was not

na 'bhavat
na dabhaya (RV.)

sa ca tasyah samtosaya

to her satisfaction;

asi

sugopa

art a good herdsman, not one for cheating

(i.

e.

(H.)
thou

not to be cheated).

b. These uses of the dative are in the older language especially illustrated by the dative infinitives, for which see 982.

288. The
289.

dative is not used with prepositions (1124).

Uses of the Ablative.

The

in the various senses of that preposition;

is the /rom-case,
used to express re-

ablative
it

is

moval, separation, distinction, issue, and the like.

290. The
lease, defense,

ablative is used where expulsion, removal, distinction, reand other kindred relations are expressed: thus, t6 sedhanti

patho vfkam (AV.)

they drive

away

the

wolf from

the

path;

ma

pra

USES OF THE ABLATIVE.

97

[292

gaxna pathah (RV.) may ice not go away from the path; eti va esa
yajnamukhat (MS.) he verily goes away from the face of the sacrifice;
are asmad astu hetih (AV.) far from us be your missile; patam no
vfkat (RV.) save us from the wolf; astabhnad dyam avasrasah (RV.)
he kept

made

(lit.

291. The

firm) the sky

from

ablative is used

falling.

where procedure or issue from something

from a source or starting-point is signified thus, gukra krsnad ajathe bright one has been born from the black one ; lobhat krodhah prabhavati (MBh.) passion arises from greed; vatat te pranam
as

nista (RV.)

(AV.) / have won thy life-breath from the wind; ye pracya di<jo
abhidasanty asman (AV.) who attack us from the eastern quarter; tac
chrutva sakhiganat (MBh.) having heard that from the troop of friends;
vayur antariksad abhasata (MBh.) the wind spoke from the sky.

avidam

Hence

a.

the ablative
nical

also,

procedure as from a cause or occasion

is

this is especially frequent in the later language,

is

phraseology

standing construction;

it

borders

signified by
and in tech-

on instrumental

Qusnad dadara (RV.) from (by reason

of) the fury of the thunderbolt he burst asunder; yasya dandabhayat
sarve dharmaxn anurudhyanti (MBh.) from fear of whose rod all are
constant to duty ; .akarami^ritatvad ekarasya (Tribh.) because e conconstructions.

tains

Thus, vajrasya

an element of

a.

b. Very rarely, an ablative has the sense of after

thus,

agacchann

ahoratrat tirtham (MBh.) they went to the shrine after a whole day;
takarat sakare takarena (APr.) after t, before s, is inserted t.
292. One or two special applications of the ablative construction are
to

be noticed:

a. The ablative with words implying fear (terrified recoil from) thus,
tasya jatayah sarvam abibhet (AV.) everything was afraid of her at
her birth; yasmad rejanta krstayah (RV.) at whom mortals tremble;
:

yusmad bhiya
whom

(BhG.) of

(RV.) through fear of you;

world is not afraid.

yasman no

'dvijate lokah

the

b. The ablative of comparison (distinction from)

thus, pra ririce
diva Indrah prthivyah (RV.) Indra is greater than the heaven and the
earth.
With a comparative, or other word used in a kindred way, the abla:

tive is the regular

and almost constant construction

yah

(RV.) sweeter than the sweet;

what

is

thus,

svadoh svadi-

kim tasmad duhkhataram

(MBh.)

ko mitrad anyah

(H.) who else than a

the
kine rather than me;
thou
hast
chosen
(AB.)

more painful than that?

ga avrnitha mat
ajnebhyo granthinah ^restha granthibhyo dharino varah

friend;

(M.)

possessors of texts are better than ignorant

are better than

possessors;

set

elsewhere

men; rememberers
tad anyatra tvan nl dadhmasi (AV.) we

(away) from thee;

this

purva vi^vasmad bhuvanat (RV.)

down
earlier

than all beings.

c. Occasionally, a probably possessive genitive is used

parative

or

an instrumental

Whitney, Grammar.

2. ed.

(as

in~ a

comparison

of

with the com-

equality)
7

thus,

292
na

IV. DECLENSION.

superior in fortune)

my

my

a son dearer than

thus,

mama

dhanyataro

'sti

(i. e.

no one more fortunate than I

(R.) there is

putram

98

mama pranair garlyasam

(MBh.)

life.

d. Occasionally, an ablative is used instead of a partitive genitive:

mithunad
jaghana (R.) he slew one out of the pair; tebhya

ekam

ekam

(KSS.) one of them.

293. The ablative is used with a variety of prepositions and words

sharing a prepositional character (1128); but all these have rather an adverbial value, as strengthening or defining the /rom-relation, than any proper
may notice here:
governing force.

We

a. In the Teda,

adhi and pari

ening adjuncts with the ablative:

from
from

are

as,

much used

as directing

and strength-

jat6 himavatas par! (AY.) born

eamudrkd adhi
carantam pari tasthusah

the

Himalaya (forth);

jajftige (AV.) toot* art born

the

ocean;

(BY.) moving forth from that

which stands

fast.

pur a (and puras), in the sense of forward /rom, and hence

purajarasah (RV.) before old age: and hence also, with words
protection and the like, from: as qaqamanah pura nidah (RV.) seb. Also

before: as,

of

ill-will.

curing from
o.

Also a, in the sense of hither from,

anu QUfyatu (AY.) let it dry

nadyo nama stha (AY.) since
ally,

to,

is

as,

mulad

later language, the measurement of interval

reversed in direction, and the construction means all the

until: as,

mountains
this

way from :

and especially in the

implied in a

way

all the

completely up from the root; tasmad a

that time ye are called rivers.
Bat usu-

yati giribhya a

to the ocean;

sacrifice;

&

samudrat (BY.)

a 'sya yajnasyo 'dfcah

oda<;at (M.)

till

the

sixteenth

going from the

(YS.) until the end of

year;

ft

pradanat (.)

until her marriage.

294.

Uses of the [GenUTve]

a.

The proper value of the

genitive is adjectival it belongs to and qualifies a noun, designating

something relating to the latter in a manner which the nature of the
;

case, or the connection, defines more nearly. Other genitive constructions, with adjective or verb or preposition, appear to arise out
of this, by a more or less distinctly traceable connection.
b.

The use of the

genitive has become much extended, espeby attribution of a noun-character to the

cially in the later language,

adjective, and by pregnant verbal construction, so that it often bears

the aspect of being a substitute for other cases
as dative, instrumental, ablative, locative.

295. The genitive in its normal adjective construction with a noun

01 pronoun is classifiable into the usual varieties : as, genitive of possession
or appurtenance, including the complement of implied relation
this is,
as elsewhere, the commonest of all; the so-called partitive genitive; the
subjective and objective genitives;

and

so on.

Genitives of apposition or

USES OF THE GENITIVE.

99

[297

equivalence (city of Rome), and of characteristic (man of honor), do not

and hardly that of material (house of wood). Examples are indra-

occur,

Bya vajrah Indra's thunderbolt ; pits putranam father of sons ; putrah

pituh son of the father pituh kamah putrasya, the father's love of the
;

ke nah

son;

am dasmam

which of us; 9 at

a hundred female

slaves.

The expression

of possession etc. on the part of pronouns la made

a.
almost entirely by the genitive case, and not by a derived possessive adjective (516).

(of.

to

b. Exceptional cases like nagarasya margah the road to the city

chemin de Paris), yasya Tiarh duta ipsitah (MBh.) as messenger

le

whom I am

wanted, are occasionally met with.

296. The

a.

genitive

dependent on an adjective

is

so-called partitive genitive

value:

of similar substantival

vlrudham viryavatl (AV.)

a superlative, or another word

-with

Qrestham Vfranam

thus,

the

of plants

best

of heroes;

mighty (mightiest) one.

b. Very often, by a transfer of the possessive genitive from noun to

adjective, the adjective being treated as if it

samah

anurupah

or

or

sadrqah

had noun-value:

resembling him

(i.

e.

his

thus,
like);

tasya
tasya

priya dear to him (his dear one); tasya Viditam unknown to him (his
unknown thing'); havyaQ carsamnam (RV.) to be sacrificed to by mortals
(their object of sacrifice") ; ipsito naranarinam (MBh.) desired of men and
women (their object of desire); yasya kasya prasutah (H.) of whomsoever born (his son); hantavyo 'smi na te (MBh.) / am not to be slain
of thee ; kim arthinam vancayitavyam asti
a deceiving of suppliants?
c.

In part, by a construction similar

genitive object: thus,

duties

(II.)

to that

abhijna rajadharmanam

why should

be

which take a

of verbs
(R.)

there

understanding the

of a king.

297. The

genitive as object of a verb is:

possessive genitive of the recipient,

by pregnant construction,
with verbs signifying give, impart, communicate, and the like thus, varan
pradaya 'sya (MBh.) having bestowed gifts upon him (made them his by
a.

bestowal);
his

rajno niveditam (H.)

by knowledge);

was made known

it

to

the

king (made

yad anyasya pratijnaya punar anyasya dlyate

(M.) that after being promised to one she is given to another. This construction, by which the genitive becomes substitute for a dative or locative,

abounds in the
and

later language,

and

is

extended sometimes

to problematic

difficult cases.

b.

(in

most

cases, probably) partitive genitive,

or less absolute object than

(eat,

drink, etc.), as

piba sutasya

as a less complete

thus, with verbs meaning partake

(AV.) drink (of) thesoma; madhvah

an accusative

with verbs meaning

to drink the sweet draught;
mpart (of the thing imparted) etc., as dadata no amftasya (RV.) bestow
with verbs meaning enjoy, be satisfied or filled
upon us immortality;

payaya

(RV.) cause

7*

IV. DECLENSION.

297]
with:

matsy andhasah (RV.)

as,

purayanti

(S.)

they

fill

with

do

100

thou

regard with feeling of Carious kinds

note, care for,

the juice;

ajyasya
meaning preceive,
as, vasisthasya stuwho was praising him;

enjoy

with verbs

butter;

vata indro a9rot (RV.) Indra listened to Vasishtha

yatha mama smarat (AV.) that he may think of me; tasya cukopa
(MBh.)

he

c.

was angry
genitive

or have authority: as,

things

at

him.

with verbs meaning rule

(RV.) thou art lord of good
esaih virajani (AV.) that I may rule over them ;

of

more doubtful

tvam

yatha *ham

Igise

character,

vasunam

katham mrtyuh prabhavati veda^astravidam

power over
d.

who know

those

(M.)

how has death

Vedas and treatises?

the

genitive, instead of an ablative, is sometimes found used with a

verb of receiving of any kind (hearing included), and with one of fearing:
thus,

yo rajnah pratigrhnati lubdhasya

(M.) whoever accepts a gift

from a greedy king; 9rnu me (MBh.) learn from me; bibhlmas tava
(MBh.) we are afraid of thee.

298.
cate,

genitive in its usual possessive sense

is

often found as predi-

and not seldom with the copula omitted: thus, yatha *so

kevalah (AV.)

that thou

mayest be wholly mine;

mama

sarvah sampattayas

tasya samtustam yasya manasam (H.) all good fortunes are his who
as objective predicate, bhartuh putram vijahas a contented mind;
nanti (M.) they recognise a son as the husband's.
299.

The prepositional constructions of the

a.

genitive

(1130)

are

most part with such prepositions as are really noun-cases and have
the government of such: thus, agre, arthe, krte, and the like; also with
other prepositional words which, in the general looseness of use of the
for the

become assimilated

genitive, have

take the genitive: either usually,

adhas, antar,
b.

to these.

like

upari

few more real prepositions

above,

or

occasionally,

like

ati.

genitive

is

occasionally

used in the older language with an

adverb, either of place or of time: thus, yatra kva ca kuruksetrasya

(B.) in whatever part of Kuntkshetra; yatra tu bhumer jayeta (MS.)
on what spot of earth he may be born; idanim ahnah (RV.) at this time
the day; yasya ratryah pratah (MS.) on the mcrn of what night;
dvih samvatsarasya (K.) twice a year. Such expressions as the last

of

occur also

300.

later.

a.

The

genitive is very little used adverbially;

of time occur in the older language:

and there

are found later such

certain time;

tatah kalasya

as,

cases as

few genitives

vastos by day;
kasya cit kalasya (.) after a

aktos by

mahatah prayayau

night,

(11.)

then after

a long

time he went forth.

b.

genitive, originally of possession, passing over into one of gene-

comes in the later language (the construction is unknown

be used absolutely, with an agreeing participle, or quite rarely

ral concernment,
earlier) to

USES OF THE LOCATIVE.

101

From such cases as the following

nakulair bhaksitah sutah (H.) of

an adjective.

sya
looked

young were eaten by

on, the

the

[302

pa<jyato
the

ichneumons,

bakamurkha-

foolish heron,

while

he

gato *rdharatrah
was passed in telling

or

kathah kathayato mama (KSS.) half my night

stories, or kartavyasya karmanah ksipram akriyamanasya kalah
pibati tadrasam (H.) of a work needing to be done but left undone time
quickly drinks

up

come

essence

its

into currency,

by increasing indepen-

dence of the genitive, such other cases as: divam

pagyatam tada (R.) *he went then to heaven, the

evam

lalapatas tasya devadutas tada Hbhyetya

jagama

munmam

ascetics

looking on;

vakyam aha

as he thus lamented, a divine messenger coming addressed him; iti

(MBh.)

vadina

eva 'sya dhenur avavrte vanat

(Ragh.) while he thus spoke, the cow

genitive always indicates a living actor, and the
participle is usually one of seeing or hearing or uttering, especially the
former.
The construction is said by the Hindu grammarians to convey an

came from

the forest.

The

and such

implication of disregard or despite;

it, though not prevailingly.

is often

be recognized in

to

301. Uses of the Locative, a. The locative is properly the

w-case, the case expressing situation or location; but its sphere of
use has been somewhat extended, so as to touch and overlap the
boundaries of other cases, for which it seems to be a substitute.
b. Unimportant variations of the sense of in are those of amid

Of course, also, situation in time as well as

and it is applied to yet less physical
relations, to sphere of action and feeling and knowledge, to state of
things, to accompanying circumstance; and out of this last grows
or among, on, and
place is indicated

at.

by

the case

the frequent use of the locative as the case absolute.

c. Moreover, by a pregnant construction, the locative is used
to denote the place of rest or cessation of action or motion (into or
on to instead of in or on German in with accusative instead of dative
:

compare English
302. a. The

there for thither).

locative of

situation in

space

hardly

needs illustration.

ye deva divi stha (AV.) which of you gods

are in heaven; na devesu na yakseu tadyk (MBh.) no* amonp gods
or Yakshas is such a orfe ; parvatasya pps^he (RV.) on the ridge of the
mountain; vidathe santu devah (RV.) may the gods be at the assembly;

An

example or two are

the tenth step.

da<jame pade (MBh.) at
b. The locative of time indicates the point of time at which anyat the shining forth
thing takes place: thus, asya us.aso vyuafSu (RV.)
kale (MBh.) at just that time; dvadac.e
of this dawn; etasminn eva

varse (MBh.)

in the twelfth year.

That the accusative

is

occasionally used

was pointed out above (276 c).

in this sense, instead of the locative,
of the place at which, one is or
instead
with
whom,
c. The person

tfsthanty asmin pac>vah (MS.)

vaaan (M.) living at a teacher's; and,
tavat tvayi bhavisyami (MBh.) so long will I cleave to thee.

is put in the locative

animate abide with him; gurau

remains

pregnantly,

thus,

303]

IV. DECLENSION.

303. The

locative of sphere

made

&Mm

102

or condition or circumstance is of very

fndro jaghana (RV.) in fury Indra slew

the dragon; mitrasya sumatau syama (RV.) may we be in the favor of
Mitra; te vacane ratam (MBh.) delighted in thy words.

frequent use: thus,

a. This construction is,

on the one hand, generalized into an expres-

sion for in the matter or ease of, or with reference to. respecting, and takes
in the later language a very wide range, touching upon genitive and dative
thus, e 'mam bhaja grame sujveau gosu (AY.) be genhim in retainers, in horses, in cattle; tarn it sakhitva imahe
(RV.) him we beg for friendship; upayo 'yam maya drsta anayane
tava (MBh.) this means was devised by me for (with reference to) bringing
thee hither; satitve karanam striyah (H.) the cause of (in the case of)
a woman's chastity; na Qakto 'bhavan nivarane (MBh.) he was not

constructions

nerous

to

capable of preventing.

b.

On

the other hand, the

expression by the locative of a condition

which anything takes place, or of a conditioning or accompanying circumstance, passes over into a well-marked absolute construction,
which is known even in the earliest stage of the language, but becomes
of things in

more frequent

later.

Transitional examples are: have tva sura udite

I call to thee at the arisen sun (when

have madhyamdine divah (RV.)

the

sun has

na

me kopah

no anger on
C.

ciple

I call at midtime of the day; aparadhe krte 'pi ca

(MBh.) and even in case of an offense committed, there is

risen),

my

part.

The normal condition of the absolute construction

is

with a parti-

samidhane agnau
kale qubhe prapte
fire kindled
avasannayam ratrav astacala-

accompanying the noun: thus, stlrne barhfs,i

(RV.) when the barhis is strewn and the

(MBh.) a propitious time having arrived;

cudavalambini candramasi (H.) the night having drawn

moon resting on the summit of the western mountain.

to

close,

and

the

d.

But the noun may be wanting, or may be replaced by an adverbevam, tatha, iti) thus, varsati when it rains ; [surye]

ial substitute (as

astamite

adityasya dr^yamane (8.) while there

sun; ity ardhokte (.) with these words half

after sunset;

[some part] of

t/te

asmabhih samanujnate (MBh.)

ukte kalina (MBh.)
it

it

being fully assented to by us;

is

seen

uttered;

evam

being thus spoken by Kali; tatha 'nus.thite (H.)

So likewise the participle may be wanting (a
being thus accomplished.
it

copula sati or the like having to be supplied): thus, dure bhaye the cause
of fear being remote; while, on the other hand, the participle sati etc. is

sometimes redundantly added to the other participle: thus,

sati

it

tatha kyte

being thus done.

e. The locative is frequently used adverbially or prepositionally (1116):

thus, -arthe or -kyte in the matter of, for the sake of; agre in front of;

yte without; samipe near.

304. The pregnant construction by which the

press the

goal or object

of motion or action

locative

or feeling

comes

exercised

to
is

ex-

not

USES OF THE LOCATIVE.

to;

uncommon from

the earliest time.

by no means

It is

to

307

be sharply distinone another,

guished from the ordinary construction; the two pass into

with a doubtful territory between. It occurs:

sending, placing, communiwhere an accusative or

a. Especially with verbs, as of arriving,

cating, bestowing,

and many

a dative (or a genitive,

others, in

297 a) might be

situations

looked

for,

and exchangeable with

sa f d dev6s.u gacchati (RV.) that, truly, goes to (to be among')

the gods,' ImaTh no yajnam amftesu dhehi (RV.) set this offering of
ours among the immortals,- ya asincanti rasam ogadhlgu (AY.) who
them

thus,

pour in

the juice into

prayacche "<jvare

medinyam

ma

the plants (or, the juice that is in the plants);

lUnftTimn (H.) do not offer wealth to a lord; papata

(MBh.) he

fell to (so as to be

(H.) putting on toe shoulder; saxhgrutya

the earth;

skandhe krtva

purvam asmasu

(MBh.) having

us.

promised

before

upon)

b. Often also with nouns and adjectives in similar constructions (the

separate from those of the locative meaning

instances not always easy to

303 a): thus, daya sarvabhutesu compassion

anuragam naisadhe (MBh.) affection for the Niraja samyag vrttah sada tvayi (MBh.) the king has always

with reference to:

toward

all

shadhan;

above,

creatures;

behaved properly toward thee.

305. The prepositions construed with the locative (11 26) stand to it
only in the relation of adverbial elements strengthening and directing its
meaning.

306. Declensional forms are

made by the

addition of

endings to the stem, or base of inflection.

a.

The stem

of words,

stronger form in
b.

itself,

liable to

is

some

however, in
variation,

cases

especially

as

and a weaker in

And between stem and

connecting elements

many words and

classes

assuming a

w>VVf ^

others.

ending are sometimes inserted

(or what, in

the recorded condition of

the language, have the aspect of being such).

c. Respecting all these points, the details of treatment,

by each
chapters.

as

exhibited

words or by single words, will be given in the following

Here, however, it is desirable also to present a brief general view

class of

of them.

307. Endings: Singular, a. In the nominative, the usual

masc. and fern, ending is s
which, however, is wanting in derivative a and i-stems; it is also euphonically lost (150) by consonantstems. Neuters in general have no ending, but show in this case
the bare stem a-stems alone add
(as in the accus. masc.). Among

am

a frequent masc. and fern. nom. ending (and

found even in du. and pi.); and neuters show a form in d.

the pronouns,

is

is

307]

IV. DECLENSION.

104

or am is the inasc. and fena. ending

accusative,
being added after a consonant and r, and after I and u in the
elsewhere after vowels. The neuter accusative
radical division, and
is like the nominative.
b. In the

am

The instrumental ending

c.

and u-vowels, the a

final i-

language

it is

for all genders alike is a.

With

variously combined, and in the older

sometimes lost by contraction with them. Stems in a
is

ena (sometimes ena in V.), and those in a

end in aya; but instances occur, in the early language, of
immediate addition of a to both a and a.

make
make

the case end in

it

d.

modes

The dative ending

of combination of

is in

and

general e; and with it likewise the

are various (and disappearance

final

contraction not unknown in the oldest language). The a-stems

are quite irregular in this case, making it end in aya
excepted is
the pronominal element -sma, which combines (apparently) with e to
-sinai.
In the personal pronouns is found bhyam (or hyam).

by

e.
fuller ending ai (like gen.-abl. as and loc. am: see below)
belongs to feminine stems only. It is taken (with interposed y) by
the great class of those in derivative a ; also by those in derivative i,

reckoned in the later language) in derivative u. And later

allowed to be taken by feminine stems in radical I and u, and
even by those in i and u: these last have it in the earliest language

and

(as

it is

in only exceptional instances.

gen. as, see below, h.

For the substitution of Si

for abl.-

f. The ablative has a special ending, d (or tj, only in a-stems,

masc. and neut., the a being lengthened before it (except in the personal pronouns of 1st and 2d person, which have the same ending

at in the

where

pi.,

and even,

in the old language, in the

else, the ablative is identical

dual).

Every-

with the genitive.

g. The genitive of a-stems (and of one pronominal u-stem,

amu) adds sya. Elsewhere, the usual abl.-gen. ending is as; but its

irregularities of treatment in combination with a stem-final are considerable. With i and u, it is either directly added (only in the old

added with interposed n, or fused to es and os

With r (or ar) it yields ur (or us: 169b).

language),
ively.

respect-

h. The fuller as is taken by feminine stems precisely as ai is

taken in the dative: see above. But in the language of the Brahmanas and Sutras, the dative-ending ai is regularly and commonly used
instead of as, both of ablative and of genitive. See 365 d.
is i in consonant- and r- and a-stems
a to e in the latter;. The i- and u-stems (unless the
final vowel is saved by an interposed n) make the case end in au;
but the Veda has some relics or traces of the older forms (ay-i [?]
and av-i) out of which this appears to have sprung. Vedic locatives
i.

The locative ending

(fusing with

[309

CASE-ENDINGS.

105

from i-stems end also in a and 1. The pronominal element -sma

locative -smin. Stems in an in the older language often
lose the i, and use the bare stem as locative.

makes the

j.

The ending

abl.-gen. as,

and

am

is

is the locative correspondent to dat. Si and

taken under the same circumstances: see above.

k. The vocative (unless by accent: 314) is distinguished

from the nominative only in the singular, and not quite always there.
In a- s terns, it is the unaltered stem, and so also in most consonantstems; but neuters in an and in may drop the n; and the oldest
language has sometimes a vocative in a from stems in nt and ns.
Stems in r change this to ar. In masc. and fern, i- and u-stems, the
case ends respectively in e and o; in neuters, in the same or in i
and u. Stems in a change a to e ; derivative I and u are shortened
radical stems in long vowels use the nominative form.
;

is

308. Dual. a. The dual has

except so far as the vocative
sometimes distinguished from nominative and accusative by a dif-

ference of accent:

314

and voc.

instr., dat.,

b.

one for

only three case-forms: onefornom., accus.,

and abl. and one for gen. and loc.

But the pronouns of

and 2d person in the older language

1st

distinguish five dual cases: see

492b.

The masc. and fein. ending for nom.-accus.-voc. is in the

language usually au; but instead of this the Veda has prevailingly a. Stems in a make the case end in e. Stems in i and u,
masc. and fern., lengthen those vowels; and derivative i in the Veda
remains regularly unchanged, though later it adds au. The neuter
c.

later

ending
d.

is

only I; with final a this combines to

The

e.

universal ending for the instr. -dat. -abl. is bhyam,

is made long.
In the Veda, it is often to be

before which final a

read as two syllables, bhiam.

e.

The

universal ending of gen. -loc.

a alike become e

is

os; before

this,

a and

fal).

309. Plural,
and feminine ending

a.

In the

is as.

nominative,

the general masculine

often makes

The old language, however,

the case in asas instead of as from a-stems, and in a few examples

also from a-stems. From derivative i-stems, Is instead of yas is the

regular and usual Vedic form.

nom. in
b.

Pronominal a-stems make the masc.

e.

The neuter ending (which

and before

this the

final

is

of a stem

accusative also)

is in

general i;

apt to be strengthened,
insertion of a nasal, or by both.
is

by

But
prolongation of a vowel, or by
in the Veda the hence resulting forms in ani, mi, uni are frequently
abbreviated by loss of the ni, and sometimes by further shortening
of the preceding vowel.

IV. DECLENSION.

309]
c.

The accusative ending

in the radical

division of I-

is

106

also as in consonant-stems

and u-stems (and

and

in the old

language
Stems in short vowels lengthen those vowels and
even elsewhere).
add in the masculine n (for ns, of which abundant traces remain),
and in the feminine s. In the neuter, this case is like the nominative.
d. In the instrumental, the case-ending is everywhere bhis
except in a-stems, where in the later language the case always ends
in ais, but in the earlier either in Sis or the more regular ebhis
(abhis in the two personal pronouns; and the pronominal stem a

[501] makes ebhis only).

The dative and ablative have in the plural the same

bhyas (in Veda often bhias), before which
only a is altered, becoming e. But the two personal pronouns dise.

form, with the ending

two cases, having for the ablative the singular ending (as
above pointed out), and for the dative the peculiar bhyam (almost
never in Veda bhiam), which they extend also into the singular.
f. Of the genitive, the universal ending is am; which (except
optionally after radical I and u, and in a few scattering Vedic instances) takes after final vowels an inserted consonant, s in the pronominal declension, n elsewhere; before n, a short vowel is lengthened; before s, a becomes e. In the Veda, it is frequently to be
pronounced in two syllables, as a-am.
tinguish the

g<

The locative ending

only change before

h.

only by

it is

is

that of

The vocative,

su, without

any exceptions, and the

to e.

as in the dual, differs from the nominative

its accent.

310.

The normal scheme of

endings, as recognized by

the native grammarians (and conveniently to be assumed as

the basis of special descriptions),

N.

A.

am

I.

D.
Ab.

a. It is

this:

Dual.

Singular
m. f. n.

\/

is

G.

e
as
as

L.

taken in bulk by the consonantal stems and by the radand u-stems by other vowel-stems, with more or

ical division of i-

considerable variations and modifications.

The endings which
have almost or quite unbroken range, through stems of all classes,
are bhyam and OB of. the dual, and bhis, bhyas, am, and su of the
less

plural.

WEAK

STRONG AND

107
311.

Variation of Stem.

large classes of

between

words

strong

is

far

By

a.

portant matter under this head

[312

STEM.

most im-

the

the distinction

made

in

(chiefly those ending in consonants)

and

weak stem-forms

standing in evident connection with the

In the nom. and accus.

distinction

phenomena of accent.

and du. and the nom.

sing,

pi.

whose endings are never accented: 316 a),

(the
the stem often has a stronger or fuller form than in the
five

cases

rest: thus, for

example

(424),

^IsTH^rajan-am,

{JslMI

rajan

au, JTsTHH^rajan-as, against JTUT rajn-a and

bhis; or (450 b) H<C mH^nahftnt-am and (447)

am

against H^rti mahat-S

and

R[fTT

adat-5.

These

five,

therefore, are called the cases with strong stem, or, briefly,

the

strong
weak stem,

cases;

or

cases

rest

weak

cases.

the

some

again, are in

and the

classes of

of weakest stem,

middle stem, or

or

middle

beginning with a vowel

called the cases with

are

And

the

weak

cases,

words to be distinguished into

weakest

cases:

cases,

and

cases of

the former having endings

(instr., dat.,

abl.-gen.,

and

loc. sing.;

^C^-* "X^pi

gen.-loc. du.

gen.

the latter, with a consonant (inst-

pi.);

dat.-abl. du.; instr., dat.-abl.,

The

and

loc. pi.).

above defined, belongs

only to masculine and feminine stems. In neuter inflection,
the only strong cases are the nom.-acc. pi.; while, in those
b.

stems that

class of strong cases, as

make

a distinction of weakest and middle form,

the nom.-acc. du. belongs to the weakest class, and the nom.acc. sing, to the

middle

thus,

pratyaric-i, nom.-acc.

anc-as,

nom.

pi.

masc.

for

example, compare (408)

pi. neut.,

and MciNU praty-

yrftal pratic-i, nom.-acc. du. neut.,

and MrfhllU pratio-os, gen.-loc. du.; ^ru^ti pratyak, nom.acc. sing, neut., and MrUfjTO pratyag-bhia, instr. pi.
312. Other

may be mainly

variations concern chiefly

left

to

the final vowel of a stem, and

be pointed out in detail below.

Of consequence

M N

312]

IV. DECLENSION.

108

enough to mention here is only the guna-strengthening of a final i or u,

which in the later language is always made before as of nom. pi. and e

and fern. ; in the Veda, it does not always take place

forbidden in dat. sing. neut. also; and it is seen sometimes in
Final y has guna-strengthening in loc. sing.
sing.

of dat. sing, in masc.

nor

IB it

loc.

313. Insertions between Stem and Ending. After vowel-stems,

n often makes its appearance before an ending. This appendage

an added
is

of least questionable origin

in nom.-acc. pi. neut., where the interchange

in the old language of the forms of ais

it

where,

mass of cases, and from the earliest period, the ending is virtuIn the i- and u-stems of the later language, the
after a vowel.

the great

nam

ally
instr.

and

and i-stems with those of an- and

Elsepretty complete; and the u-stems follow their analogy.

is most widely and firmly established in the gen. pi., where in

in-stems

of masc. and neut. is separated by its presence from

sing,

in the other weakest cases

it is

made

the

fern.,

a usual distinction of neuter forms

from masculine; bat the aspect of the matter in the Veda

is

very different:

there the appearance of the n is everywhere sporadic; the neuter shows no

special inclination to take it, and it is not excluded even from the femi-

In the ending

nine.

its

nating)

ena

from a-stems (later invariable, earlier predomito have worked the most considerable trans-

appears

presence

formation of original shape.

a. The place of
a- and a-stems.

b. The

after

before gen.

pi.

am

is

taken by a in pronominal

a before the endings ai, as, and

made elsewhere (258).

am

is

most proba-

bly an insertion, such as is

Accent
314.
at

all,

is

b.

As

a rule without exception, the vocative,

accented on the

And

in the

Declension.
if

accented

first syllable.

Veda (the

case is a rare one), whenever a syllable written

be pronounced as two by restoration of a semivowel to vowel

form, the first element only has the vocative accent, and the syllable as
as

one

a.

in

is

to

is circumflex (83
4): thus, dyaus (i. e. diaus) when dissyllabic,
dyaus when monosyllabic; jyake when for jiake.
c. But the vocative is accented only when it stands at the be-

written

but

ginning of a sentence

or, in verse, at

the beginning also of a met-

pada; elsewhere it is accentless or enclitic: thus,

agne y&m yajnam paribhur asi (RV.) O Agnil whatever offering
thou protectest; but upa tvS 'gna e 'masi (RV.) unto thee, Agni, we
rical division or

come,
d. A word, or more than one word, qualifying a vocative
usually
an adjective or appositive noun, but sometimes a dependent noun in the
genitive (very rarely in any other case)
constitutes, so far as accent is

[316

ACCENT.

109

a unity with the vocative: thus (all the examples from RV.),
beginning of a pada, with first syllable of the combination accented,
brother Jndra! raj an sozna
indra bhratah
king Soma! yavistha
duta most youthful messenger! hotar yavif^ha sukrato most youthful

concerned,
at the

skilled offerer!

urjo napat sahasvan mighty son of

ir

strength!

the

pada, without accent, somasa indra girvanah the somas,

song-loving Indra! tav a9vina bhadrahasta supani ye, O Acvins
of propitious and beautiful hands! a rajana maha rtasya gopa hither,

interior of a

ye two kingly guardians of great order!

On

the other hand, two or more independent or coordinate vocabeginning of a pada are regularly and usually both accented:
mother! agna indra varuna mitra
thus, pftar matah
father!
devah Agni! Jndra! Varuna! Mitra! gods! cjatamute (jatakrato thou of
e.

tives at the

a hundred aids!

of a hundred arts! vasistha Qukra didivah pavaka

one! urjo napad bhadraqoce son of strength,

best, bright, shining, cleansing

propitiously bright one

But the texts

offer

occasional irregular

exceptions

both to this and to the preceding rule.

f.

For brevity, the vocative dual and plural will be given in the paralong with the nominative, without taking the trouble to

adigms below

specify in each instance that, if the latter be accented elsewhere than on

the first syllable, the accent of the vocative is different.

315. As regards the other cases, rules for change of accent in

declension have to do only with monosyllables and with stems of

more than one syllable which are accented on the final for, if a stem
be accented on the penult, or any other syllable further back
as
;

the accent
sarpant, vari, bhagavant, sumanas, sahasravaja
remains upon that syllable through the whole inflection (except in the
vocative, as explained in the preceding paragraph).
a. The only exceptions are a few numeral stems
see 483.
in

316. Stems accented on the

final (including monosyllables) are

subject to variation of accent in declension chiefly in virtue of the
fact that some of the endings have, while others have not, or have
in less degree, a tendency themselves to taka the accent.
Thus:

a. The endings of the nominative and accusative singular and dual

and of the nominative plural (that is to say, of the strong cases: 311) have
no tendency to take the accent away from the stem, and are therefore only
accented when a final vowel of the stem and the vowel of the ending are

blended together into a single vowel or diphthong. Thus, from datta come
dattaii (= datta-hau) and dattas (= datta+as); but from nadi come

nadyau (= nadi+au) and nadyas (= nadi -f- as).

b. All the other endings sometimes take the accent; but those beginning
of the weakest cases: 311) do so more readily than
(i. e.

with a vowel

those beginning with a consonant

(i.

e.

of the middle cases:

naus come nava and naubhis; from mahant,

mahata but mahadbhis.
from

311).

however,

Thus,

come

IV- DECLENSION.

317]
The general

rules of accent, then,

110

may be

thus stated

317. In the declension of monosyllabic stems, the accent falls

upon the ending in all the weak cases (without distinction of middle
and weakest): thus, nava, naubhyam, navam, nausu; vaci, vagbhis,
vacam, vaksu.
a. But some monosyllabic stems retain the accent throughout: thus,
gobhis, gavam, gosu. For such cases, see below, 350, 361 c, d, 372,
300, 427. And in the ace. pi. the stem is even oftener accented than
the ending, some words also admitting either accentuation.

318. Of polysyllabic stems ending in consonants, only a few shift

the accent to the ending, and that in the weakest (not the middle]
cases. Such are:
a. Present participles in ant or at : thus, from tudant, tudata and
tudatos and tudatam; but tudadbhyam and tudatsu.

b.

few adjectives having the form of such participles, as

mahata,

brhatas.
c.

Stems of which the accented

copation of the vowel:

etc.:

thus,

final loses its syllabic character by synmajjna, murdhne, damnas (from majjan

423).
d. Other sporadic cases will be noticed under the different declensions.
e. Case-forms

used

adverbially sometimes

show a changed accent:

see lllOff.

319. Of polysyllabic stems ending in accented short vowels,

of the stem retains the accent if it retains its syllabic
identity: thus, dattena and dattaya from datta; agnina and agnaye
from agni; and also dattebhyas, agnibhis, and so on. Otherwise,
the accent is on the ending: and that, whether the final and the ending are combined into one, as in dattafs, dhenau, agnin, ^henus,
and so on; or whether the final is changed into a semivowel before
the

final

the ending: thus,

a.

But

am

dhenva, pitra, jamyos, bahvos,

of the

gen. pi. from

stems in { and

etc.

in the older language always does, take the accent, though

from the stem: thus,

derivative

and p may, and

separated by n

agnlnam, dhenunam, pitrnam. In RV., even

Of
usually the same shift: thus, bahvlnam.

i-stems show

stems in a,

only numeral*

(483 a)

follow this

rule:

thus,

saptanam,

dacjanam.
320. Root-words in
language there are

members of compounds retain the

any of the endings. And in the older
polysyllabic words in long final vowels which follow in
I

and

accent throughout, not shifting

as final

it to

this respect as in others the analogy of the root- declension (below,

355

ft'.).

Apart from these, the treatment of stems in derivative long vowels is, as
save that the tone
regards accent, the same as of those in short vowels
is

not thrown forward upon the ending in gen. plural.

[-323

CLASSIFICATION.

Ill

CHAPTER

V.

NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.

321.

a.

THE

accordance in

inflection

of substantive

and adjective stems is so complete that the two cannot be

separated in treatment from one another.
b.
tion,

They may be

convenience of descrip-

classified, for

as follows:
I.

Stems in

II.

Stems in

3
^

a;
i

and

u;

III. Stems in ETT a, ^ I, and 3T ft: namely, A. radicalstems (and a few others inflected like them); B. derivative

stems;

IV. Stems in ff y (or

V. Stems in consonants.

ar)

3fo9

^^

9^

nothing absolute in this classification and arrangement;

it is merely believed to be open to as few objections as any other.
No
general agreement has been reached among scholars as to the number and
c.

There

is

order of Sanskrit declensions.

The stems in a

are here treated first because

of the great predominance of the class.

322. The division-line between substantive and adjective, always

an uncertain one in early Indo-European language, is even more
wavering in Sanskrit than elsewhere. There are, however, in all the
declensions as divided above
unless we except the stems in r or
ar
words which are distinctly adjectives and, in general, they
are inflected precisely like noun-stems of the same final only, among
consonant-stems, there are certain sub-classes of adjective stems with
peculiarities of inflection to which there is among nouns nothing cor;

responding.

But there are

also

two considerable

classes of adjective-

compounds, requiring special notice: namely

323. Compound adjectives having as final member a bare verbal
root, with the value of a present participle (383 a ff.) thus, su-dyg welllooking; pra-biidh foreknowing ; a-druh not hating; veda-vid Veda:

knowing; vrtra-han,

Every root

Vritra-slaying ; upastha-sad sitting in the lap.

be used in this way, and such compounds are

is liable to

not infrequent in

below (1269].

all

ages of the language

see chapter on Compounds,

AND ADJECTIVES.

V. NOUNS

323]
a. This class

112

only a special class of compound adjecVeda the simple as well as the compounded
But the compounded root was from the
root was sometimes used adjectively.
beginning much more often so used, and the later the more exclusively,
tives, since in the

is

essentially

earliest

so that practically the class is a separate

and important one.

324. Compound adjectives having a noun as final member, but

obtaining an adjective sense secondarily, by having the idea of
possession added, and being inflected as adjectives in the three genders (1293ff.). Thus, prajakama desire of progeny, whence the ad-

prajakama, meaning desirous (i. e. having desire) of progeny ;

sabharya (sa-j-bharyS) having one's wife along; and so on.

jective

a. In a few cases, also,

the

noun

final

is

syntactically object of the

member (1309-10): thus, atimatra immoderate (ati matram

beyond measure); yavayaddvesas driving away enemies.
325. Hence, under each declension, we have to notice how a
root or a noun-stem of that declension is inflected when final member
of an adjective compound.

preceding

As

needs only to be remarked here that a rootaccent, but (320) loses the peculiarity of monosyllabic accentuation, and does not throw the tone
forward upon the ending (except anc in certain old forms: 410).
a.

to accent, it

word ending a compound has the

Declension

I.

Stems (masculine and neuter) in

326.

a.

This declension contains the majority of

a.

all

the declined stems of the language.

more widely than any others

b: Its endings deviate

from the normal.

327. Endings: SingulaTT
ending

a.

The nom.

has

masc.

the normal

s.

b. The ace. (masc. and neut) adds

the office also of nom. neuter.

(not

am); and

this

form has

c. The instr. changes a to ena uniformly in the later language; and

even in the oldest Vedic this is the predominant ending (in KV., eight
ninths of all cases). Its final is in Vedic verse frequently made long (ena).

But the normal ending a

is also

etc.)

d.

The

thus,

yajna, suhava, rnahitva

(for

yajnena

not rare in the Veda.

dat.

has

aya

(as if

by adding aya

to a),

alike

in

all

ages

of the language.
e.

The

abl.

has t ^or doubtless

dence of the Sanskrit to

tell

which

is

d:

it

is

impossible from, the eviof the ending),

the original form

DECLENSION

113

f.

a is made long this ending is found in no other noun-deand elsewhere only in the personal pronouns (of all numbers).
The gen. has sya added to the final a; and this ending is also

before which
clension,

E-STEMS.

I.,

limited to a-stems (with the single exception of the pronoun amusya:

501). Its final a is in only three cases made long in the Veda; and its

is

Tocalized (asia) almost as rarely.

g.

The

ends in e (as

loc.

by combining the normal ending

if

with

the final of the stem), without exception.

h. The voc. is the bare stem.

328. Dual-*

**

V^"
b.

The nom.,

In

&u.

The dual endings

a.

and

ace,,

the Veda,

voc. masc.

usual

the

however,

in general are the normal ones.

end in the

later

is

ending

language always in

simple

ft

(in RV.,

in

seven eighths of the occurrences). The same cases in the nent. end in e,
which appears to be the result of fusion of the stem-final with the normal

ending
c.

i.

The

instr.,

dat.,

d.

The gen. and

(or as if the

and

have

abl.

bhiam), with

instances resolved into

loc.

have a

a had been changed

bhyam

a.

a before

inserted after the stem-final before

it.

os

In one or two (doubtful) Vedic

to e).

instances (as also in the pronominal forms

tuted for the final a.

329. Plural,

two Vedic

(in only one or

the stem-final lengthened to

enos and yos), os

is

substi-

The nom. masc. has in the later language the

final a to as.
But in the Veda the

normal ending as combined with the

ending asas instead is frequent (one third of the occurrences in RV., but
only one twenty-fifth in the peculiar parts of AV.).
b. The

ace.

an

ends in

masc.

(for

earlier

(^n/of

which abundant

Veda, and, under the disguise of apparent euphonic

combination, even in the later language see above, 208 ff.).

traces are left in the

The nom. and

neut. have in the

ace.

later language always the

c.
see 421 ; or else with n, as in the gen.
ending ani (like the an-s terns
But in the Veda this ending alternates with simple
pl. T before normal i).
:

a (which in RV.

ani

is to

as three to two, in point of frequency;

in AV.,

as three to four).

d. The instr. ends later always in ais; but in the Veda is found
abundantly the more normal form ebhis (in RV., nearly as frequent as ais;
in AV., only one fifth as frequent).
e.
final

du.

a
[?],

The

dat.

before

it

and the

and

have bhyas as ending, with e instead of the

the Vedic instr. ebhis, the loc. pi., the gen. loc.

abl.

(as in

instr. sing.).

The

resolution into

ebhias

is

not infrequent

in the Veda.
f. The gen. ends in anam, the final a being lengthened and having
inserted before the normal ending. The a of the ending is not seldom
(in less than half the instances) to be read as two syllables, aam : opinions

are divided as to whether the resolution is historical

Whitney

Grammar.

2.

d.

or metrical

only.

NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.

V.

829-]

114

number (half-a-dozen) of examples of simple am as ending

occur in BY.
that is to say, with the normal ending,
The loc. ends in esu

very small

anam

instead of

g.
before which the

to a:

stem-final

is

changed

to

e (with consequent change of

180).

h. Of accent, in this declension, nothing requires to be said; the

syllable accented in the stem retains its own accent throughout.

330.
inflection

Examples
of a- stems

of declension.

may

As examples of the

be taken 3TPT

deva m. god; MIHI 5sya

kima m.

n. mouth.

Singular :(\/tf
N.
o

wv

kamaa

asyam

A.

*5UH4H^

kamam

devam

aayam
N

kamena

devena

!>

~^cM*4

devaya
Ab.

asyena
yi*-UMJ

asyaya

^ncj^
kamat

devat

aayat

kamasya

devasya

asyasya

kame

deve

asye

kama

deva

asya

G.

(4

3if*t

^ / e.
V.

Dual:

N.A.V.

kamau

devau

LD.Ab.
.

kamabhyaxn
.

L.

^n^TFT^
devabhyam

^JlH^
kamayos
Plural

asyabhyam
^It-tltHH^

devayos

asyayos

devas

aayani

N.V.

kamas

love;

[332

DECLENSION L, E-STEMS.

115
A.

kaman

devan

asyani

kamais

devafs

asyais

kamebhyas

devebhyas

asyebhyas

I.

D. Ab.

G.

oftlHMlH

<^e(H|i|

44IH1MIH

kamanam

devanam

asyanam

kamesu

devesu

aayesu

Examples

of the peculiar Vedic forms are:

ravathena, yajna (such

a. Sing.: instr.

genitive forms as axjvasia

are purely sporadic).

b. Du.

nom.

masc.

etc.

deva;

gen.-loc.

pastyos (stem pastya).

PL: nom.-voc. masc. devasas; neut. yuga;

c.

instr.

devebhis;

gen.

caratham, devanaam.
331. Among nouns, there are no irregularities in this declension.
For irregular numeral bases in a (or an), see 483-4. For the irregularities of pronominal stems in a, which are more or less fully
shared also by a few adjectives of pronominal kindred, see the
chapter on Pronouns (496 ff.).

Adjectives.
332. Original adjectives in a are an exceedingly large class,
the great majority of all adjectives. There is, however, no such
thing as a feminine stem in a; for the feminine, the a is changed to
a
or often, though far less often, to I; and its declension is then
like that of

eena

or devi

(364).

clension of an adjective a- stem

An

example of the complete degenders will be given

in the three

below (368).
Whether a maso.-neot. stem in a

a.

shall form its feminine in

ft

or in

a question to be determined in great part only by actual usage, and

not by grammatical rule.
Certain important classes of words, however, can
I

is

be pointed out which take the less common ending I for the feminine: thus,
1. the
(very numerous) secondary derivatives in a with vrddhi of the first
syllable

(1204):

namasa
lable
3.

ing

e.

g.

fimitra

manusa

-si, pavamfina -ni, paurana with, accent on the radical sylsamgrahana -ni, subhagamkarana -ni;

-til,

-si; 2. primary derivatives in

(1150):

e. g.

codana

-ni,

primary derivatives in a, with strengthening of the radical syllable, hava

quasi-participial

meaning:

e.

g.

divakara

-ri,

avakrama
8*

-mi,

332]

V.

rathavaha

NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.

-hi (but there are

many

4.

exceptions);

116
secondary derivatives

(1225) and tana (1246 e): e. g. ayasmaya -yi; adyatana

ordinal numerals (487 h): e. g. pancama -ml, navadac,a
most
5.
-ni;
tringattama -mi. Not a few words make the feminine in either a

in

maya

-9!,
or I:

e.

kevala

g.

ugra

or -II,

or -rl,

papa

or

-pi,

rama

or

-mi; but

ordinarily only one of these is accepted as regular.

333. There are no verbal roots ending in a. But a is somefinal a of a root (and, rarely, for final an),

times substituted for the

and

then inflected like an ordinary adjective in a (see below, 354).

it is

noun ending in a, when occurring as final member

a.
of an adjective compound, is inflected like an original adjective in a,
making its feminine likewise in a or I (367).
334.

final

b. For the most part, an adjective compound having a noun in a as

its feminine in a.
But there are numerous exceptions,

member makes

nouns taking, usually or always,

certain

of these

are

as

follows

aksa

I instead.

Some

of the

commonest

dvyaksi, gavaksl),
tilaparni, sap tap arm; but ekaparna), mukha face
:

eye (e. g. lohitaksi,

parna leaf (e. g.

krsnamukhi, durmukhi; but trimukha etc.), anga limb, body
but caturanga etc.), keQa hair (e. g.
(e. g. anavadyangi, sarvangi;
sukec,i, muktake?! or -93, etc.), karna, ear (e. g. mahakarni; but
gokarna etc.), udara belly (e. g. lambodan), mula root (e. g. pancamuli; but oftener 9atamula etc.). The very great majority of such
(e. g.

nouns (as the examples indicate) signify parts of the body.

c.

On

shortens

the other hand, a feminine noun ending in derivative a

to a to form a masculine and neuter base: see 367 c.

its final

d. In frequent cases, nouns of consonant ending are, as finals of coma-declension by an added suffix a (1209 a) or

pounds, transferred to the

ka

(1222).

Declension

Stems
335.

(of all

The stems

II.

genders) in ^

in ^

and

3u

and

u.

are inflected in so close

accordance with one another that they cannot be divided

declensions.
They are of all the three

into two separate

genders,

and tolerably numerous

numerous than those in

(there are
a.

3 u,
3 u

more neuters in

The endings of

this

especially

than in ^

declension also

in ^ i more
in the feminine

those

i).

differ

frequently

and

widely from the normal, and the irregularities in the older language
are numerous.

DECLENSION

117

II.,

336. Endings: Singular,

a.

AND U-STEMS.

i-

[336

The nom. masc. and

fern,

adds to the

The nom. and ace. neut. is the bare stem,

stem the normal ending 8.
without ending. In the Veda, the final u of a few neuters is lengthened

(248 b):

thus,

uru, puru.

b. The ace. masc. and

fern,

adds

m to

inam and unam,

lam

the stem. Vedic forms in

and doubtful.
c. The instr. fern, in the later language takes the normal ending ft
simply, while the masc. and neut. insert n before it, making ina and una.
But in the Veda, forms in ya and va (or ia and ua) are not infrequent
in masc. and neut. also; while ina is found, very rarely, as a fern, ending.
and

uam,

Moreover,
1;

and

and, with n,

fern,

ya

often (in two thirds of the occurrences) contracted to

is

even sometimes shortened

this is

are excessively rare,

from half-a-dozen stems in

to

i.

An

uya

adverbial instr. in

occurs.

d. The dat. masc. and fern, gunates the final of the stem before the
ending e, making aye and ave. These are the prevailing endings in the
Veda likewise; but the more normal ye and ve (or ue) also occur; and

the fern, has in this case, as in the instr., sometimes the form I for ie.
In the later language, the neuter is required in this, as in all the other
weakest cases, to insert n before the normal ending: but in the Veda

such forms are only sporadic; and the neut. dat. has also the forms aye*

ve, ave, like the other genders.

e. The abl. and gen. masc. and

fern,

have regularly, both

earlier

and

the ending s with gunated vowel before it: thus, 68, OB; and in
the Veda, the neut. forms the cases in the same way; although Unas, re-

.later,

quired later, is also not infrequent (mas does not occur). But the normal
forms yas (or ias) and vas (or uas) are also frequent in both masc. and
The anomalous
neuter.
As masc. ending, unas occurs twice in RV.

didyot (soTS.; in the corresponding passages, vidyotVS., didyaut K.,

didivas MS.) is of doubtful character.
f. The loc. masc. and fern, has for regular ending in the later language Su, replacing both finals, i and u. And this is in the Veda also the
most frequent ending

but, beside

it,

the i-stems form (about half as often

agna; and this is found once even in the

number of examples of masc. and neut. locatives

in RV.) their loc. in a: thus,

The RV. has a

avi (the normal ending and the u gunated before it) from u-stems;
and certain doubtful traces of a corresponding ayi from i-stems. Half-a-

neuter.
in

dozen locatives in i (regarded by the Vedic grammarians as pragrhya or

uncombinable 138d) are made from i-stems. The later language makes
:

the neuter locatives in ini and

uni; but the former never occurs in the

oldest texts, and the latter only very rarely.

g.

formed

The

at will

later

grammar allows the

with the fuller

fern,

dat.,

abl.-gen.,

and

loc.

fern,

to

be

terminations of long-vowel stems, namely

as (for which, in Brahmana etc., Si is substituted: 307 h), am. Such

forms are quite rare in the oldest language even from i-stems (less than
40 occurrences altogether in RV. ; three times as many in AV.); and from
ai,

u-stems they are almost unknown

(five in

RV. and AV.).

336]

V.

The

h.

NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.

gunates the final of the stem, in masc. and fern., alike

In the neut., it is later allowed

voc.

in the earlier and in the later language.

to

be either of the same form or the unaltered stem;

and this was probably

the usage in the older time also; not instances enough are quotable to determine the question (AV. has u once, and VS. o once).

337. Dual.
nom.-

a.

The

masc. and

ace. -voc.

later
fern,

and

earlier language

by lengthening the

agree in

making the

final of the stem.

The

same cases in the neuter (according to the rule given above) end later in
in! and uni; but these endings are nearly unknown in the Veda (as, indeed,
the cases are of only rare occurrence): AV. has inl twice (RV. perhaps
once); VS. has uni once; RV. has ui from one u-stem, and I, once shortened

from one or two i-stems.

to i,

The unvarying ending

b.

added

The

c.

of instr.-dat.-abl., in all genders, is

bhyam

unchanged stem.

to the

os

gen.-loc. of all ages adds

to the

stem in masc. and

fern.;

in neut.,

n;

the later language interposes, as elsewhere in the weakest cases,

probably in the earlier Vedic the form would be like that of the other

genders; but the only occurrence noted

is

unos

one

in

AV.

338. Plural, a. The nom.-voc. masc. and fern, adds the normal ending as to the gunated stem-final, making ayas and avas. The exceptions
in the Veda are very few: one word (ari) has ias in both genders, and a
few feminines have Is

Veda has

and

uni

(like

(about equally frequent)

The
5ni from a: 329 c); but the

few u-stems have uas.

(like i-stems); a very

neut. nom.-acc. ends later in ini and

much

oftener than ini; and

ti

and (more usually) u, more than half as often as uni.

b. The accus. masc. ends in

which plain

traces

In and un,

for older

Ins and tins,

of

remain in the Veda in nearly half the instances of occur-

rence, and even not infrequently in the later language, in the guise of phonetic combination (208 ff.). The accus. fern, ends in Is and us. But both

maac. and
c.

d.

bhias)

fern,

The

forms in ias and

The

dat.-abl.

uas

are found sparingly in the Veda.

genders adds bhis to the stem.

inst. of all

of all genders adds

bhyas

(in

V.,

almost never

to the stem.

e. The gen. of all genders is made alike in Inam and unam

(of
which the ft is not seldom, in the Veda, to be resolved into aam). Stems

with accented
do,

final in the later language may,

throw forward the accent upon the ending.

The

and in the

earlier

always

su (as su: 180) to the stem-final.

accordance
g.
with the general rules already
laid down, and there are no
irregularities calling for special notice.
f.

loc.

of all genders adds

The accent

880.

is

in

Examples of declension. As

may be taken qft

vSri n. water.

models of i-stems

agni m. fire; Jlfo gati

f.

gait;

DECLENSION

119
Singular
N.

A.

II.,

i-

AND U-STEMS.

[339
YN

^liJH

JiiriH

agnfs

gatis

^ii4H^

JlfHH^

agnim

gatim

vari

agnina

gatya

varinfi

agnaye

gataye, gatyai

varine

vaxi

i.

D.

Ab. G.
I

*-*>

TOH^

JTHTT^ JlrCRH^

agnes

gates, gatyas

L.

varinas

JTm, JirtiiH

agnau

gatau,

gatyam

varini

V.

srrf^,

agne

gite

sn^

vari, vare

Dual:
N. A. V.

varini

agni

LD.Ab.

^ri^Ti

varibhyam

agnibhy&m

gatibhyam

agnyos

gatyos

varinos

agnayas

g&tayas

varini

x
agnin

gatis

varini

EfftPTH^
agnibhis

g&tibhis

varibhis

gatibhyas

varibhyas

gatinam

varinam

g&tisu

varisu

G.L.

NlffuTlH^

JPlural

N.V.

A.

I.

D. Ab.

snfrt&i

t4fi4*-UH

agnibhyas

G.

tJifillH^

agninam

o
agnisu

340]

V.

NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.

120

340. In order to mark more plainly the absence in Vedic language

some of the forms which are common later, all the forms of Vedic occurrence are added below, and in the order of their frequency.

of

a.

Nona,

Singular.

agnfs

as above.

etc.,

agmm, yayiam, urmmam(?)

b. Ace.: masc.

and nent.

fern,

as

above.
0. Instr.: mas<\ agnina, rayya and urmia; fern,
matya, suvpktf, dhasma; neut. wanting.
masc. agnaye; fern, tujaye, uti, turyai;
d. Dat.
:

masc. agnes, avyas, arias

neut. bhiires.

e. Gen.-abl.

bhumias;

Loc.

f.

masc.

agnau, agna, ajayi(Y);

h.

Dual. Nom.-acc.-voc.: masc. hari;

neut.

9ucaye.

adites, hetyas and

fern,

fern,

nasatayi(?), vedi, bhumyam; neut. aprata,

g. Voc.: as above (neut. wanting).

utia,

acitti,

agatau, udita, dha-

saptara9mau.

fern,

neut.

yuvati;

QUCI,

mahi, hari^IC?).
Instr.-dat.-abl.: as above.

1.

masc. harios;

j. Gen.-loc.:

k. Plural.

Norn.: masc.

9uci, bhuri, bhurlni.

1. Accus.: masc. agnin;

m.

Instr., dat.-abl.,

n. Gen.: masc.

341.

fern,

and

fern,

yuvatyos and jaxnioa; neut. wanting.

fern, mat&yas, bhumls; neut.

agnayas;

fern,

ksitis, 9ucayas(?).

loc.,

as above.

kavinam, rsinaam

etc.

(neut wanting).

As models of u-stems may be taken

m. enemy;

?R

Singular

dhenii
:

\\\

f.

cow; ?Tg

madhu

IflTSr

9atru

n. honey.
\f\

N.

dhenua

^r^R
O

WT
O

(jatrum

dhenum

O
madhu

^i^un

U^T

^T^FIT

9atruna

dhenva

madhuna

5T5R

5^,*^

3T^R
o

9&trave

dhenave, dhenvai

madhune

qatros

dhenos, dhenvas

madhunas

9&trau

dhenau, dhenvam

madhuni

srwr

9%

R^I,

catro

dheno

madhu, madho

"s.

madhu

9atrus

-v.

W
o

G.

DECLENSION

121

II.,

i-

AND U-STEMS.

[342

Dual:
N. A. V.

I.

9atru

dhenu

9atrubhyam

dhenubhyam

madhubhyam

9atrvos

dhenvos

madhunoa

9atravas

dhenavas

madhuni

<jatrun

dhentls

madhuni

cjatrubhis

dhenubhis

madhubhis

9atrubhyas

dhenubhyas

madhubhyas

9&trunam

dhenunam

9atrusu

dhenusu

madhunl

D. Ab.

^T^T^?TT^T

G.L.

Plural

N.V.
"s

A.

<rs

5T5R

D. Ab.

G.

L.

in

"35
madhusu

342. The forms of Vedic occurrence are given here

the same manner as for the i-stems above.
a.

Singular.

Nom.: masc. and

fern,

as above;

u-stems

for the

neut. urii,

uru.

ketum, abhiruam, sucetunam(?); fern, dhenum.

c. Instr.: masc. ketuna, pa^va and kratua; fern, adhenua and
panva, &9uya; neut. madhuna, madhva.
b. Accus.

masc.

d. Dat: masc. ketave, 9i9ve;

urave, madhune.
e.

9&rave, fsvai; neut. pa9ve(?),

manyos, pitvas, carunas; fern, sindhos,

and madhuas, madhoa, madhunaa.

masc.

Abl.-gen.:

isvaa; neut

fern.

madhvas

f. Loc.: masc.
purftu, sunavi;
sanau, sanavi, aano, sanuni.

fern,

sfndhau,

rdjjvam; neut

g. Voc.: as above.

h.

Dual.

Nom.-acc.-voc.:

masc.

and

fern,

as

above;

neut.

urvi,

januni.
i.

Instr.-dat.-abl.:

j.

Gen.-loc.

k. Plural.

as above.

above (but vos or uos).

Nom.: masc. rbhavas, madhuas and
as

dhenavad, 9atakratvas;

neut.

puruni, puru, puru.

madhvas;

fern,

1.

Accus.: masc. j-tun, paxjvas; fern, {BUS,

122

madhvas.

as above; also gen. (but with the resoInstr., dat-abl., and loc.,

m.
lution

NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.

V.

342]

iinaam

in part).

343. Irregular declension. There are no irregular u-stems,

and only a very few i-stems.
a. Sakhi m. friend has for the five strong cases a peculiarly

which in the nom.

strengthened base (vriddhied), namely sakhay,
and in the other cases
sing, is reduced to sakhft (without ending),
takes the normal endings. The instr. and dat. sing, have the normal
endings simply, without inserted

us; and the

or guna; the abl.-gen. sing, adds

adds au: the rest

loc. sing,

is like

agni.

Thus:

Sing, sakha, aakhSyam, aakhyft, aakhye, sakhyus, sakhyftu,

sakhe; Do. sakhayau, sakhibhyam, sakhyos; PI. sakhayas, sakhln,
etc. etc.

b. The Veda has usually

sakhay a

du.,

and often resolves the

to

The compounds are usually declined like

the simple word, unless (131 5 b) sakha be substituted.
c. There is a corresponding fern., sakhi (declined like devi: 364);
but the forms of sakhi are also sometimes found used with feminine value.
i,

in sakhia, sakhius,

s ^

^*\

<VP&t/tn.
the

mewing

is

lord,

etc.

when it has
when un compounded and when meaning

declined regularly in composition, and

master;

is inflected like sakhi in the instr., dat., abl.-gen., and

forming patya, patye, patyus, patyfiu. There are occasional
instances of confusion of the two classes of forms.
it

husband,

loc. sing.,

e. For pati as final member of a possessive compound is regularly

and usually substituted patni in the fern.: thus, jlvapatni having a living
husband; dftsapatni having a barbarian for master.
f.

Jani

g.

Ari

accus., masc.

h.
it

V{

f.

wife has the gen. sing,

janyns

in the Veda.

has in the Veda ary&s in pi. nom. and

Its accus. sing, is arirn or aryam.

eager, greedy, hostile

and

fern.

bird

has in

accents vibhis,

RY. the nom. ves (beside vis).

vibhyas, but vmam.

The stems ak ? i

In the plural

asthi bone, dadhi curds, and sakthi thigh,

exchanging with and complementing forms from
stems in an (akfan etc.): see the stems in an, below (431).
j. The stem path! road is used to make up part of the inflection of
i.

eye,

are defective, their forms

pan than: see below, 433.

k. Krostu m. jackal lacks

the strong cases, for which the correspond-

ing forms of kros^f are substituted.

Adjectives.
344. Original adjective stems in i are few those in u are much
more numerous (many derivative verb-stems forming a participial ad;

DECLENSION

123

II.,

AND U-STEMS.

i-

[348

jective in u). Their inflection is like that of nouns, and has been
included in the rules given above. In those weak cases, however
namely, the dat, abl.-gen., and loc. sing., and the gen.-loc. dual
in

which neuter nouns

differ

from masculines in the later language

by an inserted n (we have seen above

exist in the Veda),

The stem

form.

is

that this difference does not

the neuter adjective is allowed to take either

the same for masculine and neuter, and generally

(and allowably always) for feminine also.

a. There are a few Instances of a feminine noun In i standing (sometimes with changed accent) beside a masculine in i: thus, krfmi m., krimi
f.;

m.,

dundubhf m., dundubhi

sakhi (343 a) m., sakhi f
dhuni
dhuni f.; qakuni m., cjakuni 01 -ni f. In the later language, espe.

f.

there is a very frequent interchange of i and i as finals of the same

No adjective in i makes a regular feminine in I.

cially,

stem.

b. With stems in

While the feminine

the case is quite different.

may, and in part does, end in u, like the masculine and neuter, a special feminine-stem is often made by lengthening the u to u, or also by
adding 1; and for some stems a feminine is formed in two of these three
ways, or even in

all the three: thus, karu, -dipsu, Qundhyu, carisnu,

vacasyu; -anvl, urvi, gurvi, purvl (with prolongation of u before r:
prthii
compare 245 b), bahvl, prabhvi, raghvi, sadhvi, svadvi;
and prthvi, vibhti and vibhvl, mrdu and mrdvi, laghu and laghvi,
vasu and vasvi ; babhru and babhru, bibhatsu and blbhatsii, bhiru
and bhiru;
tanu and tanu and tanvi, phalgu and phalgu and
phalgvi, madhu and madhu and madhvi. There are also some femi-

nine noun-stems in
culines in

m.,

u:

guggulu

standing (usually with changed accent) beside mas-

agru m., agrii f. kadru m., kadru

jatu m., jatu f.; prdaku m., prdaku f.

thus,
f.;

f.

guggulu

345. Roots ending in i or u (or 7: 376 b) regularly add a t when

used as root- words or as root-finals of compounds and hence there
;

are no adjectives of the root-class in this declension.

a. Yet, in the Veda, a few words ending in a short radical u are
declined as if this were sufflxal: thus, asmrtadhru, sustii; and the AY.

has pptanajf (once).

Roots in

sometimes

also

shorten

to

u:

thus,

and
re perhaps becomes ri (36 le); while roots in & sometimes apparently
weaken a to i (in -dhi from ydha etc.: 1155).

prabhu, vibhu,

final

etc.

(354); go (36 le) becomes

gu

in composition;

346. Compound adjectives having nouns of this declension as

member are inflected in general like original adjectives of the

same endings.
a.

form

But in such compounds a

a feminine

or -{i;

vamoru

stem:
or -ru,

RV. has aQiQvI from

final i or

is

sometimes lengthened to

suqronl, svayoni or -ni, -gatrayasti

durhami or -nu, varatanu, matrbandhu; and
thus,

9(911.

347]

V.

NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.

Declension

Stems in long vowels:

347.

The stems ending

well-marked

and

number

atively small

their

ETT

which in the

ft

5, ^ 1, ^3T

vowels fall into two

compounds, with a compar-

I,

with a small

latter division is

considerable classes of feminine nouns,

1,

belong

to

num-

language have come to be

and more important, since most feminine

7

ft.

A. monosyllabic stems

a and T

later

The

inflected like them.

5TT

of others inflected like them; B. de-

rivative feminine stems in

ber in 3T

III.

in long

classes or divisions

mostly bare roots

124

by

far the larger

adjectives,

ending in

TF

and
5 or

it.

A. Boot-words, and those inflected like them.

348.

The

inflection

endings throughout,

is by the normal
manner of consonant-stems

of these stems

or in the

(with SPT^am, not JTjn, in

the accus. sing.);

peculiarities

like those of the other vowel-declensions are wanting.

The

simple words are, as nouns, with few exceptions feminine;

as adjectives

(rarely),

alike in masculine

and in adjective compounds, they are

and feminine forms. They may,

for con-

venience of description, be divided into the following subclasses

1.

Root-words,

or monosyllables

having the aspect of such.

Those in a are so rare that it is hardly possible to make up a whole

scheme of forms in actual use those in I and u are more numerous,
;

but

still

very few.

2. Compounds
having such words, or other roots with long
vowels, as last member.
3.

in the

final

Polysyllabic words, of various origin and character, including

later are transferred to other declensions.

Veda many which

As an appendix to this class we may most conveniently

describe the half-dozen stems, mostly of regular inflection, ending in
diphthongs.
4.

DECLENSION

125
349.

III.,

Monosyllabic stems.

with vowels,

final 1

AND U-STEMS.

a-, i-,

[351

Before the endings beginning

u to uv; while final a is

changed to iy and

is

dropped altogether, except in the strong cases, and in the ace. pi.,
which is like the nominative (according to the grammarians, a is
lost here also: no instances of the occurrence of such a form appear
Stems in I and u are in the later language allowed
to be quotable).

am

to take optionally the fuller endings ai, as,

abl.-gen., loc.); but no such forms are ever

(except bhiyai

Before

KV., once).

[?],

am

in the singular (dat.,

in the Veda

met with

of gen.

Veda it is regularly
exception (dhiyam, once). The vocative i

not be inserted; in the

pi.,

n may

or

may

inserted, with a single

like the nominative in

the singular as well as the other numbers; but instances of its occurrence in uncompounded stems are not found in the Veda, and must

be extremely rare everywhere.

The

earlier

Vedic dual ending

is

instead of au.

350. To the

I-

the accent

is

and u-stems the rules for monosyllabic accent

thrown forward upon the endings in all the weak
cases except the accus. pi., which is like the noin. But the a-stems
appear (the instances are extremely few) to keep the accent upon
the stem throughout.
apply

351.
osyllabic
f.

Examples
inflection

thought; and
a.

The

first

we may take

'Jjbhtl

f.

sTT

J5

f.

progeny;

vft

dhi

earth.

of these is rather arbitrarily extended from the four cases

which actually occur; of the

from a-stems are found.
Singular

N.

As models of mon-

of declension.

loc. sing,

and gen. -loc. du., no "Vedic examples

sHH^

tffar^

H^

Jill

dhis

bhtis

jam

dhfyam

bhuvam

sTT

firm

ja

dhiya

bhuva

dhiye, dhiyai

bhuve,bhuvai

dhiyas, dhiyas

bhuvas,bhuvas

A.

I).

I
je

Ab. G.

*Fi
jas

-\

-S,

ft
ji

dhiyf,

dhiyam

bhuvi,

V.

jas

bhus

bhuvam

361]

V.

NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.

126

Dual:

N.A.V.

sIT

bhuvfiu

dhfyau

jfiu

I.D.Ab.

tftarR^

jabhyam
O.L.
J6i

Plural

dhibhyam

bhubhyam

iwr^

^.

dhiyos

bhuvds

dhiyas

bhuvas

jas

faro^
bhuvas

dhiyas

^ftft^
jibhia

dhlbhfs

bhubhis

jabhyas

dhibhyas

bhubhyas

janam, jam

dhiyam,

bhuvam,bhunam

sTO

rftg

jasu

dhisu

D. Ab.

siHIH

"S

^s.

bhusu

When the
352. Monosyllabic stems in composition.
nouns above described occur as final member of a compound, or when
any root in a or I or u is found in a like position, the inflection of
an a-stem is as above. But I and u-stems follow a divided usage:
the final vowel before a vowel-ending is either converted into a short
vowel and semivowel

(iy or

uv, as above) or into a semivowel simply

The accent is nowhere thrown forward upon the endings;

and therefore, when i and u become y and v, the resulting syllable
(y or v).

is

circumflex
Masc. and

Thus:

(834).
fern.

Singular

N. V.

-bhtiB

-dliis

A.

-dhfyam

-dhyain

-bhuvam

-bhvam

I.

Ab. G.

-dhiya
-dhfye
-dhiyas

-dhya
-dhye
-dhyas

-bhuva
-bhuve
-bhuvas

-bhva
-bhve
-bhvas

L.

-dhiyi

-dhyi

-bhuvi

-bhvi

D.

DECLENSION

127

III.,

a-, !-,

AND U-STEMS.

[354

Dual:
N. A. V.

-dhiyau

-bhuvau

-dhiyos

-dhyoa

-bbftbhyam
-bhuvos
-bhvos

-dhiyaa
-dhyaa
-dhtbhia

-bhuvas
-bhvas
-bhubhia

-dhyau
-dhibhyam

D. Ab.

I.

G. L.

Plural

N. A. V.
I.

D.Ab.

-dbibhyas
f-dhfyftm

G.
L.

-bhubhyas
f-bhuvam
"

bhvim

-dhy&m

1-bhtinam
-bhusu

-dhlflu.
a.

As

-bhvftu

to the admissibility of the fuller

endings ai, as, and

am

in the

singular (feminine), grammatical authorities are somewhat at variance; but

they are never found in the Veda, and have been omitted from the above

scheme

as probably unreal.

b. If two consonants precede the final i or u, the dissyllabic forms,

with iy and uv, are regularly written;

after

one consonant,

uv when the
y and v when it

The grammarians prescribe iy and

varying.

the usage is
monosyllabic stem

has more the character of a noun, and

is more purely a
No such distinction, however, is to be seen
verbal root with participial value.
in the Veda
wheie, moreover, the difference of the two forms is only
graphic, since the ya- and va-forms and the rest are always to be read as
dissyllabic: ia or la and uft or
c.

As

353.

to

ua, and so on.

neuter stems for such adjectives, see 367.

few further Vedic irregularities or peculiarities may be

briefly

noticed.
a.

Of the ft-stems, the forms in as, ftm,

be read as dissyllables, aas,

infinitive is ai (as if

S + e):

asm,
thus,

aa.

ft

(du.) are sometimes to

of the stem used as

The dative

prakhyai, pratiinai, paradaf.

b. Irregular transfer of the accent to the ending in compounds

in a case or two: thus, avadyabhiya (RV.), adhia (AV.).

is

seen

354. But compounds of the class above described are not

in-

frequently transferred to other modes of inflection: the ft shortened

to a for a masculine (and neuter) stem, or declined like a stem of
the derivative a-class (below, 364) as feminine; the I and u short-

ened to

and u, and

inflected as of the second declension.

compound stems in -ga, -ja, -da, -stha, -bhu, and others, are
found even in the Veda, and become frequent later (being made from all, or
nearly all. the roots in ft); and sporadic cases from yet others occur for example,
a. Thus,

9rtapan, vayodhafs and ratnadhebbis, dhanasais (all RV.); and,

from I and u compounds, ves^ris (TS.), ahrayas (RV.), ganaQribhis
(RV.), karmanfa (gB.) and ytanfbhyaa (RV.) and aenantohyaa (VS.)
and gramanibhia (TB.), aupunft (AV.), sitibhrave (TS.).
b. Still more numerous are the feminines in ft which

have lost

356]

V.

their root-declension

NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.

128

examples are praja (of which the further compounds

svadha, 9raddha, pratima, and others.

in part have root-forms),

c.

Then, in the later language, a few feminines in I are made from

a shortened from a : thus, gopi, gos^hl, pannagi, pankajl,

the stems in

bhujagi, bhujamgi, surapi.

355.

Polysyllabic Stems. Stems

of this division (A) of

more

than one syllable are very rare indeed in the later language, and
by no means common in the earlier. The Rig-Veda, however, presents a not inconsiderable body of them; and as the class nearly
dies out later, by the disuse of its stems or their transfer to other

modes of declension,

it

may be

best described on a Vedic basis.

Of stems in a, masculines, half-a-dozen occur in the Veda: pantha,

are otherwise viewed by the later grammar: see
4334;
below,
rujana (nom. pr.) has the anomalous nom. sing, uqana
a.

mantha, and rbhuksa

(and

loc.

well as dat.

as

maha

ugane);

and abundantly in composition;

vable from ata.

sing,

b. Of stems in
feminines, and

from

1,

with change

masculines

surmi.

found only in accus.

is

found in the Veda, nearly all

Half of the feminines are formed

of accent:

thus,

kalyani (m. kalyana),

have no corresponding masculines

The masculines are about ten in number:

others

deri-

are

final.

show no change of accent:

others

purusi (m. purusa);

yama)

over seventy

accented on the

all

great

ata frame has only at&BU not

still

thus,

thus,
for

yarn! (m.

nadi, laksmi,

example, rathi,

pravi, atari, ahi, apathi.

c.

Of stems

in u, the

number

feminines, and all accented on

feminine adjectives in

to

the

is

smaller:

final.

these,

too, are

The majority

masculines in u* or

of

(above,

nearly

them

are

344 b):

all

the

thus,

caranyu, carisnu, jighatsu, madhu. A few are nouns in u, with

change of accent: thus, agru (agru), prdaku (pdaku), gvaqrtl (cva9iira); or without change, as nrtu. And a few have no corresponding
masculines: thus, 'tanu, vadhii, eamu. The masculines are only two or

krkadaqu, makBu(?); and

three: namely, pra^ti,

utmost

356. The

mode

of declension of these words

by the following examples

f.

their forms are of the

rarity.

may be

rathi m. charioteer; nadi

f.

illustrated

stream; tanu

body.
a.

No one

of the

which no example at
from any I-stem occurs,

for

nadi

is

selected

between the
division:

examples occurs in

all

the forms

forms

No loo. sing,
quotable are put in brackets.
The stem
to determine what the form would be.
all is

example partly in order to emphasize the difference

language and the later in regard to the words of this

as

earlier

nadi

selected

is later

the model of derivative inflection.

129

DECLENSION
Singular :

III.,

RADICAL

a-, 1-,

AND U-STEMS.

358

AND ADJECTIVES.

V. NOUNS

3591

130

359. Adjective compounds from these words are very few ; those which
occur are declined like the simple stems thus, hfranyavaqis and sahas:

rastarls, ataptatanus and sarvatanus,

all

nom.

sing, masculine.

Stems ending in diphthongs.

360. There are certain monosyllabic stems ending in diphthongs,
which are too few and too diverse in inflection to make a declension
of, and which may be most appropriately disposed of here, in connection with the steins in I and u, with which they hare most affinity.
are:

They

a.

stems in au:

nau and glau;

b. stems in ai: rai;

c.

stems in o

361.

a.

go and dyo

The stem nau

f.

(or

dyu,

normal endings throughout, and

dfv).

entirely regular, taking the

following the rules for monosyllabic
is

ship

accentuation (317)
except that the accus. pi. is said (it does not
appear to occur in accented texts) to be like the nom. Thus: naus,

navam, nava, nave, navas, navi navau, naubhy am, navos navas,
navas, naubhfs, naubhyas, navam, nausu. The stem glau m. ball
but few of its forms have
is apparently inflected in the same way
;

been met with in

use.

b. The stem rai f. (or m.) wealth, might be better described as

ra with a union-consonant y (258) interposed before vowel endings,
and is regularly inflected as such, with normal endings and monosyllabic accent. Thus: ras, rayam, raya, raye, rayas, rftyi; rayau,
rabhy am, ray 6s ; rayas, rayas, rabhis, rabhyas, rayam, rasu. But
in the

and

Veda

pi.

the accus. pi.

is

not occur in V.) and ras (SV.,

anomalously accented rayas.
c.

rayas or rayas; for accus. sing,

ram (RV. once rayam does
and the gen.-sing. is sometimes
once)

either

are also used the briefer forms

The stem go m.

or

f.

bull or

cow

is

much more

irregular.

In the strong cases, except accus. sing., it is strengthened to gau,

forming (like nau) gaus, gavau, gavas. In accus. sing, and pi. it
has (like rai; the brief forms gam and gas. The abl.-gen. sing, is

gos (as if from gu). The rest is regularly made from go, with the
normal endings, but with accent always remaining irregularly upon
the stem thus, gava, gave, gavi, gavos, gavam ; gobhyam, gobhis,
gobhyas, gosu. In the Veda, another form of the gen. pi. is gonam;
the iioni. etc. du. is (as in all other such cases) also gava; and gam,
gos, and gas are not infrequently to be pronounced as dissyllables.
As ace. pi. is found a few times gavas.
:

d. The stem dyo f. (but in V. usually in.) sky, day is yet more
anomalous, having beside it a simpler stem dyu, which becomes div
before a vowel-ending.
The native grammarians treat the two as

DECLENSION

131

independent words, but

The stem dyo

is

it is

more convenient

Dual.

dyaiis

divam

diva
dive
Ab. divas
G.
divas
L.
div

Plural,

dyubhis

dyave

[dyubhyam dyobhyam]

dyos
dyos
dyavi

dyobhyas]

dyavam]
[dyosu]

dyus.li
in

dyaus

the

Both

language.

etc. du.,

dyava

is,

(du.), as if a neuter

dyavi
The

found once used as ablative.

is

early

As nom.

the regular Vedic form: once occurs

form ; and

and

[dyobhis]

[dyubhyas

[divam

dyavos]

[divos

e. The dat. sing, dyave is not found

divas and divas occur as accus. pi. in V.
as usual,

dyavas

divas, dyiin [dyasj

[dyava]

D.

met with

divas

dyavau

[dfvau]

dyam

I.

them together.
above described. The

as follows (with forms not actually

is

Singular.

A.

[362

to put

inflected precisely like go, as

complete declension
in use bracketed):
N.

DIPHTHONGAL STEMS.

III.,

cases

dyaus, dyam,

(once) are read in V. sometimes as dissyllables; and the

as accented vocative then becomes dyaus (i. e. dfaus: see 314).

dyun

first

Adjective compounds having a diphthongal stem as final member

and tend to shorten the diphthong to a vowel. Thus,
from nau we have bhinnanu; from go, several words like agu, saptagu,
f.

are not numerous,

sugu, bor hugu

tains its full form in

of

-gu

(f.

it

compound,

gotra, agota, -gava

is

(K.),

(of
accus. pi. of

goaQva

or

(f.

rai seems

-gavi), etc.

thus,

also,

dyu

to

be redu-

In derivation, go main;

member

as first

gava<jir, gavis^i (but

go'qva, gorjika, goopa9a,

or

form
In

etc.

thus,

revant

rayivant) rai becomes re. RV. has adhrigavas from

questionable import) and AY. has ghrtastavas, apparently
for

is

adhrigu

(liV.).

dyo takes an anomalous

dySurloka (^B.), dyausamQita (AV.).

In certain compounds,

dySurda

treated

variously

gaa,9ir, gais^i K.), etc.

(unless this

Jfi.); and, correspondingly,

brhadraye and rdhadrayas

ced to ri in

ghrtastu

or -sto.

B. Derivative stems in

To

a, I, u.

the a and 1-stems

belong
which have not been specified above as belonging to the
362.

this

division

other or root-word division

most of the
to a

and

a.

The

also,

in the later language,

and ti-stems of the other

more predominant mode of

1.

and

all

by transfer
Thus:

division,

inflection.

great mass of derivative feminine a-stems, substantive

adjective.
b.

The

inflection

of these

stems has maintained itself with

little

change through the whole history of the language, being almost precisely
the same in the Vedas as later.

V. NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.

362]
c.

2.

The great mass of derivative feminine

I-stems.

without exception in the later language. In the earlier,

suffers the exception pointed out above (355 b) : that feminities made
d. This class

it

132

is

with change of accent follow this mode of declension only when the accent
not on the I: thus, tavii-fi, parusni, palikni, rohini.

is

e.

The i-stems

later

are regarded as made by

Their inflection has become in the

of this division in general

contraction of an earlier ending in yft.

language somewhat mixed with that of the other division, and so far

different from the

Vedic inflection: see below,

363 g.

Very few derivative stems in I are recognized by the grammarians

declined like the root-division; the Vedic words of that class are, if
f.

as

retained in use, transferred to this

g.

3.

h.

mode

of inflection.

very small number of masculine I-stems (half-a-dozen) are in

the Veda declined as of the derivative division: they are a few rare proper
names, matall etc. ; and ras^rl and airi (only one case each).

The u-stems

are few in number, and are transfers from the

other division, assimilated in inflection to the great class of derivative

I-stems (except that they retain the ending s of the nom. sing.).

363.

Endings.

The points

of distinction

between

this

and the

other division are as follows:

a. In nom. sing, the usual s-ending is wanting
except in the u-stems
and a very few I-stems
which
namely, laksmi, tarl, tantrl, tandrl
have preserved the ending of the other division.
:

b. The accus. sing, and pi. add simply

The

c.

ai, as,

Sm;

and

and 8 respectively.

sing, take always the fuller endings

dat., abl.-gen.,
and these are separated from the final of the a-stems by an

interposed y.

In Brahmana

etc.,

loc.

Si

is

generally substituted for as

(307 h).

d. Before the endings & of instr. sing, and os of gen.-loc. du., the
final of a-stems is treated as if changed to e; but in the Veda, the instr.

ending a very often (in nearly half the occurrences) blends with the final
to a.
The ya of i-stems is in a few Vedic examples contracted to I, and
even to i. A loc. sing, in I occurs a few times.
e.

In

all

the weakest cases above mentioned, the accent of an I- or

u-stem having acute

final

is

thrown forward upon the ending.

In the

remaining case of the same class, the gen. pi., a n is always interposed
between stem and ending, and the accent remains upon the former (in RV.,
however,
f.

it is

usually thrown forward upon the ending, as in

In voc. sing.,

& becomes e;

final

g. In nom.-acc.-voc. du.

marked difference between the

final I

and

and u-stems),

are shortened.

and nom. pi. appears in I (and u)-stems a

earlier and later language, the latter borrow-

The du. ending au is unknown in

the Vedic ending is I (a corresponding dual
RV., and very rare in AV.
of u-stems does not occur).
The regular later pi. ending as has only a

ing the forms of the other division.

;

DECLENSION

133

III.,

DERIVATIVE

a-, I-,

AND U-STEMS.

[304

doubtful example or two in RV., and a very small number in AV. ; the
case there (and it is one of very frequent occurrence) adds s simply ; and
though yas-fonns occur in the Brahmanas, along with is-forras, both are

used rather indifferently as nom. and accns.

(as, indeed, they sometimes

interchange also in the epics). Of a-stems, the du. nom. etc. ends in e,
both earlier and later; in pi., of course, 8- forms are indistinguishable from
as-forms. The RV. has a few examples of asas for as.

h. The remaining cases

364.

Examples

inflection

no remark.

of declension.

of derivative stems

As models of the

ending in long vowels,

^RT sena f. army; 3RJT kanyS

goddess; 3% vadhu f. woman.

may
f.

call for

take

Singular

f.

girl;

we

*^t devi

N.

sena
S

kanya

devi

vadhus

devim

vadhum

A.

efruiH^

senam

kanyam

WRR
vadhva

senaya

kanyaya

senayai

kanyayai

senayas

kanyllyas

vadhvas

TlHIUIH^

senayam

^^MIMIH^
kanyayam

vadhvam

sene

kanye

devyjft

D.

devy^lf

Ab. G.

vadhvai

^5(1^

V.

devi

vadhu

devyau

vadhvau

devibhyam

vadhubhyam

devyos

vadhvos

Dual:

N.A.V.

i.

^F&

sene

kanye

D.

senabhyam kanyabhyaxn

senayoa

kanyayos

V. NOUNS

364]

AND ADJECTIVES.

134

Plural:

N V

'

A.

vadhvas

^FTTHr^

t^^

^c^

kanyas

devis

vadhus

kanyas

"iHlU

senas
SfarPfH

I.

devyas

senas

^J^L

"^tPlRT^
devibhis

oh^tllPTR^

senabhis

kanyabhis

senabhyas

kanyabhyas

vadhubhis

D.Ab.

G.

vadhtibhyas
S

UHMIH^
senanam

kanyanam

devinam

vadhunam

senasu

kanyasu

devisu

vadhusu

Veda vadhu

a. In the

(like tanti, above,

a. a-stems

of

in

stem belonging

Yedic forms

instr. sing,

mon from stems

is

^??^L

"^cjltiH^

to

the

other division

356).

365. Examples

ta and

aramgamasas

accus. pi.

devlbhyas

ch^UHIH

are:

manisa

ift)

nom.

(this simpler form is especially

pi.

com-

vagasas

(a case or two).

(about twenty examples) ;

Half the bhyas-cases are to

be read as bhias; the am of gen. pi. is a few times to be resolved into

aam; and the a and am of nom. and accus. sing, are, very rarely, to be
treated in the same manner.
b. i-stems

nom.

instr. sing,

devis; gen.

pi.

pi.

garni, garni; loc. gauri; nom. etc. du. devi;

final of the stem is to be read

bahvmam. The

y) frequently, but not in the majority of instances: thus,

devia, devias, deviam, rodasios.

as a vowel, (not

c.

The sporadic instances of

transfer

between this division and the

preceding have been already sufficiently noticed.

d. Of the regular substitution

336 g, 363 c)

made

in the

Brahmana language (307 g,

of the dat. sing, ending ai for the gen.-abl. ending as, in

examples may be
abhibhutyai rupam (AB.) a sign of overpowering trif tubhag
ca jagatyai ca (AB.) of the metres tristubh and jagati; vaco daivyai
ca manusyai ca (A A.) of speech, both divine and human ; striyai payah
(AB.) woman's milk; dhenvai va et&d retah (TB.) that, forsooth, is the
seed of the cow; jlrnfiyai tvacah (KB.) of dead skin; jyayasi yajyayai
(AB.) superior to the yajya; asyai divo 'smad antariksat (^S.) from
this heaven, from this atmosphere.
The same substitution is made once in
the AV.
thus, svapantv asyai jnatayah let her relatives sleep.
of words admitting the latter ending, a few

all classes

given here

DECLENSION

135

III.,

DERIVATIVE

a-, I-,

AND u -STEMS.

[368

366. The noun stri f. woman (probably contracted from sutrl genemixed declension thus, stri, striyam or strim, striya,
striyai, striy as, striyam, stri ; striyau, stribhy am, striyos ; striyas,
striyas or stris, stribhis, stribhyas, strinam, strisu (but the accusatives strim and stris are not found in the older language, and the TOC.
stri is not quotable). The accentuation is that of a root- word; the forms
(conspicuously the nom. sing.) are those of the other or derivative division.
ratrix^ follows a

Adjectives.
367. a. The occurrence of original adjectives in long final
vowels, and of compounds having as final member a stem of the first
division, has been sufficiently treated above, so far as masculine and
feminine forms are concerned. To form a neuter stem in composition,
the rule of the later language is that the final long vowel be shortened; and the stem so made is to be inflected like an adjective in
i or u (339, 341, 344).
b. Such neuter forms are very rare, and in the older language almost
unknown. Of neuters from i-s terns have been noted in the Veda only
haricriyam, ace. sing, (a masc. form), and suadhias, gen. sing, (same
as masc. and fern.); from u-stems, only a few examples, and from stemforms which might be masc. and fern, also: thus, vibhu, subhu, etc. (nom.acc.

compare 354); supiia and

sing.:

mayobhu,

ace. pi.

(compare

mayobhuva, instr. sing.; and

puru 342k); from a-stems occur only half:

a-dozen examples of a nom. sing, in as, like the masc. and

c.

member
the

fern. form.

Compounds having nouns of the second division as final

are common only from derivatives in a; and these shorten

final

masculine and neuter: thus, from a not and

come the masc. and neut. stem apraja, fern, apraja
Such compounds with nouns in I and u are said to be inmasc. and fern, like the simple words (only with in and un

to

in both

prajft progeny
childless.

flected in

but the examples given by the grammarians are

in ace. pi. masc.);

fictitious.

d. Stems with shortened final are occasionally met with: thus, ekapatni, attalakf mi and such adverbs (neut sing, accus.) as upabhaimi,
abhyujjayini. The stem stri is directed to be shortened to stri for all
;

genders.

368. It

is

convenient to give

a complete paradigm,

for all genders,

of an adjective-stem in

the purpose

papa

ally

made

older.

in

qfFJ
Eft

evil,

5f a.

We

take for

of which the feminine

a in the later language, but in

^

is

usu-

in the

V.

368-]
Singular

NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.

136

m.
N.

papam

papas
A.

^TFT1

papam

papa

papi

HIHIH^

papam

papim

papena

papaya

papya

papaya

papayai

papyai

papat

papayas

papyas

HIHIUIH

MIUII^

papasya

papayas

papyas

pape

papayam

*x
I.

mc|*j

M|f-UI

D.

Ab.

HNItllH

G.

L.

V.

papyam
^nft

papa

pape

papi

Dual:
^s

N. A. V.

I.

tfltn

qfq

(ii(j

papaii

pape

pape

papyau

papabhyam

papabhyam

papibhyam

papayos

MIMtTl^
papayos

D. Ab.

HtMlHjiH

G.L.

Ml^tllH

papyos

Plural:

N.

HIHIH

papas

papani

papas

papyas

papan

papani

papas

papis

papais

papabhis

papibhis

papebhyas

papabhyas

A.
v.

I.

^Ffrr^

D. Ab.
s

papibhyas

DECLENSION

137

IV., ^-STEMS.

[371

MW HIH

HHWIH^
pSpanam

papanam

papinfim

HIM^

HI^HH

MIMiy

papesu

papasu

papisu

HRMI*^

Declension

Stems in

IV.

y (or 5q- ar).

369. This

declension is a comparatively limited one,

almost
being
entirely composed of derivative nouns formed

with the suffix

<=T

ty (or

nomina agentis (used also

rTT

which makes masculine

tar),

participially).

and a few nouns of

relationship.

But

a.

it

with that suffix

these,

includes also a few nouns of relationship not made

namely devf m., svday and nanSndr- f. and, besides

nf m., stf

m.,

(in V.)

usf

V.)

(in

feminine numerals tisr and catasr

(for

savyaafhf m., and the

f.,

which, see 482 e,g).

The

feminines in ty are only matf, duhitf, and yaty.

The

b.
that of

inflection of these stems is quite

stems in

compared with them, consists mainly

which has a double form, fuller

itself,

the

weak
370.

loc. sing.)

closely analogous with

its peculiarity, as

and u (second declension);

in the treatment of the stem

in the strong cases, briefer in

ones.

Forms of the Stem.

the stem-final

is r,

In the

which

weak

in the

cases (excepting the!

weakest cases, or before

a vowel-ending, is changed regularly to r (129). But as regards the

strong cases, the stems of this declension fall into two classes: in

one of them
which is very much the larger, containing all the
nomina agentis, and also the nouns of relationship napty and svasr,

and the irregular words stf and savyaffthr

the y is vriddhied, or
becomes ar; in the other, containing most of the nouns of relationship,
with nf and usf, the r is gunated. or changed to ar. In both classes,
the loc. sing, has ar as stem-final.
371. Endings.

These are in general the normal, but with the

following exceptions:
a.

ars or

The nom.
The

firs).

sing. (masc.

voc. sing,

and

fern.)

ends always in

&

(for

original

ends in ar.

am

to the (strengthened) stem; the accus.

b. The accus. sing, adds
has (like i and u-stems) n as masc. ending and 8 as fern, ending, with
the y lengthened before them.

pi.

oo

~^e~V)

NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.

V.

371]
c.

The

abl.-gen. sing, changes

d.

The

gen.

pi.

(as

to

in i and

ur

138

us: 169b).

(or

u-stems) inserts

am, and

before

remain short.
lengthens the stem-final before it. But the y of ny may also
e. The above are the rules of the later language. The older presents

Thus:

certain deviations from them.

The ending

f.

ft

regularly

du.

is

h. In the gen.' pi., the BY. has once

and naram instead of npnaxn is frequent

Other irregularities of

i.

loc.

The Veda

nari.

(as

universally in the Veda)

au

(only ten au-forms in BV.).

of loc. sing, is lengthened to I in a few words: thus, kartaxi.

instead of

The

g.

in nom.-acc.-voc.

nf

svasram, without

inserted

n;

are the sing. dat. nare, gen. naras, and

nrnam in gen. pi., but its y is in a

writes always

majority of cases metrically long.

j. The stem usf
usras; and the accus.

f.

dawn has the

voc.

usras, and

sing,

usar, the gen.

sing,

usram

(which is
metrically trisyllabic
usram), as if in analogy with 1 and u-stems. Once
occurs usri in loc. sing., but it is to be read as if the regular trisyllabic
pi.

also

loc.

sing,

form, ufari (for the exchange of 8 and 9, see

181

a).

k. From stf come only taras (apparently) and Btfbhis.

1. In the gen. -loc. du., the r is almost always to be read as a separate syllable, ?, before the ending OB: thus, pitfOB, etc. On the contrary,

nanandari is once
m. For neuter

be read nanandri.

to

forms, see below,

The accentuation

372. Accent.
i-

and u-stems

if

375.

on the

final

follows closely the rules for

it continues, as acute, on

of the stem,

the corresponding syllable throughout, except in the gen. pi., where

it may be
(and in the Veda always is) thrown forward upon the
ending where, in the weakest cases, % becomes r, the ending has the
;

The two monosyllabic stems, nf and atf, do not show the

monosyllabic accent: thus (besides the forms already given above},
nfbhis, nrsu.
accent.

373..

mode

Examples

we may

of inflection,

ar
?H^[

and F3RT

of declension.

As models

take from the

first class

th e strong forms) the stems ^TrT

svasr/

f.

sister;

dfttr

N.

A.

(with

m. giver

from the second class (with

ar in the strong forms), the stem ftfT pitr m. father.

Singular

of this

:^

^'

3JrTT

^RT

TOT

data

svasa

pita

<IHI(H^

HHI^

Rffi^H^

dataram

svasaram

pitaram

5Tjf

DECLENSION

139

i-373

IV.,

3T3TT

datra

svasra

pitrS

datre

svasre

pitre

datur

Bvasur

pitiir

Ab. G.

L.

<IH!(

tcwf}

[Mrif(

datari

svasari

pitari

datar

svasar

pitar

datarau

svasarau

pitarau

datfbhyam

Bvasybhyam

pit^bhyam

^TRTTT^
svasroB

fcr^T^

datros

dataras

svasaras

pitaras

^Irj^
datrn

svaars

pit|n^

V.

fart

Dual:
N. A. V.

D. Ab.

I.

G. L.

pitroa

Floral

N.V.

A.

I.

F^rfHH^
svasrbhis

pitrbhis

datrbhyas

svasrbhyas

pitrbhyas

^TnmiH^
datfnam

Bvasrnam

pitrnam

datfsu

svasrsu

pitrsu

datfbhis
D. Ab.

^iri^tiH^

G.

L.

a.

The feminine stem qiH matf

cisely like

fe

pitf , excepting that

mother,
its

is

inflected pre-

accusative plural

is

V. NOUNS

373]

AND ADJECTIVES.

140

b. The peculiar Yedic forms have been sufficiently instanced above;

the only ones of other than sporadic occurrence being the nom. etc. du.
datara, svasara, pitara, and the gen. pi. of nr, naram.

The nom.

C.

forms pitaras and

pi.

mataras

etc. are

found used

also as accus. in the epics.

374. The stem krogtf m. jackal (lit'iy howler] substitutes in the

middle cases the corresponding forms of kros^u.

Neuter forms.

375.

The grammarians

neuter declension also for bases in

madhu

of vari or

tr,

(above, 339, 341).

prescribe a complete
precisely accordant with that

Thus, for example:

Du.

Sing.

Plur.

dhatrm
dhatfbhyam

N.A.

dhatr

I.

dhfitfna

G.

dhatfnas
dhatr, dhatar

dhatfni
dhatfbhis

dhatfnos
dhatynam
dhatfni
dhatyni.
a. The weakest cases, however (as of i- and u-stems used adjectively: 344), are allowed also to be formed like the corresponding
masculine cases: thus, dhatra etc.
V.

b. No such neuter forms chance to occur in the Veda, but they begin
to

the

appear in

Germ.

(compare

nomen
with

under influence

Brahmanas,

Fr.

Retterin;

Better,

of the

menteur,

common tendency

menteuse)

to

this

give

more adjective character, making it correspond in gender

noun which it (appositively) qualifies.
Thus, we have in

agentis a

the

TB. bharty and janayitf, qualifying antarikgam; and bhartyni and

janayitrni, qualifying naksatrani; as, in M., grahitrni, qualifying
indriyani.
c.

When

a feminine

feminine derivative in I

noun

is

is to

employed

be qualified in like manner, the usual

thus, in TB., bhartryas and bhar:

tryau, janayitryas and janayitryau, qualifying apas and ahoratre;

and such instances are not uncommon.

The RY. shows the same tendency very

d.
pi.

matrn,

instead of

mStfs,

in

curiously once in the accus.

apposition with masculine nouns (RY.

x. 35.2).
e.
loc.

Other neuter forms in RY.

sing.

ful cases,

and

for the

nom.

are

sthatur gen. sing., dhmatarl

few more or less doubt-

sing., instead of -ty, a

sthatar, sthatur, dhartari.

Adjectives.
376. a. There are no original adjectives of this declension for
the quasi-adjectival character of the nouns composing it, see above
The feminine stem is ma'de by the suffix i: thus, datri,
(375b).
dhatri.
:

b. Roots

make a

ending in r

declinable stem,

(like

those in

when occurring

and u: 345) add a

as final

t to

member of a com-

DECLENSION

141

pound: thus, karmakft

some

r-roots, also, are

(j/lqr),

V.,

[379

CONSONANT- STEMS.

vajrabh^t

made stems

in ir

(|/bhy),

balihyt (yhf). From

and ur: see below, 383 a, b.

Nouns in r as finals of adjective compounds are inflected

same manner as when simple, in the masculine and feminine;
the neuter, they would doubtless have the peculiar neuter endings
c.

in the
in

in nom.-acc.-voc. of all

numbers.

d. But TS. has once tvatpitaras, nom.

pi.,

having thte

for

father.

Declension V.

Stems ending in Consonants.

377. All stems ending in consonants

may

properly be

classed together, as forming a single comprehensive declen-

sion;

though some of them exhibit peculiarities of

since,

inflection, these have to do almost exclusively with the stem

itself,

and not with the declensional endings.

declension, masculines and feminines of

378. In this

the same final are inflected alike; and jieuters are peculiar
(as usually in the other declensions) only in the nom.-acc.voc. of all numbers.
a.

The majority

of consonantal stems, however, are not

inflected in the feminine, but

ative stem in

the

weak

(never in

form a special feminine deriv-

%tt 5),

by adding that ending

to

form of the masculine.

b. Exceptions are in general the stems of divisions

the radical stems etc., and those in as and is

- namely,

and B
and us.

For special cases, see below.

379. Variations, as between stronger and weaker forms,

are very

among consonantal

general

stems:

degrees (strong and weak), or of three

either of

(strong,

two

middle, and

weakest): see above kj*ll^}

a.

The

peculiar neuter forms,

rule (31 Ib), are

made

singular and dual from the

is

threefold,

in

according to the usual

in the plural from the strong stem, in

weak

or,

when

the gradation

singular from the middle stem, in dual

from the weakest.

V. NOUNS

379]

AND ADJECTIVES.

142

ending in short vowels asyani,

a
nasal sometimes appears in the
variiji,
special neuter plural cases which is found nowhere else in inflection.
Thus, from the stems in as, is, us, the nom.-acc.-voc. pi. in -ansi,
b.

As

in

the case of stems

madhuni, datpii,

etc.),

According to the
-in?i, -unsi are. very common at every period.
grammarians, the radical stems etc. (division A) are treated in the
same way but examples of such neuters are of extreme rarity in the
language no Vedic text offers one, and in the Brahmanas and Sutras
have been noted only -hunti (AB. vii. 2. 3), -vpiti (PB. xvi. 2. 7 et al),
;

-bhfnti (QB. viii. 1. 3*), and -yufiji (LS. ii. 1.8);

is found here and there a case, like
-9nmti (Ragh.), -puftsi (Qic..) it may be questioned whether they are
not later analogical formations.
-bhafiji (KB. xxvii.
while in the later

7),

language

380.

The endings

are throughout those

given above

(310) as the "normal".

a.

By

masc. and
final

the general law as to finals (150), the s of the nom. sing.

always lost; and irregularities of treatment of the

fern, is

of the stem in this case are not infrequent.

b. The gen. and abl. sing, are never distinguished in form from
nor are, by ending, the nom. and accus. pi. but these
one another
sometimes differ in stem-form, or in accent, or in both.
:

381. Change in the place of the accent is limited to monosyland the participles in ant (accented on the final). For
and E.
details, see below, under divisions

labic stems

a.

But a few of the compounds of the root afic

shift of accent in the oldest language

will

see below,

or ac show an
410.

irregular

For convenience and clearness of presentation.

be well to separate from the general mass of conson-

382.
it

a.

antal stems certain special classes which

culiarities of inflection,

show kindred pe-

and may be best described together.

Thus:
B. Derivative stems in as,
C. Derivative stems in

an

D. Derivative stems in in

is,

(an,
(in,

us;

man, van);
min, vin);

E. Derivative stems in ant (ant, mant, vant)

P. Perfect active participles in vans;

G. Comparatives in ySns or yas.

b.

There remain, then,

cially radical stems, or

to

constitute division A, espe-

those identical in form with roots,

DECLENSION

143

[383

CONSONANTAL ROOT-STEMS.

V.,

together with a comparatively small

number

of others

which

are inflected like these.

They

will

be taken up in the order thus indicated.

A. Boot-stems, and those inflected like them.

383.
follows
I.

The stems

of this division

may be

as

classified

a.

to a root

Root-stems, having in them no demonstrable element added

thus, f c verse, gfr song, pad foot, dlq direction, mah (V.)

great.

b. Such stems, however, are not always precisely identical in form

with the root: thus, vie from yvac, sraj from X8?J
^? from Vnms,
from roots in final y
vrfc, from /vraqc (?), us. from j/vas shine;

come stems

in ir

and ur: thus, gir, S-gfr, atfr; jur, tur, dhur, pur,
psur from j/psar.

miir, atur, sphiir; and

With these may be ranked the stems with reduplicated

vanivan, sasyad.

c.

root,

as

cikit, yaviyiidh,

Words

d.
in

the

of this division in

older language:

thus, in

uncompounded use are tolerably frequent

BY. are found more than a hundred of

them; in AV., about sixty; but in the

classical

Sanskrit the power of

using any root at will in this way is lost, and the examples are comparaIn all periods, however, the adjective use as final of a comtively few.

pound

is

e.

very

As

II. f.

common

(see below,

to the infinitive

401).

use of various cases of the root-noun, see 971.

Stems made by the addition of t to a

final

short vowel

of a root.
g.

No proper root-stem ends

(354) examples of
u or y adds a t

transfer
to

make

of such
a

in a short vowel,
to

although there are

short- vowel-declensions ;

declinable

form:

thus,

Roots in y, however, as has just been seen (b), also

-jit,

but

-c.rut,

make stems

i or

-kft.

in ir or ur.

h. As regards the frequency and use of these words, the same is true
The Veda offers examples of
as was stated above respecting root-stems.

them (mit, rlt, stut, hrut, vft,

and dyut if this is taken from dyu) in independent use. Of roots in y ,
t is added by ky, drrp, dhvy, bhy, vy, sy, spy, by, and hvy. The roots
ga (or gam) and nan also make -gat and -hat by addition of the t to
nearly thirty such formations, a few of

an abbreviated form in

(thus,

adhvagat, dyugat, dvigat, navagat,

and samhat).
III. i. Monosyllabic (also a few apparently reduplicated) stems
not certainly connectible with any verbal root in the language, but
having the aspect of root-stems, as containing no traceable suffix:

383

V. NOUNS

AND ADJECTIVES.

144

tvac skin, path road, hfd Aear/, ap and var wafer, dvSr door,
as mouth, kakubh and kakiid summit.

thus,

some

j.

Thirty or forty such words are found in

of

them continue in

the

older language,

and

have been transferred

later use, while others

to

other modes of declension or have become extinct.

Stems more or

k.

less clearly derivative,

Thus

of rare or even isolated occurrence.

derivatives (V.) from prepositions with

1.

but made with suffixes

the

vat: arvavat,

suffix

2. derivatives
avat, udvat, nivat, parSvat, pravat, samvat;
(V.)
n tfit (perhaps abbreviated from tati), in a few isolated forms: thus,
3. other derivauparat&t, devatat, vrkatat, satyatat, sarvatat;
tives in t preceded by various vowels thus, dac,at, vehat, vahat, sravat,
:

vaghat; napat; tadit,

sa^cat,

marut; yakrt, s&krt; and

the

divit,

yosit, rohit, sarit, harit;

numerals

for

30,

40, 50,

tri^at

etc.

stems in ad: thus, drsad, dhrsad, bhasad, vanad,

(475);
5. stems in j preceded by various vowels: thus, tysnaj,
9arad, samad;
4.

6. a
dhysaj, sanaj, bhigaj; u^ij, vanfj, bhurij, nii?ij(?); asyj;
few stems ending in a sibilant apparently formative
thus, jnas, -das,
7. a remnant of unclassiflable cases, such as vis^ap,
bhas, mas, bhis ;
:

vipaQ, kaprth, qurudh, isidh, prkaudh, raghat

usnih, kavas.

384.

Gender.

The root-stems

and masculine as nomen

(?),

saragh, visruh,

are regularly feminine as nomen

(which is probably only a

substantive use of their adjective value: below, 400). But the feminine noun, without changing its gender, is often also used concretely

actionis,

agentis

e.

g.,

druh

f.

(}/druh

be inimical}

means harming, enmity, and

also

thus bordering on the masculine value. And

harmer, hater, enemy
some of the feminines have a completely concrete meaning. Through
the whole division, the masculines are much less numerous than the
feminines,

and the neuters rarest of

all.

The independent neuter stems are hf d (also -hard), dam, var,

svar, mas flesh, as mouth, bhas, dos (with which may be mentioned
a.

the indeclinables c/am and yos); also the apparent derivatives

9akrt, kaprth, asrj.

385.

Strong and weak stem-forms.

tion of these

two

classes

of forms

by the presence or absence of a

usually

nasal,

in the quantity of the stem-vowel,

or

The

distinc-

made

either

by a difference

as long or short

less

by other methods.

often,

386.
1.

407 ff.

is

yakrt,

nasal appears in the strong cases of the following words

Compounds having as final member the root ac or anc:

and RV. has once uruvyancam from root vyac;

see below,
2.

The

DECLENSION

145

[389

CONSONANTAL STEMS.

V.,

stem yuj, sometimes, in the older language: thus, nom.

yun

sing,

(for

yunk), accus. yiinjam, du. yunja (but also yiijam and yiija);
3. The stem -df9, as final of a compound 'in the older language; but only
in the nom. sing, masc., and not always: thus, anyadrn, Idrn, kldrn,
tadrn, etadrn, sadfn and pratisadfn: but also idrk, tadfk, svardfk,
etc.

and

For

4.

for

path and pums, which

dant, see below,

387. The vower a

394

substitute

more extended stems,

6.

lengthened in strong cases as follows

is

Of the

roots vac, sac, sap, nabh, <jas, in a few instances (V.),

2. Of the roots vah and Bah, but irregularly
compounds
see below, 403
3. Of ap trater (see 393); also in its compound
5;
4. Of pad foot: in the compounds of this word, in the later
rityap;
language, the same lengthening is made in the middle cases also; and in
RV. and AV. the nom. sing. neut. is both -pat and -pat, while RV. has
1.

at the

end

of

once -pade, and

occur in the Brahmanas

nas

once);

nose

(?

-padbhis and -patsu

nasa nom. du. fern., RV.,

are:

yaj(?),

nom.

pi.

voc.

sing.;

pathas and -rap as,

The strengthened forms bhaj and raj

6.

accus.

5.

Of

Sporadic cases (V.)

vamvanas,

pi.;

are constant, through all

classes of cases.

388. Other modes of

1.

In -han: see below,

longation of

a:

thus,

by

differentiation,

tion of the syllable containing

ksama

it,

402;
du.,

elision of

a or contrac-

appear in a few stems

2.

ksarnas

In
pi.

ksam (V.), along with proksama instr. sing., ksami

;

ksmas

abL sing.;
3. In dvar, contracted (V.) to dur in
weak cases (but with some confusion of the two classes);
4. In svar,
which becomes, in RV., BUT in weak cases; later it is indeclinable.
loc. sing.,

389.

The endings

are as stated above (380).

Respecting their combination with the final of the stem, as

when it occurs at the end of the
word, the rules of euphonic combination (chap. III.) are to be consulted; they require much more constant and various application
a.

well as the treatment of the latter

here than anywhere else in declension.

b. Attention
(V.):

may be

called to a few exceptional cases of combination

madbbis and madbhyas

from

padbhis (RV. and VS.: AV. has

and saradbhyas corresponding to
as: 222).

Dan

is

apparently for

mas

month; the wholly anomalous

padbhis) from pad; and sarat

nom. pi. saraghas (instead of sarah-

always
a

dam, by 143 a.

c. According to the grammarians, neuter stems, unless they

end in a

nasal or a semivowel, take in nom.-acc.-voo. pi. a strengthening nasal before

the final consonant.
But no such cases from neuter noun-stems appear

ever to have been

met with

in a root, see above,

in use; and as regards adjective stems ending

379 b.

Whitney, Grammar.

2. ed.

10

V. NOUNS

390-]

AND ADJECTIVES.

146

390. Monosyllabic stems have the regular accent of such, throwing the tone forward upon the endings in the weak cases.

But the accusative plural has its normal accentuation as a

upon the ending, in only a minority (hardly more than a
third) of the stems
namely in datas, pathas, padas, nidas, apas,
usas, jnasas, pumsas, masas, mahas; and sometimes in vacas,
srucas, hrutas, sridhas, ksapas, vipas, duras, isas, dvisas, druhas
(beside vacas etc.).
a.

weak

case,

b. Exceptional instances, in which a weak case has the tone on the

stem, occur as follows: sada, nadbhyas, tana (also tana) and tane,
(infin.), rane and ransu, vansu, svani, vipas, ksami, sura
and suras (but sure), anhas, and vanas and bfhas (in vanaspati,
bfhaspati ). On the other hand, a strong case is accented on the ending
in mahas, nom. pi., and kasam (AY.: perhaps a false reading).
And

badhe

iustr. sing., is accented as if pres were a simple stem, instead of

pra-is. Vimrdhah is of doubtful character. For the sometimes anomalous accentuation of stems in ac or anc, see 410.

presa,

391.

normal
^fpcf

vSc

Examples
monosyllabic
f.

of inflection.
inflection,

As an example of

we may

take

the

stem

voice (from i/3R vac, with constant prolongation)

of inflection with strong and

of polysyllabic inflection,

rnjvFT

of a monosyllabic root-stem
three-fold, in the neuter.
Singular

N. V.

weak

stem, q<r

mariit m. wind or wind-god;

in

composition,

f^Nd

Thus:

TO^
vak

pat^

marut

trivft

vacam

padam

marutam

trivft

r?NHI

I.

maru

D.

f
maru
f

trivia

vace

pad|

pad m. foot;

tri

ivf^e

Ab. G.

vacas

padas

marutas

trivftas

vaci

padi

maruti

trivfti

trivft

DECLENSION

147

V.,

-391

CONSONANTAL STEMS.

Dual:
N. A. V.

I.

D. Ab.

vaeau

padau

marutau

trivfti

G||JH4IH

H4IH

H h&4 IH

H'NsyiH

vagbhyam

padbhyam

marudbhyam trivydbhyam

vacos

pados

marutos

trivrtos

vacas

padas

marutas

trivfnti

vacas, vacas

padas

H^rlH^
marutas

trivynti

G. L.

Plural:

N.V.

I.

1^1

"\.

^H^

vagbhfs

padbhia

maru.dbb.is

vagbhyas

padbhyas

marudbhyas

trivf dbhyas

vacam

padam

marutam

trivrtam

vaksii

patsu

trivfdbhis

D.Ab.

G.

L.

H^xrH

f^cjrH

marutsu

trivftsu

of illustration of the leading methods of treatment of

end of the word and in combination with casecharacteristic case-forms of a few more stems are here

By way
a

stem-final, at the

endings,

Thus

added.

a. Stems in j: yuj-class (2 19 a, 142), bhisaj physician: bhisak,

bhisajaxn, bhisagbhis, bhisaksu;
mrj-class (219b, 142), samraj

universal ruler:

samrat, samraj am, samradbhis, samratsu.

dh: -vfdh increasing: -vft, -vfdham, -vrdbhis,

vftsu; -budh (155) waking: -bhut, -budham, -bhudbhis, -bhiitsu.
b.

Stems

c.

Stems in bh: -stubh praising: -stup, -stiibham, -stubbhis,

in

-stupsu.
d. Stems in 9: dig (2 18 a, 145) direction: dfk, dlgam, digbbis,
diksii;
vfg (218, 145) the people: vffc vigam, vi^bhfs, vi^su (V.
viksii: 218a).
e.

Stems

(226 b, 145): dvf? enemy: dvt, dvisam,

in

in

h: duh-class (232

bhfs, dvi^su.
f.

Stems

3 a, 155b, 147), -duh milki

10*

391]

NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.

V.

148

yielding: -dhuk, -duham, -dhiigbhis, -dhuksu ;

147), -lib licking: -li$, -litam, -lidbhis, -litsu.

Stems in

g.

ruh-class

(143 a, 212 a: only pra$an, nom.

-<jam quieting: -qan,

Qamam,

sing.,

(223 b,

quotable):

-Qanbhis, -9ansu.

392. The root-stems in ir and ur (383 b) lengthen their vowel

final r is followed by another consonant (245 b), and also

when the
in the

nom.

a.

(where the case-ending s

sing,

Thus, from gfr

f.

song

is lost).

come gir

(gih),

gfram, gira,

etc.;

girbhyam, giros; giras, girbbis, girbhyas, giram, glrsu

(165); and, in like manner, from pur f. stronghold come pur (pub.),
puram, pura, etc. purau, purbhy am, puros ; piiras, purbbis, pur-

gfrau,

bhyas, puram, pursu.

b. There are no roots in is (except the excessively rare pis) or in

us; but from the root 908 with its S, weakened to i (250) comes the
noun aqia f. blessing, which is inflected like gfr: thus,
9X8 (ac,ih),

^isam, ^isa,

etc.;

ac,{sau,

a9lrbhyas, a9isam, a9ihsu.

a^irbhyam, a9isos; a9isas, a9irbhis,

And sajus

together is apparently a stereo-

typed nominative of like formation from the root jus. The form astaprut
(TS.), from the root-stem prus, is isolated and anomalous.
c.

in

These stems in

and

ir,

ur, is show a like prolongation of vowel also

derivation:

thus, girvana, purbbid, dhurgata,

dhustva, ft^irda, asirvant, etc. (but also gfrvan, girvanas).
d. The native grammar sets up a class of quasi-radical stems like
jigamis desiring to go. made from the desiderative conjugation-stem (1027),

composition

and prescribes for it a declension like that of a^fs: thus, jigamis, jigamisa, jigamirbhis, jigamlhsu, etc. Such a class appears to be a mere
figment of the grammarians, since no example of it has been found quotable
from the literature, either earlier or later, and since there is, in
more a desiderative stem jigamis than a causative stem gamay.

393. The stem ap

with dissimilation of its

f.

water

final

is inflected

before

bh

to

fact,

no

only in the plural, and

(151 e;: thus, apas,

apas, adbbis, adbhyas, apam, apsu.

a.

But RV. has the

sing, instr.

apa and

gen.

apas.

In the earlier

language (especially AY.), and even in the epics, the nom. and accus. pi.
forms are occasionally confused in use, apas being employed as accus.,

and apas as nominative.

in

b. Besides the stem ap, case-forms of this word are sometimes used
and derivation: thus, for example, abja, apodevata,

composition

apomaya, apsumant.
394. The stem pums m. man

pumans in the
initial bh of a

is

very irregular, substituting

strong cases, and losing

its

s (necessarily)

before

case-ending, and likewise (by analogy with this, or

an abbreviation akin with that noticed at 231) in the loc. plural.

by
The vocative

is (in

accordance with that of the somewhat similarly

DECLENSION

149

V.,

CONSONANTAL STEMS.

[398

inflected perfect participles: see 462 a) puman in the later language,

pumas in the earlier. Thus puman, pumanaam, pumsa,

but

pumse, pumsas, pumsi, puman; pumansau, pumbhyam, pumsos;

pumanaaa, pumeas, pumbhis, pumbhyaa, pumsam, pumau.
a.

The accentuation of the weak forms, it will be noticed, is that of

The forms with bh-endings nowhere occur in the

a tine monosyllabic stem.

nor do they appear

older language,

Instances

As

with.

of the confusion of strong

to the retention of

to have been cited from the later.

and weak forms are occasionally met

a unlingualized in the weakest cases (whence

necessarily follows that in the loc. pi.), see

183 a.

b. This stem appears under a considerable variety of forms in composition and derivation: thus, as puma in pum^cali, pumstva, pums-

vant, -pumaka, etc.; as

pumartha, etc.; as pumaa
either

with

full

its

pum
in

inflection,

atripumaa, mahapumsa;

in pumvataa, pumrupa, pumvat,

at the end of a compound,
pumaavant;
as in atrlpuma etc.; or as pumaa, in

or as

puma

in

stripuma

(T8. TA.).

395. The stem path m. road is defective in declension, forming

only the weakest cases, while the strong are made from pantha or
panthan, and the middle from pathf : see under en-stems, below, 433.
396. The stem dant m. tooth

is

perhaps of participial origin,

dant and dat, strong and weak

datas ace. pi. etc. But in the
thus (V.), din, dantam, data, etc.
middle cases it has the monosyllabic and not the participial accent:
thus, dadbhis, dadbhyaa. In nom. pi. occurs also -datas instead
of -dantas. By the grammarians, the strong cases of this word are
required to be made from danta.
and

has, like a participle, the forms

397. A number of other words of this division are defective,

making part of their inflection from stems of a different form.
a. Thus, hrd n. heart, mans or mas n. meat, mas m. month, nas
nose, nig f. night (not found in the older language), pft f. army, are
said by the grammarians to lack the nom. of all numbers and the accus.
f.

sing,

and

du.

(the

respectively from

neuters,

of course,

the ace.

pi.

also),

hfdaya, mansa, masa, nasika,

ni<ja,

making them
But

pytana.

the usage in the older language is not entirely in accordance with this
requirement thus, we find mas flesh accus. sing. ; mas month nom. sing. ;
and nasa nostrils du. From pft occurs only the loc. pi. prtsii and (RV.,
:

once) the same case with double ending, pytsusu.

398. On the other hand, certain stems of this division, allowed

full inflection, are used to fill up the deficien-

by the grammarians a

cies of those of another form.

a. Thus, asrj n. blood, qakr-t n. ordure, yakj-t n. Liver, dos n.
m.) fore-arm, have beside them defective stems in an: see below,
432. Of none of them, however, is anything but the nom.-anc. sing, found

(also

in the older language,

and other

cases later are

but very scantily represented.

V. NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.

398]

ud

b. Of as n. mouth, and
the older language, beside

399. Some

number

water, only a case or two are found, in

asan and asya, and udan and udaka (432).

of the alternative stems

transition from the consonant to a

150

of other similar cases

mentioned above are instances of

vowel declension: thus, danta, masa.

occur,

sporadically in the older language,

more commonly in the later. Such are pada, -mada, -daqa, bhraja,
viffapa, dvfira and dura, pura, dhura, -dy$a, naaft, nida, k${pS,
kaapa, a<ja, and perhaps a few others.
a.

few irregular stems will find a more proper place under the head

of Adjectives.

Adjectives.
400. Original adjectives having the root-form are comparatively
rare even in the oldest language.
a.
in
it

About a dozen are quotable from the RV., for the most part only
But xnah great is common in RV., though

a few scattering cases.

dies out rapidly later.

It

makes a derivative feminine stem, mahi,

which continues in use, as meaning

earth etc.

401. But compound adjectives, having a root as final member,

with the value of a present participle, are abundant in every period
of the language.
a. Possessive adjective compounds, also, of the same form, are
not very rare: examples are yat&sruc with offered bowl; sUryatvac

sun-skinned;

catuspad four-footed; suhard kind-hearted, friendly;

sahasradvar furnished

riti-ap) having streaming waters;

with a thousand doors.

rityap

b.

(i.

e.

The

inflection of such

compounds

is like

that of the simple root-

stems, masculine and feminine being throughout the same, and the neuter
But special neuter
varying only in the nom.-acc.-voc. of all numbers.

forms are of rare occurrence, and masc.-fem. are sometimes used instead.
C.

Only rarely

is

a derivative feminine stem in

formed: in the

older language, only from the compounds with ac or anc (407 if.), those
with han (402), those with pad, as ekapadi, dvipadi, and with dant,
as

vftadatl,' and mahi,

amuci

(AV.),

upasadl

(? gB.).

Irregularities of inflection appear in the following

402. The root han slay, as final of a compound, is inflected

like a derivative noun in an (below, 42O ff.), becoming ha
in the nom. sing., and losing its n in the middle cases and its a in
the weakest cases (but only optionally in the loc. sing.). Further, when
the vowel is lost, h in contact with following n reverts to its orig-

somewhat

inal gh.

Thus:

DECLENSION

151

Dual.

Singular.

N.

vrtraha

A.

vrtrahanam

I.

vrtraghna

ntraghn6

Jvftraghnas

Jvrtrahanau
vrtrahabhis
|

JTtrahibhySm

L.

vrtraghni, -hani

V.

vftrahan

a.

As

to the

An

j^^^^
vrtraghnam
vrtrahasu
vftrahanas.

n, see 193, 195.

to

made by adding

is

accua. pi.

L^.^,^.
vftrahanau

change of

feminine

in the weakest cases: thus,

c.

Plural.

b.

[404

CONSONANTAL STEMS.

V.,

I to, as usual, the

stem-form shown

vrtraghni.

-hanas

(like the

nom.) also occurs.

Vrtrahabhis

(RV., once) is the only middle case-form quotable from the older language.
Transitions to the a-declension begin already in the Veda: thus, to -ha

(RV. AV.), -ghna (RV.), -hana.

403. The root vah carry at the end of a compound is said by

the grammarians to be lengthened to vah in both the strong and
middle cases, and contracted in the weakest cases to uh, which with
a preceding a- vowel becomes au (137o): thus, from havyavah sacri(epithet of Agni), havyavat, havyavahaxn, havyauha,

fice-bear ing
etc.;

havyavahau,

havyavadbhyam,

havyauhos;

havyavahas,

havyfiuhas, havyavadbhis, etc. And (jvetavah (not quotable) is

said to be further irregular in making the nom. sing, in vSs and the
vocative in vas or vas.
a. In the earlier language, only strong forms of compounds with vah
have been found to occur: namely, -va$, -vaham, -vahftu or -vaha, and
as turyauhi,
-vah as. But fern mines in I, from the weakest stem
are met with in the Brahmanas.
dityauhl, pasthauM
nom. sing, pas^havat.

TS. has the

irregular

404. Of very irregular formation and inflection is one common

compound of vah, namely anadvah (anas -f- vah burden-bearing or
cart-drawing, i. e. ox]. Its stem-form in the strong cases is anadvah,
in the weakest anaduh, and in the middle anadud (perhaps by dissimilation from anadud). Moreover, its nom. and voc. sing, are made
in van and van (as if from a vant-stem). Thus:
Dual.

Singular.

N.

anadvan

A.

anadvaham
anaduha
anaduhe

I.

D.

Ab.

Plural.

ana^udbhis

'

,*,.

L.

anaduhi

V.

anadvan

Janaduhos
\

anadvahau

anadvahas

V. NOUNS

404]

Anadiidbhyas

a.

AND ADJECTIVES.

(AY., once)

is

152

the only middle case-form quotable

But compounds showing the middle stem

as
are met with in Brahmanas etc.
anaducchata, anadudarha
b. The corresponding feminine stem (of very infrequent occurrence)
from the older language.

is either

anaduhi

405. The

(QB.) or

root

anadvahi

sah overcome

(K. MS.).

Veda a double

has in the

irregularity:

as also in its single occhangeable to B even after an a-vowel

currence as an independent adjective (RV., tvam fatf)
while it some-

its

is

times remains unchanged after an i or u- vowel and its a is either prolonged or remains unchanged, in both strong and weak cases. The quotable
forms are -sat, -saham or -saham or -saham, -saha, -sahe or -sahe,
;

-eahas

-sahas

or

or

-sahas; -saha (du.); -Dallas

406. The compound avayaj (}/yaj make

or

-sahas.

offering)

a certain priest or

(BB.) a certain sacrifice is said to form the nom. and voc. sing, avayas,
and to make its middle cases from avayas.
quotable form is

a. Its only

If the

stem

is

probably from

avayas,

f.

(BY. and AY., each once).

derivative from

ava+j/ya,

ava-j-)/yaj conciliate,
which has the same meaning.

avayas

is

very

But sadhamas

(RV., once) and

purodas (RY. twice) show a similar apparent substitution

in nom. sing, of the case-ending s after long a for a final root-consonant
(d and c, respectively). Compare also the alleged ^vetavas (above, 403).

407. Compounds with anc or ac. The root ac or anc

makes, in combination with prepositions and other words, a considerable class of familiarly used adjectives, of quite irregular formation
and inflection, in some of which it almost loses its character of root,
and becomes an ending of derivation.

a.

anc

part of these adjectives have only two stem-forms: a strong

from anks, in nom. sing, masc.), and a weak in

ao; others distinguish from the middle in ac a weakest stem in c,
before which the a is contracted with a preceding i or u into i or u.
in

(yielding an,

b. The feminine is made by adding I to the stem-form used in

the weakest cases, and is accented like them.

408. As examples of
east,

pratyanc

inflection

opposite, west,

Singular

we may

vigvanc going

take pranc forward,

apart.

N. V.

pran

A.

prancam prak pratyancam pratyak

I.

I>-

Ab. G.
L-

prak

pratyak

pratyan

visvan

vis,

vak

vis vane am vis vak

praca
prace
pracas

pratica
pratlce
praticas

vlfuca
visuce
visucas

praci

pratici

vifuci

Dual:
N. A. V.
I.

D. Ab.

G. L.

prancau praci

pratyancau

pratici

visvancau visuci

pragbhyam

pratyagbhyam

vif vagbhyam

pracos

praticos

vifiicos

DECLENSION

153

V.,

CONSONANTAL STEMS.

412

Plural:

N. V.

A.
I.

D. Ab.

pracam

G.
L.
a.

vfsvancas vfsvanci
vfsucas vfsvanci

pratyancas pratyanci
praticas
pratyanci
pratyagbhis
pratyagbhyas
praticam
pratyaksu

prancas pranci
pracas pranci
pragbhis
pragbhyas

praksu
The feminine stems are praci,

vfsvagbhis
vlsvagbhyas

visucam
visvaksu

pratici, vf^uci, respectively.

b. No example of the middle forms excepting the nom. etc. sing,

neut (and this generally used as adverb) is found either in RV. or AV.
In the same texts is lacking the nom. etc. pi. neut. in nci; but of this a
number of examples occur in the Brahmanas thus, pranci, pratyanci,
arvanci, samyanci, sadhryanci, anvanci.
:

409. a. Like pranc are inflected apanc,

arvanc, adharanc, and others of rare occurrence.

avanc,

paranc,

b. Like

pratyanc are inflected nyanc (i. e. nfanc), samyanc

with irregularly inserted i), and udanc (weakest stem
udic: ud-fafic, with i inserted in weakest cases only), with a few
(sam

+ anc,

other rare stems.

c. Like visvanc is inflected anvanc, also three or four others of
which only isolated forms occur.
d. Still more irregular is tiryanc, of which the weakest stem
is tiraQc (tiras
ac: the other stems are made from tir+anc or ac,

with the inserted

i).

410. The accentuation

of these words is irregular, as regards both

the stems themselves and their inflected forms.

Sometimes the one element

has the tone and sometimes the other, without any apparent reason for the
difference.
If the compound is accented on the final syllable, the accent
is shifted

in

BY.

to the

shows the contraction

ending in the weakest cases provided their stem

u: thus, praca, arvaca, adharacas, but

to I or

pratica, anucas, aamlcl. But AV. and later texts usually keep the
accent upon the stem
thus, pratici, samici, anuci (RY. has praticim
The shift of accent to the endings, and even In polysyllabic stems,
once).
:

is

against all usual analogy.

B. Derivative stems in as.

411.

but there

The stems
are

also

is, us.

of this division are prevailingly neuter

few masculines,

and one or two

feminines.

The stems in CTH as are

mostly made with the suffix Ras
412.

quite
(a

numerous, and

small

number

also

x/

NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.

412]

154

and some are obscure) the others

with rfH tas and
RH^nas,
made
with the suffixes T is and
all
almost
are few, and
;

us.

413. Their inflection

almost entirely regular.

is

But

masculine and feminine stems in ETf as lengthen the vowel

of the ending in nom. sing.

make

and the nom.-acc.-voc.

the same prolongation (of

5f

a or ^

or

pi. neut.

u) before

the inserted nasal (anusvara).

414.

may

take

JH^manas

ha vis n.

n.

oblation.

Singular: V\,

Dianas

cWVNoQ-<p

Q,

A\.

angiras

A.

manas

Tt

As examples we
mind; Sff^T^dngiras m. Angiras ;

Examples of declension.

havis

^t^'^HH^

^f%H^

angirasjam

havis

angirasa

havisa

angirase

havise

D.

manase
.

G.

yf4'|H^
manasas

-1
manasi
V.

angirasas

^f^*(lH

<^loff^

angirasi

havisi

^HHH^
manas

^(^^1^
havisas

^&H^

angiras

havis

manaai

angirasau

havisi

manobhyam

angirobhySm

havirbhyftm

manasoB

aftgirasos

havisos

Dual:
N. A. V.

I.

D. Ab.

G. L.

DECLENSION V., STEMS IN

155

as, is, us.

416

Plural:

N. A. V.

I.

H*1lfa

^r^HH^

^cjllfa

manansi

angiraaaa

bavins!

fpnTHH^
manobhia

srf^tPrc^
angirobhia

^fefifo^
bavirbhia

manobhyas

angirobbyaa

havirbhyas

xnanasam

angiraaam

haviaam

manab.su

angirab.au

havihau

D. Ab.

G.

In like manner,

caksurbhyam, rT^FT caksunsi, and

%MHI IH

susa,

415. Vedic

-aaam

endings

eye forms

n.

^R^caksus

etc.

a.

Irregularities,

sing.)

(ace.

r\^\

cak-

so on.

In the older language, the

pi.; once or

and -asas (generally nom. -ace.

twice gen.-abl. sing.) of stems in as are not infrequently contracted to -am,

and out of such
e. g. agam, vedham; auradhaa, anagas

_as

forms grow, both earlier and later, substitute-stems in a, as ftga, jara,

medba. So from other forms grow stems in a and in asa, which exchange
more or less with those in as through the whole history of the language.
1. The
b. More scattering irregularities may be mentioned, as follows
2. 'us. as f. dawn
usual masc. and fern. du. ending in a instead of fiu;
often prolongs its a in the other strong cases, as in the nom. sing.: thus,
Ufasaxn, uaaaa, uaaaaa (and once in a weak case, usasas); and in its
:

3. from
occurs once (RV.) usadbhis instead of usobhis;
4. from svavas
once (RV.) found a similar dual, togasa;
and svatavas occur in RV. a nom. sing. masc. in van, as if from a stem

instr.

pi.

togas
in

is

vant ; and

in the Brahmanas is found the dat.-abl. pi. of like formation

svatavadbhyas.
c.

The stems in

is and

u, and in isa and uaa.

janus,

after the

us

also

From janus

manner of an as-stern

show
is

transitions to stems in i

and

once (RV.) made the nom. sing,

(cf.

also

janurvaaaa

B.).

416. The grammarians regard uganas m. as regular stem-form of the

proper name noticed above (355 a), but give it the irregular nom. ugana
and the voc. uganas or ugana or uganan.
Forms from the as-stern,
even nom., are sometimes met with in the later literature.
a.

As

see below,

to forms

430.

from as-stems

to

ahan

or

ahar and udhan

or

udhar,

417]

V.

NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.

156

Adjectives.
417. a. A few neuter nouns in as with accent on the radical
syllable have corresponding adjectives or appellatives in as, with
accent on the ending, thus, for example, apas work, apas active;
few
taras quickness, taras quick; yac,as glory, yaqas glorious.
as tavas mighty, vedhas pious
are
other similar adjectives

without corresponding nouns.

b. Original adjectives in is do not occur (as to alleged desiderative adjectives in is, see 392 d). But in us are found as many adjectives as nouns (about ten of each class) ; and in several instances

adjective and noun stand side by side, without difference of accent

such as appears in the stems in as: e. g. tapus heat and hot; vapus
wonder and wonderful.

418. Adjective compounds having nouns of this division as final

are very common thus, sumanas favorably minded ; dirghayus long-lived; Qukra^ocia having brilliant brightness. The stemform is the same for all genders, and each gender is inflected in the
usual manner, the stems in as making their nom. sing. masc. and
fern, in as (like angiras, above).
Thus, from sumanas, the nom.
and accus. are as follows:

member

Singular.
m.
f.
N.

sumanas

A.

sumanasam

Dual.
m.

n.

-nas
-nas

>

f.

sumanasau

Plural,

m.

n.

-nasi

n.

f.

sumanasas

-nansi

and the other cases (save the vocative) are alike

in all genders.

Veda and Brahmana, the neui. nom. sing, is in a considerable

number of instances made in as, like the other genders.
b. From dirghayus, in like manner:
a. In

A.
I.

later

dlrl^^m

-yus}

^^^u^a

-yus.1

dirghayusas

-yunsi

dirghayusa

dirghayurbhyam

dirghayurbhis

etc.

etc.

etc.

419. The stem anehas unrivalled (defined as meaning time in the

language) forms the nom. sing. masc. and fern, aneha.

C. Derivative stems in an.

420.

The stems of

three suffixes

5R

an,

this division are those

man, and

made by

3FT van, together

the

with a

few of more questionable

etymology which are inflected
like them.
They are almost exclusively masculine and
neuter.

421.

The stem has a

triple ibnn.

In the strong cases

DECLENSION

157

[424

STEMS IN an.

V.,

of the masculine, the vowel of the ending

IT

in the weakest

a;

cases

is

it

together; in the middle cases,

prolonged to
in general struck out al-

or before a case-ending be-

ginning with a consonant, the final

^ n

is

nom.

also lost in the

The

5f

is

The

dropped.

both genders (leaving

a in the neuter).

peculiar cases of the neuter follow the usual

have the lengthening

the nom.-acc.-voc. du., as weakest

analogy (311 b): the nom.-acc.-voc.

to 5TT 5, as strong cases

cases,

^n

sing, of

9T a as final in the masculine,

a.

is

have the

loss of

pi.

but this only optionally, not

necessarily.
b. In the loc. sing., also, the a may be either rejected or retained (compare the corresponding usage with y-stems: 373). And
or v of man or van, when these are preceded by anafter the

other consonant, the a is always retained, to avoid a too great accumulation of consonants.

422.

The

vocative sing,

is

in masculines the pure stem

in neuters, either this or like the nominative.

The

rest of

the inflection requires no description.

423. As to accent,

it

needs only to be remarked that when, in

a of the suffix is lost, the tone is thrown

the weakest cases, an acute

forward upon the ending.

424.

Examples

As such may be
atman m. soul, self;

of declension.

taken ^TsH raj an m. king; *urH*i

HIHH nSman n. name. Thus
:

Singular:

N.

t>.

W\

V\

JTsTT

*HcHI

^TT3?

raja

atma

nama

rajanam

atmanam

nama

rajna

atmana

namna
:

^i%

3TFR

rajne

atmane

namne

>-

Q
-

^ Wv
_

~&

rrcr

V. NOUNS

424-]

AND ADJECTIVES.

158

Ab. G.

rajnas
L.

namnas

atmanas

ftfR

^ri%,

rajni, rajani

nra,

namni, namani

atmani

^UrHl

V.

atman

naman, nama

rajanau

atmanau

namni, namani

rajabhyam

atmabhyam

rajan
Dual:
N. A. V.

I.

D. Ab.

namabnyam
s

G. L.

atmanos

namnos

rajanas

atmanas

namani

rajnas

atmanas

namani

rajabhis

atmabhis

namabhis

rajabhyas

atmabhyas

namabhyas

rajnam

atmanm

namnam

rajnos
Plural

N.

HlHlPl

A.

D. Ab.

G.

*4lrHH

rajasu

atmasu

namasu

a. The weakest cases of murdnan m. head, would be accented

murdhna, murdhne, murdhnos, murdhnas (ace. pi.), murdhnam,
etc.; and so in all similar cases (loc. sing., murdhni or murdhani
425. Vedic Irregularities, a. Here, as elsewhere, the ending of
.

the nom.-acc.-voc. du. masc. is usually

S,

instead of au.

b. The briefer form (with ejected

a) of the loc. sing., and of the
neut. nom.-acc.-Yoc. du., is quite unusual in the older
RV.
language.
writes once $atadavni, but it is to be read
and similar

9atadavani;

cases occur in

also several times

dhamani and samani

ahni and lomm.

such forms as
such as

AV. (but

are

-mni).
very

In the Brahmanas, too,

much more common than

DECLENSION

159

[428

STEMS IN an.

V.,

But throughout both Veda and Brahmana, an abbreviated form of

C.

the loc. sing., with the ending i omitted, or identical with the stem, is of
considerably more frequent occurrence than the regular form
thus, mur:

dhan, karman, adhvan, beside murdharii etc. The n has all the
usual combinations of a final n: e. g. murdhann asya, murdhant sa,

murdnans

tva.

d. In the nom.-acc. pi. neut., also, an abbreviated form is common,

ending in a or (twice as often) a, instead of ani: thus, brahma and
brahma, beside brahmani: compare the similar series of endings from

329 c.

a-stems,

From a few stems

e.

with loss of

in

man

made an

is

abbreviated hist,

sing.,

a: thus, mahina, prathina, varina, dana,

prena, bhuna, for mahimna etc. And draghma and ra9ma (RV.,
as well as of

each once) are perhaps for

draghmana,

with the

of the suffix retained

loc.

sing, are

thus, for example,

yamanas, uksanas (accus. pi.),

tramane, vidmane, davane,
as

rac.inana.

Other of the weakest cases than the

f.

sometimes found

bhumana, damane,

In the infinitive datives

etc.

a always

(970 d)

About
numerous are the instances in which the a, omitted in the written form

of the text,
g.

is,

The

as the

the

etc.

remains.

metre shows, to be restored in reading.

voc. sing, in

vas, which

is the

usual Vedic form from stems

(below, 454 b), is found also from a few in van, perhaps by a

transfer to the vant-declension
thus, rtavas, evayavas, khidvas(?),

in

vant

prataritvas, mataric, vas, vibhavas.

h. For words of which the

not made long in the strong cases,

is

see the next paragraph.

426.

few stems do not make the regular lengthening of a

Thus:

in

the strong cases (except the nom. sing.).

The names

a.

nam, pusna,

of divinities,

b. In the Veda,

vf an

virile,

pusan, aryaman:

bull (but

uksan

bull

(but also

uksanam); yosan maiden;

are also met with)
tman,

atman; and two or three other

nam, jemana. And in a number of additional
to

pusa, pusa-

vf sanam and vfsanas

abbreviation of

seems

thus,

etc.

demand a where a

scattering forms:

anarva-

Vedic metre

instances, the

is written.

427. The stems qvan m. dog and yuvan young have in the
weakest cases the contracted form gun and yun (with retention of
the accent); in the strong and middle cases they are regular. Thus,
c.va, Qvanam, <juna, 9une,
yuvanam, yunft, yuvabhis,

a. In dual,

KV. has once yuna

428. The stem

a

etc.,

^vabhy&m, Qvabhis,
for

yiiva,

yuvanS.

maghavan

generous (later, almost exclusively

contracted in the weakest cases to maghon:

name of Indra) is
maghava, maghavanam, maghona, maghone,

thus,

etc.;

etc.

etc.

428

V.

NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.

The RV. has once the weak form

a.

b. Parallel with this

and from the

thus,

latter

is

160

maghonas in nom. pi.

maghavant (division E);

found the stem

alone in the older language are

maghavadbhis, maghavatsu,

etc.

(not

made

the middle cases

maghavabhis

etc.).

429 a. Stems in a, ma, va, parallel with those in an, man, van,
and doubtless in many cases derived from them through transitional forms,
are frequent in both the earlier and the later language, particularly as final
members
b.

of compounds.

number of an-stems are more or

Thus

part of their forms from other sterns^

430.

a.

The stem ahan

only in the strong

n.

day

and weakest

making a

less defective,
:

in the later language used

(with the nom.

is

the middle

cases,

which usually follows their analogy) coming from ahar or anas :

namely, ahar nom.-acc. sing., ahobhyam, ahobhls, etc. (PB. has
aharbhis); but ahna etc., ahni or ahani (or ahan), ahnl or ahani,
sing.,

ahani

(and, in V., aha).

b. In the oldest language, the middle cases ahabhis,

ahasu
C.

as final

d.

ahabhyas,

also occur.

In composition, only

ahar

or

member, ahar, ahas, ahan,

The stem udhan

ahas

is

used as preceding member;

or the derivatives

aha, ahna.

udder exchanges in like manner, in the old

and udhas, but has become later an as-stern only
n.

language, with udhar

(except in the fern, udhni of adjective compounds)

thus,

udhar

udhnas, udhan or udhani, udhabhis, udhahsu. As

it are made both udhanya and udhasya.

or

udhas,

derivatives from

431. The neuter stems aksan eye, asthan bone, dadhan curds,
thigh, form in the later language only the weakest cases,
aksna, asthne, dadhnas, sakthnf or sakthani, and so on; the rest
of the inflection is made from stems in i, aksi etc.: see above,
3431.

sakthan

a. In the older language, other cases from the an-stems occur: thus,
aksani, aksabhis, and aksasu; asthani, asthabhis, and asthabhyas;
sakthani.

432. The neuter stems asan blood, yakan liver, <jakan ordure,
asan mouth, udan water, dosan fore-arm, yusan broth, are required
to make their nom.-acc.-voc. in all numbers from the parallel stems
asrj, yakrt, qakpt, asya, udaka
yuaa, which are fully inflected.
a. Earlier occurs also the dual

(in

older language udaka), dos,

dosani.

433. The stem panthan m. road is reckoned in the later language as making the complete set of strong cases, with the irregularity
that the nom.-voc. sing, adds a B. The corresponding middle cases
are made from pathi, and the weakest from path. Thus:

DECLENSION

161

V.,

DERIVATIVE STEMS IN an.

438

from panthan
panthas, panthanam
panthanau; panthanas;
from pathi
pathibhyam; pathibhis, pathfbhyas, pathfsu;
from path
patha, pathe, pathas, pathi; path6s; pathas
or pathas (accus.), patham.
;

a.

Iii

the oldest language (RV.)'

panthas, nom.

pantha:

thus,

iiom. pi.

and even in

however, the strong stem

is

only

pantham, ace. sing.; panthas,

AY., panthanam and panthanas are rare comsing.;

From pathi occur also the nom. pi. pathayas

pared with the others.
and gen. pi. pathinam. RV. has once pathas, ace. pi., with long a.
434. The stems

manthan

m.

stirring -stick,

and rbhuksan m., an

given by the grammarians the same inflection with

but only a few cases have been found in use. In V. occur from

epithet of Indra, are

panthan;

the former the ace. sing,

mantham,

and gen.

pi.

mathinam

(like the

panthan) ; from the latter, the nom. sing, rbhuksas and voc. pi. rbhuksas, like the corresponding Vedic forms of panthan;
but also the ace. sing, rbhuksanam and nom. pi. rbhuksanas, which
corresponding cases from

are after quite another model.

Adjectives.
435. Original adjective stems in an are almost exclusively those
suffix van, as yajvan sacrificing, sutvan pressing the
The stem is masc. and neut. only (but
soma, jitvan conquering.
sporadic cases of its use as fern, occur in RV.); the corresponding
fern, stem is made in vari: thus, yajvari, jitvan.

made with the

436. Adjective compounds having a noun in an as final member are inflected after the model of noun-stems; and the masculine
forms are sometimes used also as feminine; but usually a special
is made by adding I to the weakest form of the masculine
stem: thus, somarajm, kilalodhni, ekamurdhni, durnamm.

feminine

437. But (as was pointed out above 429 a) nouns in an occurring
members of compounds often substitute a stem in a for that in
:

as

final

an:

thus, -raja,

sional

-janma, -adhva, -aha;

exchanges of stems in

van

their feminine is in a.

Occa-

and in vant also occur: thus, vivasvan

and vivasvant.
a. The remaining divisions of the consonantal declension
made up of adjective stems only.

D. Derivative stems (adjective) in

438.

The stems

the suffixes

in.

of this division are those formed with

^in, pR^min,

Whitney, Grammar.

are

2. ed.

and

fip^vin.

They

are
11

mas-

438]

V.

NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.

162

made

culine and neuter only; the corresponding feminine is

by adding
a.

in

this suffix

min

I.

in in are very numerous, since almost any noun

language may form a possessive derivative adjective with
thus, bala strength, balin m. n. balini f. possessing strength,

in the

strong.

The stems
:

Stems

(1231)

in

still

vin (1232), however, are

fewer.

439. Their inflection

lose their final

^n

is

very few, and those in

quite regular, except that they

an

initial

sing.,

where

in the middle cases (before

consonant of the ending), and also in the nom.

the masculine lengthens the ^ i by way of compensation.

The voc. sing, is in the masculine the bare stem; in the
neuter, either this or like the nominative.
a.

In all these respects,

it

will

agrees with the an-declension but

losing the vowel of the ending.
;

-^

Example

440.

be noticed, the in-declension

from the latter in never

differs

of inflection.

taken srf^R balin strong.

As such may be

Thus:
Dual.

Singular.

m.

it

n.

ball

ball

balinam

balf

m.

Plural,
n.

balmau

balini

m.

n.

balinas

balini

I.

balina

balibhis

D.

baline

balibhyam
balibhyas

Ab.

balinas
G.

balinam
balinos
balini

balin

balin,

eJMM
balisu

ball

balmau

balini

balinas

balini

DECLENSION

163

V.,

DERIVATIVE STEMS

IN in.

444

a. The derived feminine stem in inl is inflected, of course, like

any other feminine in derivative I (364).
441. a. There are no irregularities in the inflection of in-stems,
in either the earlier language or the later
except the usual Vedic

dual ending in a instead of au.

b. Steins in in exchange with stems in i throughout the whole history of the language, those of the one class heing
of the other often through

transitional forms.

in are expanded
barhina, bhajina.

of cases, stems in

(jusmina

(B.),

to

developed out of those

In a much smaller number

stems in ina:

e.

g.

qakina

E. Derivative stems (adjective) in ant (or

442. These stems

made by
few

fall

into

two sub- divisions

at).

1.

those

with a very
^rT^at), being,

the suffix

EJtT^ant (or
active
participles,

exceptions,

(RV.),

present

and future;

made by the possessive suffixes JTtT mant and

cftT vant (or *ffi mat and pfflf vat).
They are masculine and
neuter only; the corresponding feminine is made by ad2.

those

ding ^

I.

1. Participles in

443.

and

The stem has

a weaker,

The former

is

ant or at.

in general a double form, a stronger

ending respectively in 5f?T ant and 5FT at.

taken in the strong cases of the masculine,

with, as usual, the nom.-acc.-voc. pi. neuter;

taken by

all

the latter

is

the remaining cases.

a. But, in accordance

with the rule for the formation of the feminine

stem (below, 449), the future

participles, and the present participles of

verbs of the tud-class or accented a-class (752), and of verbs of the adclass or root-class ending in a, are by the grammarians allowed to make

the nom.-acc.-voc. du. neut. from either the stronger or the weaker stem;
and the present participles from all other present-stems ending in a are

required to

make

the same from the strong stem.

444. Those verbs, however, which in the 3d

active lose
also in

^n

of the usual ending

pi.

pres.

nti (550 b), lose

it

the present participle, and have no distinction of

strong and

weak

stem.
11*

V.

NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.

164

a. Such are the verbs forming their present-stem by reduplication

without added a: namely, those of the reduplicating or hu-class (655) and
the intensives (1012): thus, from |/hu, present-stem juhu, participle-

juhvat; intensive-stem johu, intensive participle-stem johvat.

Further, the participles of roots apparently containing a contracted reduplication: namely, caksat, dac,at, dasat, Qasat, sa<jcat; the aorist partistem

ciple dhaksat, and vaghat(?). Vavydhant (RV., once), which has the n
notwithstanding its reduplication, comes, like the desiderative participles
(1032), from a stem in a: compare vavydhanta, vavrdhasva.

b. Even

make

these verbs are allowed by the grammarians to

the

nom.-acc.-voc. pi. neut. in anti.

445.

The nom.

The

inflection

logical

comes

sing. masc.

lar (150) loss of the

of these stems

two

SJr^ants.
the nominative.

quite

regular.

end in 5R an by the reguconsonants from the etymo-

to

final

The

form

is

vocative of each gender

is

like

446. Steins accented on the final syllable throw the accent

forward upon the case-ending in the weakest cases (not in the middle
also).

a. In the dual neut. (as in the feminine stem) from such participles,

the accent is anti if the

447.

Examples

is

retained, atl if it is lost.

of .declension.

Thus

Q)

juhvat

eating,

being,

ficing.

As such may serve

sacri-

(SsjS**:}

<

bh&vanOO

bh&vat

adan

bhavantam

bhavat

adantam adat

adat

juhvat

juhvat

juhvatam juhvat

bhavata

adata

juhvata

bhavate

adate

juhvate

bhavatas

adataa

juhvatas

bhavati

adati

juhvati

D.

Ab. G.

DECLENSION

165

V.,

DERIVATIVE STEMS IN ant.

448

V.

bhavan

adan

bhavat

adat

jiihvat

N.A.V.

bhavantau bhavanti

adantau

adati

juhvatfiu juhvati

LD.Ab

G. L.

bhavadbhyam

adadbhyam

H*rtiH^
bhavatos

^rilH^

g^fTTH^

adatos

juhvatos

juhvadbhyam

Plural:
N. V.

bhavantas bhavanti

bhavatas

bhavanti

adantas adanti

juhvatas juhvati

adatas

juhvatas juhvati

adanti

I.

bhavadbhis

adadbhis

juhvadbhis

bhavadbhyas

adadbhyas

juhvadbhyas

bhavatam

adatam

juhvat am

bhavatsu

adatsu

juhvatsu

D. Ab.

G.

*pn^

The

future participle bhavisyant may form in nom. etc. dual

neuter either bhavisyanti or bhavisyati; tudant, either tudanti or
a.

And jiihvat, in nom. etc.

juhvanti (beside juhvati, as given in

tudati; yant (j/ya), either yanti or yati.

plural neuter,

may make

also

the paradigm above).

b. But these strong forms (as well as bhavanti, du.,

and

its

like

from present-stems in unaccented a) are quite contrary to general analogy,

No example of them is quotable,
and of somewhat doubtful character.
The cases concerned,
either from the older or from the later language.
indeed, would be everywhere of rare occurrence.

448. The Vedic deviations from the model

The dual ending au is only one sixth as common
is

seen in a case or two: acodate,

as above given are few.

as

ft.

Anomalous accent

rathirayatSm, and vaghadbhis

(if

The only instance in V. of nom. etc. pi. neut. is

santi, with lengthened a (compare the forms in anti, below, 451 a, 454 c);
one or two examples in anti are quotable from B.
this

is

participle).

V.

449]
449.
is

NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.

The feminine

made by

participle-stem,

adding 5 I to

either the

stem-form of the masc.-neut.

The

166

as already

strong

rules as to

stated,

or the

weak

which of the

two forms shall he taken are the same with those given
ahove respecting the nom. etc. dual neuter; namely:
a. Participles from tense-stems ending in unaccented
to the strong stem-form, or make their feminine in antl.

b. Such are the

bhu

or unaccented a-class

a add 1

and the div or ya-class of

and causatives (chap. XIV.):

thus, from ybhu (stem bhava), bhavanti; from j/div (stem divya),
divyanti; from bubhusa and bhavaya (desid. and caus. of ybhu),
bubhusanti and bhavayanti.
desideratives
present-stems (chap. IX.), and the

c. Exceptions to this rule axe

now and then met

with, even from the

Tims, RV. has jarati, and AY. the desid erative sisasatl;
in B. occur vadati, <jocati, trpyati, and in S. further tisthati, and the.

earliest period.

causative

namayati; while

in the

desideratives and causatives) are

though

still

epics

and later such cases (including

more numerous (about

fifty are

quotable),

only sporadic.

d. Participles from tense-atoms in accented a may add the feminine-sign either to the strong or to the weak stem-form, or may make
their feminines in ant! or in ati (with accent as here noted).
e.

Such are the present-stems of the tud or accented a-class (751 ff.),
(932 ff.), and the denominatives (1053 ff.): thus, from j/tud

the s-futures

(stem tuda), tudanti or tudati; from bhavifya (fut. of )/bhu), bhavisyanti or bhavisyatl; from devaya (denom. of deva), devayanti
or

devayati.
f.

future

The forms

fern,

in anti

from this class are the prevailing ones.

No
quotable from the older language. From

participle in ati is

a are found there rnjati and sincati (RV.), tudati and

pinvatl (AY.). From denominatives, devayati (RV.), durasyati and
Qatruyatl (AY.). In BhP. occurs dhaksyati.

pres. -stems in

g. Yerbs of the ad or root-class (61 1 ff.) ending in & are given

by the grammarians the same option as regards the feminine of the present
The older language affords no
participle: thus, from ]/ya, yanti or yati.

example of the former,

h.

so far as noted.

From

other tense-stems than those already specified

that
is to say, from the remaining classes of present-stems and from the
intensives
the feminine is formed in ati (or, if the stem be otherwise accented than on the final, in ati) only.
i. Thus, adati from
}/ad; juhvati from ylm; yufijati from }/yuj;
sunvati from ^BU; kurvati from >/ky; krlnati from j/krl; dedi9ati
from dedi? (intens. of

DECLENSION

167
j.

less

Feminine stems of
than

frequent

its

V.,

this class are occasionally (bat the case is

opposite

much

thus,
c) found with the nasal
but probably from the secondary a-stem),

above,

yanti (AV., once), undanti (B.

grhnanti (S.), and, in the epics and later, such forms
rudantl, cinvanti, kurvantl, jananti, mu^nanti.
450.

[462

DERIVATIVE STEMS IN ant.

few words are participial in form and

Thus:

as

bruvanti,

though

inflection,

not in meaning.
a.

brhant

written vrhant)

(often

participle (with bphati

b.

mahant

and byhanti

great; it is inflected like

in du. and pi. neut.).

great; inflected like a participle, but with the irrega of the ending is lengthened in the strong forms:

ularity that the

mahan, mahantam; mahantau

instr. mahata etc.

thus,

(neut.

mahati)

mahantas,

mahanti:
c.

prsant

d.

jagat movable,

speckled ,

and (in Veda only) riicant

lively (in the later language, as

a reduplicated formation from

by the grammarians
e.

rhant

to

j/gam go;

its

nom.

shining.

neuter noun,

etc. neut. pi. is

world"),

allowed

be only jaganti.

small (only once, in RV., rhate).

f. All these
form their feminine in atl only: thus, bj-hati,
mahati, pfsati and ru9ati (contrary to the rule for participles),

jagati.
g.

For dant

tooih,

-which is perhaps of participial origin, see above,

396.

451. The pronominal adjectives fyant and kfyant are inflected

mant and vant, having (452) iyan and kfyan as
nom. masc. sing., fyati and kfyati as nom. etc. du. neut. and as
feminine stems, and iyanti and kiyantl as nom. etc. plur. neut.
like adjectives in

a.

But the neut.

pi.

{yanti and the

loc. sing.(?)

kfyati are found

in RV.

Possessives in

2.

452.

The

adjectives

inflected precisely alike,

in

the

mant and

vant.

formed by these two suffixes are

and very nearly like the participles

From the latter they differ only by lengthening

^r^ant.
a
nom. sing. masc.
in
the
5f
a. The voc. sing, is in an, like that of the participle (in the

later language, namely: for that of the oldest, see below, 454 b).
.The neut. nom. etc. are in the dual only atl (or atl), and in the plural

anti

(or

The

anti

is always made from the weak stem

thus,
One or two cases of nl instead of I
mati, vatl (or mati, vatl).
are met with thus, antarvatni (B. and later), pativatni (C.).

b.

feminine

v^^>

V. NOUNS

452-]
c.

AND ADJECTIVES.

168

accent, however, is never thrown forward

upon the case-ending or the feminine ending.

The

participle)

To

453.

illustrate the inflection

in the

(as

of such stems,

will

it

sufficient to give a part of the forms of

qspTrT

be

possessing

pa9umant
and HJ|W bhagavant fortunate, blessed.

cattle,

Thus:
Singular :

m.

n.

N.

pa^uman

pac,umat

bhagavan

MSMHrH^

*&F&[^

pacuxnantaxn

pacumat

*TOr^
HJNrlH^
bhagavantam bhagavat

A.

bhagavat

bhagavata

pa^umata

etc.

etc.

V.

pac,uxnan
Dual:

pacumat

bhagavan

pacuxnati

bhagavantau

bhagavat

N. A. V.
pn.mTmA.Titfl.ri

bhagavati

etc.

etc.

Plural:

*3<

N. V.

MSHHT1H

paqumantas

pacumanti

bhagavantas

bhagavanti

paQumatas

pacumanti

bhagavatas

bhagavanti

*Ni

I.

pacumadbhls

bhagavadbhis

etc.

454.
Su)

is

Ye die

Irregularities,

etc.

a. In

dual masc. nom.

etc.,

(for

the greatly prevailing ending.

b. In voc. sing, masc., the ending in the oldest language (RV.) is

almost always in as instead of an (as in the perfect participle: below,

462 a):
in

thus, adrivas,

RV. occur more than

harivas, bhanumas, havismas. Such vocatives

a hundred times, while not a single unquestionable

instance of one in an is to be found.

In the other Vedic texts, vocatives
in as are extremely rare (but bhagavas and its contraction bhagos are
met with, even in the later language); and in their reproduction of RV

DECLENSION

169

V.,

DERIVATIVE STEMS IN ant.

458

passages the as is usually changed to an. It was pointed oat above (425 g)
that the BY. makes the voc. in as also apparently from a few an-stems.
C. In RV., the

in anti

ends

occur,

nom.

etc.

pi.

in

the only two instances that

thus,

ghrtavanti, pagumanti.

neat.,

instead of anti:

No such forms have been noted elsewhere

in the older language: the SV.

reads anti in its version of the corresponding passages, and a few exam-

same ending are quotable from the Brahmanas thus, tavanti,

etavanti, yavanti, ghrtavanti, pravanti, rtumanti, yugmanti. Com-

ples of the

pare

448, 451.
d. In a few (eight or ten) more or less doubtful cases, a confusion
weak forms of stem is made ; they are too purely sporadic to

of strong and

require reporting.

form appears

The same

true of a

is

case

or

two where a masculine

be used with a feminine noun.

to

455. The stem arvant running, steed, has the nom. sing, arva,
from arvan; and in the older language also the voc. arvan and accus.

arvanam.
456. Besides the participle bhavant, there is another stem bhavant, frequently used in respectful address as substitute for the
pronoun of the second person (but construed, of course, with a verb
in the third person), which is formed with the suffix vant, and so
declined, having in the nom. sing, bhavan; and the contracted form

bhos

of its old-style vocative

bhavas

is

common exclamation of

address: you, sir! Its origin has been variously explained; but
doubtless a contraction of bhagavant.

it is

457. The pronominal adjectives tavant, etavant, yavant, and the

mavant, tvavant, etc., are inflected like ordinary derivatives

Vedic ivant,
from nouns.

F. Perfect Participles in vans.

458.

The

active participles

of the perfect tense-system

are quite peculiar as regards the modifications of their stem.

In the strong cases, including the nom.-acc.-voc.

lar process

shortened to

pi.

(150),

3R van

is

in

the

voc.

contracted into 3&T us.

cases,

the suffix

cases,

including the nom.-acc.-voc. neut.

is

In the weakest

sing.

In the middle

sing., it is

changed

to

neut,

which becomes, by regucffH^vans,

vSn in the nom. sing., and which i

the form of their suffix

a.
union-vowel i, if present in the strong and middle cases,
disappears in the weakest, before us.

-L

^
-C

^j^
{

vV\ *

V. NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.

469]
469.

The forms

neuter only
^

I to

as

thus described are masculine and

the corresponding feminine

the weakest form of stem,

460. The accent

461.

Examples of

suffix,

inflection.

flection of these participles,

made by adding

is

3^

ending thus in

always upon the

is

170

we may

whatever be

To show

its

lisl.

form.

the in-

take the stems fcf^lu

vidvSns knowing (which has irregular loss of the usual re-

and of the perfect meaning) from yfa<

duplication

vid,

and HftUHfM tasthivSns having stood from i/TOT stha.

**
Singular:
n.

m.

vidv&n

vidvat

tasthivan

tasthivdt

vidvansam

vidvat

tasthivansam

tasthivat

m.

fejqr

i.

n.

vidufft

fTFgsrr
tasthiisa

viduse

tasthufe

vidusas

tasthufas

s9

L.

forfft

Hf^iN

vidusi

taathusi

vidvan
Baal

vidvat

tasthivan

tasthivat

N. A. V.

vidvaAsau
I.

vidusi

tasthivansau

tasthusi

D. Ab.

vidvadbhyam

tasthivadbhyam

riwrtn^
tasthufos

DECLENSION

171

Plural

[462

V., PARTICIPLES IN vans.

N. V.

vidvansas vidvansi
A.

fe^MU^

festfir

viduaaa

vidvaAsi

I.

tasthivansas

tasthivansi

tasthusas

tasthivansi

f^tefk^

D. Ab.

G.

vidvadbhis

tasthivadbhis

te*uH^
vidvadbhyas

tasthivadbhyas

(NiMiH^

H^NIH^

viduflam

tasthiisam

foSr
vidvateu
a.

vidiisi

tasthivatsu

The feminine stems

and

H^)

of these two participles are

tasthiisl.

b. Other examples of the different steins are

from ykr
from yni
from /bhu
from 1 tan

462.

cakrvaAs, cakrvat, cakriis, cakriisi;

ninlvaAe, ninivat, ninyus, ninyusi;
babhiivtAs, babhuvat, babhuvuf, babhuvu^i;
tenivans, teniv&t, tenii?, tenufl.

a. In the oldest language (RV.), the vocative sing. masc. (like

vant and mant- steins above, 454 b) has the ending vas instead
of van: thus, oikitvas (changed to -van in a parallel passage of AV.),
titirvas, didivas, midhvas.
that of

b. Forma from the middle stem, in vat, are extremely rare earlier:
(tatanvat and vavftvat, neut. sing., and jagr^radbhis, instr.

only three
pi.), are

found in RV., and not one in AV. And in the Veda the weakest
later, the middle one) is made the basis of comparison and

stem (not, as

derivation: thus,
c.

regularly

An

vidus^ara, ad&^Uftara, midhus^ama, midhuBmant.

example

or

two of the use of the weak stem-form

made from the

strong are found in

RV.

they are

for cases

cakrusam,

and abibhyusas, nom. pi.; emusam, by its accent (unless an

from a derivative stem emu&a; and QB. has prosiisam.
Similar instances, especially from vidvans, are now and then met with

ace.

sing.,

error), is rather

later (see BR.,

d.

under vidvans).

The AV. has once bhaktivansas,

as if a participial form from a

noun; but K. and TB. give in the corresponding passage bhaktivanaa;

cakhvanaam

(RV., once)

shows a reversion

is of

to guttural

okivansa (RV., once)

yuc, elsewhere unknown.

doubtful character;

form of the

final of

V. NOUNS

463]

AND ADJECTIVES.

172

G. Comparatives in yans or yas.

463.

The comparative

adjectives of primary formation

(below, 467) have a double form of stem for masculine

neuter

and

a stronger, ending in
HlH^ySns (usually
and a weaker, in OT yas (or

in the strong cases,

in the

weak

cases (there being

The

weakest).

no

distinction of middle

voc. sing. masc. ends in

and

(but for

ZR^yan

the older language see below, 465 a).

a.

The feminine

made by adding

is

I to

the

weak

masc.-neut. stem.
464.
give

As models of

inflection,

it

be sufficient to

will

a part of the forms of

3TTO^9r6yas

heavier.
J((lUU gariyas
Singular

and of

better,

Thus:

N.

3TUH
9reyan

Qreyas

gariyftn

gariyas

3iti

inn^

iiuH^

JlftafFR^

J|(lUH

Qreyansam

Qreyas

ganyansam

gariyas

I.

44UHI

J|(lUHI

9reyasa

gariyasa

etc.

etc.

V.

^reyas

9reyan

ganyan

gariyas

ganyansau

garlyasl

Dual
N. A, V.

9reyansau
etc.

etc.

etc.

etc.

^reyansi

garlyanaas

gariyansi

9reyanai

garlyasas

gariyansi

Plural:

N. V.

Qreyaneas

JHNHH"V
9reyasas

Qreyobhia
etc.

gariyobhis
etc.

[467

COMPARISON OP ADJECTIVES.

173
a.

The feminine stems

of these adjectives are

9reyasi and J|(IUHl garlyasl.

485. a. The Vedic yoc. masc.

454 b, 462 a)

is

in

yas

instead of

in the two preceding divisions:

(as

yan:

jy&yas (RV.: no

thus, ojiyas,

examples elsewhere have been .noted).

b. No example of a middle case occurs in RV. or
c. In the later language are found a very

made from the weaker stem-form

cases

strong

yavlyasam

ace. masc.,

kamyasau

du.,

AV.

few apparent examples of

kanlyasam and

thus,

yaviyasas nom.

pi.

Comparison.
466. Derivative adjective stems having a comparative

and superlative meaning

a merely intensive value

ally)

from roots (by primary

or

or often also (and

made

are

derivation), or

more

origin-

either directly

from other derivative

compound stems (by secondary derivation).

a.

The subject

derivation

but

of comparison belongs more properly to the chapter of

stands in such near relation to inflection that it is, in

It

accordance with the usual custom in grammars, conveniently and suitably

enough treated

The

467.
(or ^jfiT

oriefly here.

suffixes

lySns)

for the comparative

The

superlative.

of primary derivation are

root before

strengthened by gunating,
cases,

by

if

is

and

in the

isjha for the

accented, and usually

capable of

nasalization or prolongation.

frequently and
later;

them

^TO iyas

it

They

or,

are

some

in

much more

freely used in the oldest language than

classical

Sanskrit, only a limited

number of

such comparatives and superlatives are accepted in use and

these attach themselves in meaning for the most part to
;

other adjectives
their

from the same

root,

which seem

to

be

but in part also they are

connected with other words, unrelated with them

corresponding positives;

artificially

in derivation.
a. Thus, from j/kfip hurl come ksepiyas and ksepistha, which
belong in meaning to kaipra quick; from i/vj* encompass come variyaa and varistha, which belong to uru broad; while, for example,

AND ADJECTIVES.

V. NOUNS

467]

174

kaniyas and kanisfcha are attached by the grammarians to yuvan

to vrddha old.
young, or alpa small; and varslyas and varsistha
468. From Veda and Brahmana together, considerably more than
a hundred instances of this primary formation in iyas and istha (in
many cases only one of the pair actually occurring) are to be quoted.
a.

meaning

About half

of these (in

as in form,

to the bare root in its adjective

RV.,

the

decided majority) belong, in

value, as used espe-

cially at the end of compounds, but sometimes also independently

thus,
from |/tap burn comes tapistha excessively burning; from y'yaj offer come
yajiyas and yajistha better and best (or very welt) sacrificing ; from j/yudh
:

fight

in a few instances, the simple

comes yodhiyas fighting better;
found used as corresponding positive: thus, ju hasty, rapid

root is also

with javlyas and javisjha.

b. In a
prefixed,

little class

of instances

(eight),

the root has a preposition

which then takes the accent: thus, agamistha

especially

coming

in a couple of cases (a<jramivfcayis^ha best clearing away;

Stha, aparavapistha, astheyas), the negative particle is prefixed;
in a single word ((jambhaviBtha), an element of another kind.
c. The words of this formation sometimes take an accusative object
hither;

(see

271
d.

e).

But even

in the oldest

language appears not infrequently the

same attachment in meaning to a derivative adjective which

ed out above) is usual in the later speech.
e. Besides the

examples that occur

like varisflia choicest

osistha

(vara

(osam

also

later,

barhif^ha

choice),

and

so

others

greatest

are

(as point-

met with

(brhant

great),

Probably by analogy with

these, like formations are in a few cases madi from the apparently radical
syllables of words which have no otherwise traceable root in the language
quickest

quickly^),

ou.

kradhiyas and kradhisjha (K.) from krdhu, sthavlyas and

sthavisflia from sthura, 9691708 (RV.) from Qacjvant, aniyas (AV.)
and anis^ha (TS.) from anu; and so on. And yet again, in a few excepthus,

iyas and is^ha are applied to stems which are

themselves palpably derivative thus,
only case),
a^istfia from Sc,u (RV.
tiksniyas (AV.) from tlksna, brahmlyaa and braiunisflia (TS. etc.)
from brahman, dharmistha (TA.) from dharxnan,
tional cases, the suffixes

dra^histha (TA.
raghiyas (TS.) from raghu. These
:

instead of darhisflia) from

dp<pia,
are beginnings, not followed

up

later,

of the

extension

of

the formation

to unlimited use.
f. In naviyas
sanyas from sana

with verbal

or

old

from nava new, and in

RV.), we have also formations unconnected

navyas and naviatha,

(all

roots.

469. The stems in if$ha are inflected like

ordinary adjectives
in a, and make their feminines in
a; those in iyas have a peculiar
declension, which has been described above (463 ff.).

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.

175

470. Of peculiarities and

ing

may be

[471

irregularities of formation, the follow-

noticed:

The

iyas has in a few instances the briefer form yas, generthe other: thus, taviyas and tavyas, naviyas
and navyas, vasiyas and vasyas, panlyae and panyas; and so from
rabh and sah; B any as occurs alone.
From bhu come bhiiyas and
bbnyis^ha, beside which RY. has also bhaviyas.
a.

thus,

suffix

alternative with

as

ally

b. Of roots in a, the final blends with the initial of the suffix to e :

stheyas, dhes^ha, ye^ha; but such forms are in the Veda gener-

ally to

be resolved, as dhdistha, yais^ha.

The

root jyft forms

jyeg^ha,

but jyayas (like bhuyaa).

c. The two roots in
9reyas and 9res^ha,

d.

From

fjis^ha;

but

the

root of

in the

pri and

i,

91-1,

form

preyas and pref $ha and

yju come, without strengthening, fjiyaa and

more regularly, rajiyas and

oldei language also,

rajitfha.

471.

and

The

rFT tama.

suffixes

They

of secondary derivation are cTf tara

are of almost unrestricted application,

being added to adjectives of every form, simple and com-

pound, ending in vowels or in consonants

and

this

the earliest period of the language until the latest.

from

The

accent of the primitive remains (with rare exceptions) un-

changed

and that form of stem

is

generally taken which

appears before an initial consonant of a case-ending (weak

or middle form).
a. Examples (of older as well as later occurrence) are: from
vowel-stems, priyatara, vahnitama, rathitara and rathitama (RV.),
from consonant-stems, 9amcarutara, potftama, samraktatara ;

tama, 9a9vattama, xnr^ayattama, tavastara and tavastama, tuvitama, vapustara, tapasvitara, ya9asvitama, bhagavattara, hirafrom compounds, ratnadhatama, abhibhutara,
nyava9imattama;
sukfttara, purbhittama, bhuyis^habhaktama, bhuridavattara,
9ucivratataina, strikamatama.
b. But in the Veda the

final

of a stem is regularly retained: thus,

madintara and madfntama, v^fantama; and a few stems even add a

nasal: thus, Burabhintara, rayintama, xnadhuntazna.
In a case or
two, the strong stem of a present participle is taken: thus, vradhanttama,
sahanttama; and, of a perfect participle, the weakest stem: thus, vidiietara, midhustama. A feminine final I is shortened: thus, devitaxnfi
(RV.),

tejasvinitama

(K.).

V. NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.

471]

c. In the older language, the

176

words of this formation are not much

more frequent than those of the other: thus, in RV. the stems in tara
and tama are to those in lyas and is$ha as three to two; in AY., only
as six to five: but later the former win a great preponderance.

472. These comparatives and superlatives are

ordinary adjectives in a, forming their feminine in &.

inflected

like

473. a. That (especially in the Veda) some stems which are

nouns rather than adjectives form derivatives of comparison is natural
enough, considering the uncertain nature of the division-line between
substantive and adjective value. Thus, we have viratara, viratama,
vahnitama, matrtama, nrtama, maruttama, and so on.
b. The suffixes tara and tama also make forms of comparison
from some of the pronominal roots, as ka, ya, i (see below, 520) ;
and from certain of the prepositions, as ud; and the adverbially used
accusative (older, neuter, -taram; later, feminine, -taram) of a comparative in tara from a preposition is employed to make a corres-

ponding comparative to the preposition itself (below, 1119); while

-taram and -tamam make degrees of comparison from a few adverbs:
nataram, natamam, kathamtaram, kutastaram,
thus,
addhatamam, nlcaistaram, etc.
By a wholly barbarous combination, finding no warrant in the
and more genuine usages of the language, the suffixes of comparison
in their adverbial feminine form, -taram and -tamam, are later allowed
c.

earlier

to

be added

to personal

forms of verbs

thus,

sidatetaram

(R.

the only

the epics) is mere despondent, vyathayatitaram disturbs

more, alabhatataram obtained in a higher degree, hasisyatitaram will
No examples of this use of -tamam are quotable.
laugh more.
case noted

d.

in

The

suffixes of secondary

comparison are not infrequently added

forming double comparatives and superlatives: thus,

gariyastara, Qresthatara and sresthatama, papiyastara, papisthatara and -tama, bhuyastaram, etc.
to those

e.

of primary,

The use of tama

this value, it is accented

thus, (jatatama

m.

n.,

as ordinal suffix

on the

(jatatami

final,
f.,

is

noted below (487) ; with

its feminine in I:

and makes

hundredth.

474. From a few words, mostly prepositions-degrees of comparison are made by the briefer suffixes ra and t^nay thus, adhara
and adhama, apara and apama, avara and avama, upara and

upama, antara, antama, parama, madhyama, carama, antima,

adima, pa^cima. And ma is also usecfto make Ordinal 8 (below, 487).

'9-0

[475

NUMERALS.

177

CHAPTER

VI.

NUMERALS.
475.

The simple

cardinal

numerals for the

first

ten

numbers (which are the foundation of the whole class),

with their derivatives, the tens, and with some of the higher
members of the decimal series, are as follows:
1

10

Tf3\

eka
2

f*

30

rirj^

4o

^T^

t|p|iiji\tid

50 H^Jiuin

^f^

Iffl

eo

HH

70 HprfrT

sapta

5H?
asta

100,000

1,000,000

90 He(JH

nava

SRJfT

prayuta
10,000,000

io

arbuda
10

maharbuda

agiti

^T5|

laksa

saptati
80 V( y.|l [fi

_
ayiita

panca9at

10,000

catvariiL9at

panca

H^M
sahasra

trin9at

catur
5

MUlrl^

5IfT

9ata
1000

vin9ati

tri
4

100

da?a
20 (c(\iiri

"%

dva
3

W
10

^ef

kharva

navatf

f^
10

100

?S[

5H
9ata

io

11

nikharva

a. The accent sapta and asta is that belonging to these words in all
accentuated texts; according to the grammarians, they are sapta and asta
See below, 483.
in the later language.

b. The series of decimal numbers may be carried still further;

but there are great differences among the different authorities with

Whitney,

Grammar.

2. ed.

12

476]

VI.

regard to their names

from ayuta on.

NUMERALS.

and there

is

more or

178
less of discordance

even

c. Thus, in the TS. and MS. we find ayuta, niyuta, prayuta,

arbuda, nyarbuda, samudra, madhya, ant a, par&rdha; K. reverses
the order of niyuta and prayuta, and inserts badva after nyarbuda
(reading nyarbudha): these are probably the oldest recorded series.

are

d. In modern time, the only numbers in practical use above thousand

(lac or lakh") and ko(i (crore); and an Indian sum is wont to

laksa

be pointed thus: 123,45,67,890,

and

sand, eight hundred

As

to signify

123

crores,

45

lakh?,

67 thou-

ninety.

see below, 484.

As
The stem dva appears
in composition and derivation also as dva and dvi; catur in composition
The older form of asta is asta: see below, 483.
is accented catur.
Forms in -9at and -$ati for the tens are occasionally interchanged: e. g.
e.

to the

to the alleged

stem-forms

pancan

etc.,

form saks instead of sas, see above, 146b.

vin?at (MBh.

B.),

trin?ati (AB.), panca^ati (BT.).

The

other numbers are expressed by the various composition

and syntactical combination of those given above. Thus
f.

476. The odd numbers between the even tens are made by
prefixing the (accented) unit to the ten to which its value is to be
added: but with various irregularities. Thus:
a.

b.

eka

in 11 becomes eka, but

dva becomes

interchangeable with dvi, and in 82

c. for tri is substituted its
also allowed in

is

elsewhere unchanged;

everywhere dva; but in

dvi

nom.

pi.

4272

it is

masc. trayas ; but tri itself

73 and in 93, and in 83 tri alone

43

and in 92

alone is used;

is

is

used;

d. sas becomes 90 in 16, and makes the initial d of

da$a lingual
(199d); elsewhere its final undergoes the regular conversion (226 b, 198b)
to $ or $ or n; and in 96 the n of navati is assimilated to it
(199c);
e.

afta becomes asta (483) in

1838,

and has either form in the

succeeding combinations.
f.

11

Thus:

ekada9a

31 ekatrirujat

12

dvadaqa

32

13

trayodaca

33 trayastrin9at

14

caturda9a

34

15

pancada9a

35

16 s6(Ja9a
17 saptada9a

61

ekasasti

82

dvatrinQat

catustrin^at
pancatrin9at

36 sa^trin9at

37 saptatrin^at

18

astada9a

38 astatrifi9at

19

navadaqa

39

navatrin$at

81

trdyahsa^ti

83 tryac,Iti

64 catuhsasti

84

catur a9 it i

65 pancasasti

85

panca^Iti

66 Bataasti
67 saptasasti

86 sada9iti
87 sapta9iti

69

navasasti

89

nava^iti

ODD NUMBERS.

179

29 are made like those for 31

The numbers 21

g.

[478

4149, 5159, 7179,

9199

and

39; the numbers

are ,|iade like those for 61

69.

dva

h. The forms made with

and trayas are more usual than those

with dvi and tri, which are hardly to be quoted from the older literature
(V. and Br.). The forms made with a^fi (instead of a$a) are alone found
in the older literature (483), and are usual in the later.

477. The above are the normal expressions for the odd numBut equivalent substitutes for them are also variously made.
Thus:
bers.

a. By use of the adjectives una deficient and adhika redundant, in

composition with lesser numbers which are to be subtracted or added, and
either independently qualifying or (more usually) in composition with larger

numbers which are

tryunasastih.

increased by eight

one

(i.

e.

101~);

especially,

to

be increased or diminished by the others: thus,

sixty deficient by three (i. e.

(i. e.

9<9)

57)

as^adhikanavatih

ekadhikam qatam

<jatam 100

panconam

less

(i.

such substitutes as ekonavirujatih 20

uncommon; and

later the

eka

is

left

less

1,

or 19,

and unavintjati

off,

ninety

a hundred increased by
e. 95).
For the nines,
are not
etc.

have

the same value.

b.

case-form of a smaller number,

generally

eka

one

is

connect-

na not with a larger number from which it is to be deducted thus,

ekaya na trin9&t (B. PB. KB.) not thirty by one (29); dvaTAyam
na '9itfm (B.) not eighty by two (7); panoabhir na catvari ^atani
(B.) not four hundred by five (395); ekasman na panc&Q&t (in ordinal)
49 (TS.); ekasyai (abl. fern. 307 h) na panca^at 49 (TS.) most often,
ekan (i. e. ekat, irregular abl. for ekasmat) na vin9at{h 19; ekan na
ed by

9 atarn 99.

This last form

is

admitted also in the later language;

the

others are found in the Brahmanas.

c. Instances

met with:

thus,

of multiplication
thrice

trisapta

by a prefixed number are occasionally

seven;

trinava

thrice

nine;

tridacja

thrice ten.

d. Of course, the

numbers

to

be added together may be expressed by

nava ca navatiq ca, or

dvau ca vi^aticj ca tiro and

independent words, with connecting and: thus,

nava

navati<j ca ninety and nine;

twenty.

But the connective

is also

seldom omitted: thus, navatfr

(at

nava

least,

in the

older language)

not

99; trinc.ataih trin 33; aqitir

astaii 88.

the

478. The same methods are also variously used

odd numbers above 100. Thus:
a.

The added number

101

is

for forming

prefixed to the other, and takes the accent:

as^asatam 108; tringacchatam 130; as$aekaQatam

vin9ati9atam 128; catuhsahasram (RV. unless the accent is wrong)
for

example,

1004; a9iti8ahasram 1080.

12*

VI. NUMERALS.

478]

b. Or, the number to be added

is

180

compounded with adhika redundant,

and the compound is either mate to qualify the other number or is further
compounded with it: thus, pancadhikam 9atam or pancadhika^atam
Of course, una deficient (as also other words equivalent to una or
105.

adhika) may be used in the same way:

c.

Syntactical

da<?a c,atam ca

thus,

panconam

9atam abhyadhikam Bastitah

sastih pancavarjita 55;

combinations are

made

1W; 9atam ekam ca

at

convenience:

<jatam 95,
160.
for

example,

101.

470. Another usual method (beginning in the Brahmanas) of

forming the odd numbers above 100 is to qualify the larger number
by an adjective derived from the smaller, and identical with the
(below, 487): thus, dvadac.am qatam, 112 (lit'ly a
hundred of a 12-sort, or characterised by 12) ; catuQcatvarii^am Qatam
briefer ordinal

144;

Batsastam 9atam

166.

480. To multiply one number by another, among the higher

or the lower denominations, the simplest and least ambiguous method
is to make of the multiplied number a dual or plural, qualified by
the other as any ordinary noun would be and this method is a common one in all ages of the language. For example panca panca;

9&tas Jive fifties (250}; nava navatayas nine nineties (810}; acjtibhis
tisrbhis with three eighties (240} ; panca gatani Jive hundreds ; trini
sahasrani three thousands; ^astim sahasrani 60,000; dac,a ca sahas-

rany as^au ca
c,

c.atani

10,800: and, combined with addition, trini

atani trayastrin^atam ca 333 ; sahasre dve

panconam 9 atam eva

ca 2095.
a. In an exceptional case or two, the ordinal form appears to take
the place of the cardinal as multiplicand in a like combination : thus, sat-

trin9an9 ca caturah (RV.) 36x4 (lit. four of the thirty-six fcind)/

trinr ekada9an (RV.) or traya ekada9asah (ggs. viii. 21. 1) 27x3.
b. By a peculiar and wholly illogical construction, such a combination
trini sasti^atani, which ought to signify 480 (3x100
60), is repeatedly used in the Brahmanas to mean 360 (3x100
60); so also dve

as

eatustrinqe 9ate 234 (not 266); dvasastani trini 9atani 362; and
other like cases.

And

even R. has trayah

9ata9atardhah

350.

481. But the two

factors, multiplier and multiplied, are also,

and in later usage more generally, combined into a compound (accented on the final); and this is then treated as an adjective, qualifying the numbered nouu; or else its neuter or feminine (in I) singular is used substantively
thus, da9a9atas 1000; sat^ataih padatibbih (MBh.) with 600 foot-soldiers; trayaatri^at tri9atah sa$sahasrah (AV.) 6333; dvi9atam or dvi9atl 200; astada9a9atl 1800.
:

a.

In the usual absence of accentuation, there arises sometimes a

how a compound number shall be understood whether asta-

question as to

9atam,

for

example,

is

astj^atam 108

or

as^atam

800, and the like.

INFLECTION.

181

The

482. Inflection.

merals

in

is

many

ed only by the
a.

Eka

one

inflection of the cardinal

respects irregular.

Gender

is

nu-

distinguish-

first four.
is

declined after the manner of a pronominal adjecused in the sense of some,

tive (like sarva, below, 524) ; its plural is

certain ones. Its dual does not occur.

b. Occasional forms of the ordinary declension are met with: thus,

eke

ekat (477 b).

(loc. sing.),

In the late literature,

or even sometimes almost of

eka

c.

vyaghrah

(H.)

d.

Dva

two

is

used in the sense of a

tiger;
(H.) taking a stick in his hand.

dual only, and

(dva, Veda) m.,

certain,

Thus, eko
ekasmin dine on a certain day; haste

a certain

dandam ekam adaya

dvau

is

as an indefinite article.

a,

dve

f.

n.

I.

is entirely regular
thus, N. A. V.
D. Ab. dvabhyam; G. L. dvayos.
:

e. Tri three is in masc. and neut. nearly regular, like an ordinary stem in i; but the genitive is as if from traya (only in the
For the
later language: the regular trinam occurs once in KV.).
feminine it has the peculiar stem tisr, which is inflected in general
like an r-stem; but the nom. and accus. are alike, and show no

strengthening of the r; and the y

ing in the Veda).

f.

is

not prolonged in the gen. (except-

Thus:
m.

n.

N.

trayaa

trini

tiaras

A.

trin

trini

tisras

f.

I.

tribhis

tisybhis

D. Ab.

tribhyaa

tisrbhyaa

G.

trayanam

tisrnam

L.

trisu

tisrsu

The Veda has

the

abbreviated neut.

nom. and accns.

tri.

The

tisrbhyas, tisfnam, and tisrsu is said to be

The stem tisr occurs in composition
also allowed in the later language.
accentuation tisrbhls,

in

tisrdhanva
g.

bow with

(B.) a

three arrows.

(the more original form) in the strong

substitutes the stem catasr, apparently akin

Catur four has catvar

cases; in the fern,

it

with tisf, and inflected like

like that in. the higher

it

(but with

numbers

m.
N.

A.

anomalous change of accent,

see below, 483).

n.

catvaras catvari
catvari
caturas
caturbhis

Thus

f.

catasras
catasras

D. Ab.

caturbhyas

catasfbhis
catasrbhyas

G.

caturnam

catasrnam

L.

catursu

catasrsu.

I.

VI. NUMERALS.

482]
h. The use of

consonant of the stem

before
is (as

am

182

of the gen. masc.

and neut.

after a final

a striking irregularity.
In the
also sometimes occurs.

in ijas: below,

The more

483)

regular gen. fern, catasfnam

of the penult
language, the accentuation of the final syllable instead
said to be allowed in inst., dat.-abl., and loc.

later
is

483. The numbers from 5 to 19 have DO distinction of gender,

nor any generic character. They are inflected, somewhat irregularly,
as plurals, save in the nom.-acc., where they have no proper plural
Of s&s. (as of catur), nam
form, but show the bare stem instead.
is the gen. ending, with mutual assimilation (198b) of stem-final and
initial of

the termination.

As^a

has an alternative fuller form,

(as

as.ta,

accented in the older language)

is almost exclusively used

which

and B.f, both in inflection and in composome compounds with as^a are found as early as the AV.)
its nom.-acc. is asta (usual later: found in BY. once, and in AV.),
also in AV., B., and
or a?ta (RV.), or a#au mos t usual in RV.
in the older literature (V.
sition (but

later).

a. The accent is in many respects peculiar. In all the accented texts,

the stress of voice lies on the penult before the endings bills, bhyas, and

an, from the stems in a, whatever be the accent of the stem thus, pancabhis from panca, navabhyas from nava, daqasu from dac,a, nava:

dac.abhis from navada9a, ekadacjabhyas from ekadac,a, dvadac.asu

from dvadaQa (according to the grammarians, either the penult or the
final is accented in these forms in the later language).
In the gen. pi.,
the accent is on the ending (as in that of i-, u-, and ^-sterns) : thus, pancadatjanam, saptada<janam. The cases of sas, and those made from

the stem-form asta, have the accent throughout upon the ending.
inflection of these

words are as follows

panca

sat

astaii

sadbhis

affabhis

as^a
astabhis

D. Ab.

pancabhis
pancabhyas

astabhyas

pancanam

sadbhyas
sannani

astabhyas

6.

pancasu

satsii

astasu

b.

N.A.
I.

L.

Examples of the

astanam
astasu.

Sapta (in the later language sapta, as asta for as^a) and nava
and daxja, with the compounds of da^a (11
/9), are declined like panca,
and with the same shift of accent (or with alternative shift to the endings,
c.

as pointed out above).

final

484. The Hindu grammarians give to the stems for 5 and 7 19 a

n: thus, pancan, saptan, astan, navan, da$an, and ekadac,an

This, however, has nothing to do with the demonstrably original final

of 7, 9, and 10
(compare aeptem, novem, decem; seven, nin,
ten); it is only owing to the fact that, starting from such a stem-form,
their inflection is made to assume a more
regular aspect, the nom.-acc.
etc.

nasal

having the form of a neut. sing, in an, and the

that of a neut.

or

masc.

pi. in

instr.,

dat.-abl.,

and

loc.

an: compare nama, namabhis, nama-

[487

INFLECTION.

183
bhyas,

namasu

the gen. alone being, rather, like that of an a-stem

compare da<janam with indranam and namnftm or atmanam. No trace

whatever of a final n is found anywhere in the language, in inflection or
derivation or composition, from any of these words

da^aihda^n,

for the usual

(though

( 'B.
4

has twice

cta^adagfn).

485. a. The tens, vi&^ati and triiujat etc., with their compounds, are declined regularly, as feminine stems of the same endings,
and in all numbers.
b. (?ata

and sahasra are declined

in the later language, as masculine)

regularly, as neuter (or, rarely,

final, in all

stems of the same

numbers.
c. The like is true of the higher numbers
which have, indeed, no proper numeral character, but are ordinary nouns.

As regards

486. Construction.
nouns enumerated by them
a.

The words

for

to

their construction with the

19 are in the main used adjectively,

agreeing in case, and, if they distinguish gender, in gender also, with

the nouns: thus, da$abhir viraih with ten heroes; yd deva divy
ekada<ja Btha (AY.) what eleven gods of you are in heaven; paiieasu
janes. u

among the five tribes; cataafbhir girbbih with four songs.

Rarely occur such combinations as d&$a kalacjanam (RV.) ten pitchers,

rtunam

sat

(R.) six seasons.

b. The numerals above 19 are construed usually as nouns, either

ifl
fffrUjfliifff
Uking the numbered noun as a dependent genitive.

the singular in apposition with it: thus, c.atarfi daaih or ^ataih

dasinam a hundred slaves or a hundred of slaves ; vi&gatya haribhih
with twenty lays; saftyam saratfu in 60 autumns; satena p^aih
with a hundred fetters; <jatam sahasram ayutaxh nyarbudarh jaghana ^akro dasyunam (AV.) the mighty [Indra] slew a hundred, a
thousand, a myriad, a hundred million, of demons. Occasionally they
are put in the plural, as if used more adjectively: thus, panca<jadbhir bfi^fiih with fifty arrows.
c. In the older language, the numerals for 5 and upward are
sometimes used in the noin.-acc. form (or as if indeclinably) with
other cases also: thus, p&nca kra^isu among the five races; sapta
rslnam of seven bards; sahaaram ffibhih with a thousand bards;
9atam purbbih with a hundred strongholds. Sporadic instances of a

like

kind are also met with

487.

Ordinals.

coming from the

als are

by

formation

Of

the classes of derivative words

original OT cardinal numerals,

far the

may

later.

most important

the ordin-

and the mode of

best be explained here.

their

VI. NUMERALS.

487]

Some of the first ordinals

eka l forms no ordinal

184

are irregularly made: thus,

instead is used prathama (i. e. pratama foremost) ; fidya (from adi beginning] appears first in the Sutras,
and adima much later;
b. from dva 2, and tr 3, come dvitiya and trtiya (secondarily,
a.

through dvita and abbreviated trita);

c. catur 4, sas 6, and sapta 7, take the ending tha: thus,
caturtha, sastha, saptatha; but for fourth are used also turiya and
turya, and saptatha belongs to the older language only; pancatha,
for fifth, is excessively rare;
d. the

numerals for 5 and 7 usually, and for

8,

9,

10,

add ma,

forming pancama, saptama, astama, navama, dac.axna;

nth to 19th, the forms are ekada<ja, dvada^a, and so

same with the cardinals, except change of accent) but eka-

e. for

on

(the

da9ama

etc. occasionally

occur also;

f. for the tens and intervening

the ordinal has a double form
one

odd numbers from 20 onward,

made by adding the full (super-

ending tama to the cardinal: thus, vir^atitama, trirujattama, a^ititama, etc.; the other, shorter, in a, with abbreviation of
the cardinal: thus, viiuja 20th; trir^a 30th; catvarinc,a 40th; pancaQa 5oth; sasta eoth; saptata loth; a9lta 80th; navata 9oth;
and so likewise ekavif^a 2 1st, catustrin9a 34th; astacatvarii^a
48th; dvapanca9& 52 ^
ekasfasta 61st; and ekannavin^a and unaand so on. Of these two forms,
viri^a and ekonavin^a 19th;
the latter and briefer is by far the [more common, the other being not
quotable from the Veda, and extremely rarely from the Brahmanas.
From soth on, the briefer form is allowed by the grammarians only
to the odd numbers, made up of tens and units; but it is sometimes
met with, even in the later language, from the simple ten.
lative)

Of the higher numbers, <?ata and sahasra form 9atatama

but their compounds have also the simpler form:
eka?ata or ekagatatama wist.
h. Of the ordinals, prathama (and adya), dvitiya, trtiya, and

g.

and sahasratama
thus,

turiya (with turya) form their feminine in S;

in

all

the rest

make

it

I.

488. The
offices to fill;

ordinals, as in other languages, have other than ordinal

and in Sanskrit especially they are general adjectives to the

with a considerable variety of meanings, as fractional, as signifying composed of so many parts or so-many-fold, or containing so many,
or (as was seen
above, 479) having so many added.
cardinals,

a. In a fractional sense, the grammarians direct that their accent be

shifted to the first syllable: thus, dvitiya
half; tftiya third part; catur-

tha quarter; and so on. But in accented texts only trtiya third, and
caturtha (9B.) and turiya quarter, are found so treated for half occurs
;

NUMERAL DERIVATIVES.

185
only

ardha; and caturtha (MS.

etc.),

pancama, and

491

so on, are accent-

ed as in their ordinal use.

489. There are other numeral derivatives: thus

multiplicative adverbs, as dvfs twice, trfs

a.

thrice,

catiis four

times:

b. adverbs with the

example,

ekadha

in

dha (1104) and $as (1106): for

qatadha in a hundred ways; ekagas

suffixes

one way,

one by one, gataqas by hundreds;

c. collectives,

as dvitaya or

dvaya a

pair, da<jataya or

daqat

a decade;
d. adjectives like
five or Jives;

dvika composed of

two,

pancaka

consisting

of

and so on; but their treatment belongs rather to the dictionary, or

on derivation.

to the chapter

CHAPTER

VII.

PRONOUNS.
490.

and

THE pronouns

differ

from the great mass of nouns

come by derivation from

adjectives chiefly in that they

another and a very limited set of

roots, the so-called

pro-

But they have also many

nominal or demonstrative
and marked peculiarities of inflection
some of which,
roots.

however, find analogies in a few adjectives; and such adjectives will accordingly he described at the end of this
chapter.

Personal Pronouns.

491.

The pronouns

of the

first

the most irregular and peculiar of

and second persons are

all,

heing made up of

fragments coming from various roots and combinations of

roots.

They have no

distinction of gender.

a.

186

VII. PRONOUNS.

491-]

Their inflection in the later language

is

as follows:

Singular:

2d

1st pers,

N.

pers.

34<^H

tvam

ma

mini,

tvam, tva

TOT

maya

tvaya

D.

g^EF^n
mahyam, me

Ab.

mat
TOf

G.

tubhyam, te

tvit
*T

mama, me

tava, te

may!

tvayi

Dual:
N. A. V.

%4|c(IH

LD.Ab.

avam

yuvam

yNIUJIH^
avabhyam

Ucd^illH^

yuvabhyam
u=iiim^
o

G.L.

avayos

yuvayoa

nau

vam

vayam

yuyam

asman, nas

yusrnan, vas

asmabhis

yusmabhis

andA.D.G.

Plural

N.

A.

I.

-W.5
D.

MH1^UH

*TR

aamAbhyam, nas

\ lP

yo.H*-t|H^^n^

yufmabhyam, vas

PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

187
Ab.

^
asmat

yusma

asmakam,
L

b.

493

The

yusmakam, vas

iias

^4tHIH

U^HW

asmasu

yusmasu

forms for accus., dat, and gen., in all

and hence they are not allowed to stand at

briefer second

numbers, are accentless

the beginning of a sentence, or elsewhere where any emphasis
;

is laid.

But they may be qualified by accented adjuncts, as adjectives e. g.

te jayatah of thee when a conqueror, vo vrtabbyah for you that were
C.

confined,

d.

nas tribhyah
The

ablative

to

mat

us three
is

RV.).

(all

AY.

accentless in one or two

passages.

492. Forms of the older language. All the forms given

above are found also in the older language which, however, has also
others that afterward disappear from use.
;

a. Thus,

manisa

for

we

find a few times the

manifayft);

and tve, and the

dat.

of these e-forms)

further,

or loc.

and

pi.

yusme

instr.

the

asme
their

dat.

is

(only

sing.

m6

RV.

like

(only VS.)

by far the commonest

uncombinable (or pra-

is

(which

final

tva

sing,
or

loc.

grhya: 138b). The VS. makes twice the ace. pi. fern, yusmas (as if
yiisman were too distinctively a masculine form). The datives in bhyam
are in a number of cases written, and in yet others to be read as if written,

with bhya, with loss of the

we have

in like

manner

asmaka

usual resolutions of semivowel to

and in a rare instance or two

and yui-jmaka in the gen. plural. The
rowel are made, and are especially fre-

final nasal

quent in the forms of the second person (tuaxn

for

tvam

etc.).

b. But the duals, above all, wear a very different aspect earlier. In
Veda and Brahmana and Sutra the nominatives are (with occasional
exceptions) avam and yuvam, and only the accusatives avam and yuvam
(but in RV. the dual forms of 1st pers. 'chance not to occur, unless in

vam[?],

once, for

also once in

AS.)

avam);
or

RV.

the instr. in

yuvabhyam;

an

abl.

is either

yuvabhyam

(occurs

appears once in RV.,

(only) yuv6s instead of

yuvat

and avat twice in TS.; the gen.-loc. is in RV.

Thus we have here a distinction (elsewhere unknown) of five
different dual cases, by endings in part accordant with those of the other

yuvayos.

two numbers.

The ending am, appearing in the nom.

will be found often,
(and Vedic du.) of these pronouns,

493. Peculiar endings.

sing,

and

pi.

though only in sing., among the other pronouns.

of dat. sing, and pi. is met with only here;

bhyftm, bhyas, bhls

of the ordinary

declension

bhyam

(or hyam)
relationship with the
The t (or
is palpable.

The
its

493]

VII.

PRONOUNS.

188

d) of the abl., though here preceded by a short vowel, is doubtless the

same with that of the a-declension of nouns and adjectives. That the nom.,
dat,, and abl. endings should be the same in sing, and pi. (and in part
in the earlier du. also), only the stem to which they are added being difappearferent, is unparalleled elsewhere in the language. The element

sma

ing in the plural forms will be found frequent in the inflection of the
singular in other pronominal words: in fact, the compound stem asxna
which underlies the plural of ahazu seems to be the same that furnishes

ay am (501), and
The

part of the singular forms of

specialisation of the

meaning

its

these persons.

value of

we

genitives singular,

be a

to

mama

and tava, have no analogies elsewhere; the derivation from them of the
adjectives mamaka and tavaka (below, 51 6 a) suggests the possibility
of their being themselves stereotyped stems.

yusmakam,

are

certainly

forms of the adjective stems

of this

The

character:

asmaka

and

gen. pi.,

asmakam

namely, neuter sing,

yusmaka,

and

case-

other cases of which

are found in the Veda.

494. 8 tern- form s.

To

the Hindu grammarians, the stems of

the personal pronouns are mad and asmad, and tvad and yusmad,
because these are forms used to a certain extent, and allowed to be

and composition (like tad, kad, etc.

see below, under the other pronouns). Words are thus formed from
them even in the older language
namely, matkrta and matsakhi
indefinitely used, in derivation

and asmatsakhi (RV.), tvadyoni and mattas (AY.), tvatpitr and

tvadvivacana (TS.), tvatprasuta and tvaddevatya and yuvaddevatya and yusmaddevatya fQB.), asmaddevatya (PB.); but much
more numerous are those that show the proper stem in a, or with

a lengthened to a: thus, mavant; asmatra, asmadruh, etc.;

tvayata, tvavant, tvadatta, tvanid, tvavasu, tvahata, etc. yus-

the

madatta, yugmegita, etc. ynvavant, yuvaku, yuvadhita, yuvadatta, yuvanita, etc. And the later language also has a few words
made in the same way, as madr^.
;

The Vedas have

a.

forms
hiti,

certain

more

irregular combinations, with complete

tvamkama, tvamahuti, mampa9ya, mamasatya, asmeahampurva, ahamuttara, ahaxhyu, ahamsana.

b. From the stems of the grammarians c'ome also the derivative
:

thus,

adjectives madiya, tvadiya, asmadiya,

sessive value: see below, 516.
c.

yusmadiya, having a pos-

For sva and svayam, see below, 513.

Demonstrative. Pronouns.

495.
also the

The

simplest demonstrative,

ta,

which answers

purpose of a personal pronoun of the third person,

be
taken
as model of a mode of declension usual in
may

so

many pronouns and pronominal

fairly to
a.

nom.

rj,

that

it

is

this root has also the

sing. masc.

TO,

adjectives

be called the general pronominal declension.

But

treatment see
b,

[495

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

J89

and

76 a,

and Goth,

fern,

it

and

b)

(for

whose peculiar euphonic

and ta (compare Gr.

sa, instead of tas

Thus:

sa, so, thata}.

Singular

special irregularity that in the

has sas

m.

n.

f.

sas

tat

sa

tarn

tat

tarn

I.

I>.

^T

(TOT

tena

taya

fTFt

rTHf

tasmai

tasyai

Ab.
rTFrirT^

tasmat
G.

fTRT
tasya

L.

HffHH^

tasmin

tasyam

Dual:
N. A. V.

flT

tau

te

te

G. L.

tabhyam

tabhyam

dJlH^

CitHH^
tayos

tayos
Plural

N.

rTTR

te

tani

fTTH^
tas

twT

tani

tas

A.

I.

tais

tSbhis

495]

PRONOUNS.

VII.

190

D. Ab.

G.

tebhyas

tabhyas

flWT^

HTHT^

tesam

tasam

tesu

tasu

b. The Vedas show no other irregularities of inflection than those

which belong to all stems in a and ft: namely, tenfi, sometimes; usually

ta

for taii, du.

instr. pi.

often

ta

from the root sa, namely

min); and GhU. has once

will

neat.
usually tebhis for tais,
The RV. has one more case-form

for tani, pi.

and the ordinary resolutions.

sasmin

(occurring nearly half as often as tas-

sasxnftt.

496. The peculiarities of the general pronominal declension,

be noticed, are these:
a. In the singular, the use of t (properly

neut.

ending of nom.-acc.

as

d)

it

the combination of another element srna with the root in masc. and

neut. dat., abl., and loc., and of

ay

in fern, dak, abl.-gen., and loc.;

and

the masc. and neut. loc. ending in, which is restricted to this declension
The substitution in B.
(except in the anomalous yadfQinin, RV., once).
of ai for

as as

fern,

ending (307 h) was illustrated

b. The dual is precisely that of noun-stems in

c.

In the plural, the irregularities are limited

being treated before

497. The stem of

it

in the

this

365 d.

a and
to

te

a.

for tail in

nom.

am of

same manner

the gen., the stemas before BU of the loc.

by

the grammarians given

masc., and the insertion of 8 instead of

final

at

pronoun

before

is

as tad; and from that form come, in fact, the derivative adjective

tadiya, with tattva, tadvat, tamnaya; and numerous compounds,

such as tacchila, tajjna, tatkara, tadanantara, tanmfttra, etc.

These compounds are not rare even in the Veda so tadanna, tadvid,
tadvaqa, etc. But derivatives from the true root ta are also many:
:

especially adverbs, as tatas, tatra, tatha, tada; the adjectives ta-

vant and

tati;

and the compound tadft

etc.

498. Though the demonstrative root ta is prevailingly of the

third person, it is also freely used, both in the earlier language and
in the later, as qualifying the pronouns of the first and second person, giving emphasis to them: thus, BO 'ham, this J, or I here; sa
or sa

tvam

thou there; te

tasmins tvayi

vayam,

in thee there,

toe here;

tasya

mama

of me here

and so on.

499. Two other demonstrative stems appear to contain ta as

an element; and both, like the simple ta, substitute sa in the nom
sing. masc. and fern.

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

191

[501

The one, tya, is tolerably common (although only a third

possible forms occur) in RV., but rare in AV., and almost
unknown later, its nom. sing., in the three genders, is eyas, ay a,
a.

of

its

tyat, and it makes the accusatives tyam, tyam, tyat, and goes on
through the remaining cases in the same manner as ta. It has in
RV. the instr. fern, tya (for tyaya). Instead of syft as nom. sing,
fern, is also found tya.

The

is the usual demonstrative of nearer position, this

in frequent use through all periods of the language.
It prefixes e to the simple root, forming the nominatives egas, esa,

b.

and

here,

other

is

and so on through the whole

etat

The stem tya has

inflection.

compounds nor derivatives. But

from eta are formed both, in the same manner as from the simple
ta, only much less numerous: thus, etadda (QB.), etadartha, etc.,
from the so-called stem etat; and etftdpj and etavant from eta.
And esa, like sa (498), is used to qualify pronouns of the 1st and
2d persons: e. g. esft *ham, ete vayam.
c.

less,
it.

neither

500. There is a defective pronominal stem, ena, which is accentand hence used only in situations where no emphasis falls upon
It does not occur elsewhere than in the accusative of all num-

bers, the instr. sing.,

and the

Sing. A.

gen.-loc. dual: thus,

ra.

n.

enam

enat

f.

enam

enena
enau
ene
G. L.
enayos
enftni
A. enan

enaya
ene
enayos

I.

A.

Du.
PI.

The RV. has enos

enas

enayos, and in one or two instanAB. uses enat also as nom.

ces accents a form: thus, enam, enas
a.

instead of

('.').

neut.

b. As

ena

always used substantirely,

is

it

has more nearly than ta

the value of a third personal pronoun, nnemphatic.

Apparent examples
of its adjectival use here and there met with are doubtless the result of

confusion with eta

c. This

501.

(499 b).

stem forms neither derivatives nor compounds.

The declension of two

irregularly

made up

one, ?(HTr^ayam
strative, this or

etc.,

other demonstratives

that they have

is

that;

to

be given in

They

is

so

The

used as a more indefinite demonthe

other,

5TRT asSii etc.,

especially the remoter relation, yon or yonder.

a.

full.

are as follows:

signifies

VII.

501 -]
Singular

PRONOUNS.

m.

n.

n.

192

N.

ayam

idam

iyam

asau

adas

asau

irckm

idam

imam

amum

adas

amum

A.

I.

o
amuya

anena

anaya

amuna

asmai

asyai

ainiismai

amusyai

D.

Ab.

asmat

asyas

yij^lH
amusmat

^H^il IH

asya

asyas

amusya

amusyas

asmin

asyam

amusmin

amusyam

amusyas

G.

L.

Dual:
N. A.

ime

imau
I.

amd

ime

D. Ab.

abhyam

ambhyam

anayos

amuyos

G. L.

Tlural:

N.

ime

imani

imas

ami

amiini

iman

imani

imas

amun

amuni amus

anaus

A.

I.

ebhis

abhis

amibhis

amubhis

^I^H

D. Ab.

ebhyas

abhyas

amibhyas

amubhyas

esam

asam

amisam

amusam

esu

asu

amisu

amusu

G.

L.

[503

DEMONSTRATIVES.

193

b. The same forms are used in the older language, without variation,
ima occurs for imftu and imani, and amu for

except that (as usual)

amuni; amuya when used adverbially is accented on the final, amuya;

asau (with accent, of course, on the first, aaau; or without accent, asau:
314) is used also as vocative; ami, too, occurs as vocative.
a. The former of these two pronouns, ay am etc., plainly shows
be pieced together from a number of defective stems. The majority
of forms come from the root a, with which, as in the ordinary pronominal

502.

itself to

declension,

sma

(f.

sy)

combined in the singular.

is

All these forms from

a have

the peculiarity that in their substantive use they are either accented, as in the paradigm, or accentless (like ena and the second forms from

aham

and tvam).

The remaining forms

From ana

are always accented.

The strong cases

come, with entire regularity, anena, anaya, anayos.
in dual and plural, and in part in singular, come not less regularly from a
stem ima.

And ayam, iyam, idam

are

evidently to be referred to

simple root i (idam being apparently a double form:

with ending am).
b. The Veda has from the root

also the

id, like

instrumental

tad

etc.,

ena and aya

(used in general adverbially), and the gen. loc. du. ayos; from ima,
imasya occurs once in BY., imasmai in A A., and imais and imesu
The RY. has in a small number of instances the irregular accenlater.
tuation

asmai, asya, abhis.

In analogy with the other pronouns, idam is by the grammarians regarded as representative stem of this pronominal declension; and it is actually found so treated in a very small number of
compounds (idammaya and idamrupa are of Brahmana age). As
c.

regards the actual stems, ana furnishes nothing further; from ima
comes only the adverb imatha (RV., once); but a and i furnish a
number of derivatives, mostly adverbial: thus, for example, atas,
atra, atha, ad-dha(?); itas, id (Vedic particle), ids, iha, ftara, Im

(Vedic particle), idf^, perhaps eva and evam, and others.

503. The other pronoun, asau etc., has amu for its leading stem,
which in the singular takes in combination, like the a-stems, the element
sma (f. ay), and which shifts to ami in part of the masc. and neut.
In part,

an adjective u-stem,

it lengthens its final in the

only example in the language
of the ending sya added to any other than an a-stem. The nom. pi. ami
is unique in
form; its i is (like that of a dual) pragrhya, 01 exempt
from combination with a following vowel (138b).
Asau and adds are

plural.

feminine.

The

too, like

gen. sing,

amugya

is

the

also without analogies as regards their endings.

a. The grammarians, as usual, treat adas as representative stem

of the declension, and it is found in this character in an extremely
small number of words, as adomula ; adomaya is of Brahmana age.
The B. has also asaunaman. But most of the derivatives, as of

Whitney, Grammar.

2. ed.

13

603]

VII.

come from amu:

the cases,

PRONOUNS.

thus,

194

amutas, amutra, amutha, amuda,

amurhi, amuvat, amuka.

one,

b. In the older language occurs the root tva (accentless), meaning

one; it is oftenest found repeated, as one and another. It fol-

many a

From

lows the ordinary pronominal declension.

tvadanun

less) adverb

(also accent-

Fragments of another demonstrative root or two axe met with thus,

a formula in AY. and in Brahmanas etc.; avos as

c.

amaa

made the

it is

(MS.).
:

he occurs in

gen.-loc. dual is found in

RV.

the particle

points to a root u.

Interrogative Pronoun.

504.

The

nominal root
3)

characteristic part of the

is 5R

k;

interrogative pro-

has the three forms

it

ku; but the whole declensional inflection

excepting the nom.-acc. sing, neut., which

and has the anomalous form

in

language from

the

fR*T^

kim

A.

and the

rest

a neuter i-stemj.

fi

ka,

from f% ki,

known

The nom. and

f.

^L ^k

kas

k{m

k&

35^

foq^

^JF^

kam

Icfyn

Train

of the declension

is

from

(not elsewhere

accus. sing., then, are as follows:

m.
n.

?*

R ka, 1% ki,
is

precisely like that of

is

rT

ta (above, 405).
a.

The Yeda has

its

ka

usual variations,

and kebhis

for

kani and

along with kirn, the pionominally regular neuter kad ;

and
The masc. form kis, corres(or kam) is a frequent particle.
ponding to kirn, occurs as a stereotyped case in the combinations nakis

kais.

It also has,

kam

and makis.

505. The

grammarians treat

the interrogative pronoun; and it

number of words, of which a few

kim
is

as representative stem of
in fact so used in a not large

kimmaya, kimkara, kixhkamya,

kimdevata, kim9ila, and the peculiar kimyu
go back even to
the Veda and Brahmana. In closer analogy with the other pronouns,
the form kad, a couple of times in the
and not infrequently later, is found as

Yeda (katpaya, kadartha),

member of compounds.
Then, from the real roots ka, ki, ku are made many derivatives;
and from ki and ku, especially the latter, many compounds: thus,
first

[509

RELATIVES.

195

katama, karhi; kiyant, kidf9

kva, kucara, kukarman, kumantrin, etc.

kati, katha, katharn, kada, katara,

kiitas, kutra, kiiha,

506. Various forms of this pronoun, as kad, kim, and ku (and,

ko), at the beginning of compounds, have passed from an
interrogative meaning, through an exclamatory, to the value of prefixes signifying an unusual quality
either something admirable, or,
oftener, something contemptible. This use begins in the Veda, but
becomes much more common in later time.
rarely,

507. The interrogative pronoun, as in other languages, turns

its independent
use also to an exclamatory meaning.
Moreover, it is by various added particles converted to an indefinite
meaning: thus, by ca, cana, cid, api, va, either alone or with the
readily in

relative
'pi not

ya (below, 511) prefixed: thus, kac, cana any one; na ko

any one; yani kani cit whatsoever; yatamat katamac ca
Occasionally, the interrogative

whatever one.

by

a simi-

itself acquires

lar value.

Relative Pronoun.

508.

from the

The

root of the relative

earliest period of the

of the demonstrative
to

and

it,

is

509. It

meaning

pronoun

ya, which

is IT

language has

all

lost

trace

originally (doubtless) belonging

used as relative only.

is

inflected with entire

regularity according to

the usual pronominal declension: thus,

Dual,

Singular.

m.

i.

D.

yas

yat

ya

ft

jj

EJJ^

Uff^

EITO^

yftii

ye

yam

yat

yam

f.

ye

JH

TOT

yena

yayft

Ul^dlM

yabhy&m

UH-I

U'^U

yasmai

yasyfti

etc.

etc.

a.

and

Plural,

n.

in.

n.

f.

ye

yani

Ern^
yaiT

ETR^

Ulft

yan

yani

N.

A.

m.

f.

for

The Veda shows

its

yani, and yebhis

yena, with prolonged

final,

etc.

OT^

mPr^

yft^ 8

yabhis

u*-^^

ul^tlH

yebhyas

yabhyas

is

etc.

etc.

usual variations of these forms

for

yas

ya

for

yau

yifs; yds for yayos also occurs once;

Resoin RV. twice as common as yena.

VII. PRONOUNS.

509]

yabhias, and yesaam and yasaam.

lutious occur in

yat

is

196

an ablative form according

510. The use

we have yatkama

The conjunction

to the ordinary declension.

of yat as representative stem begins very early:

Veda, and yatkarm, yaddevatya in the

in the

later it grows more general.

also a considerable series of derivatives

From

Brahmana;

the proper root

come

yatas, yati, yatra, yatha.

yada, yadi, yarhi, yavant, yatara, yatama; and the compound
:

511. The combination of ya with ka to make an indefinite

Its own repetition
as
pronoun has been noticed above (507).
yad-yat
gives it sometimes a like meaning, won through the distributive.

512. One or two marked peculiarities in the Sanskrit use of

may be here briefly noticed

the relative
a.

very decided preference for putting the relative

that to ^which it

relates:

clause before

yah sunvatah sakha tasma indraya

thus,

gayata (RV.) who is the friend of the soma-presser, to that Indra sing ye ;
paribhur asi sa id devesu gacchati (II V.) what offering
thou protectest, that in truth goeth to the gods; ye trisaptah pariyanti

yam yajnam

me (AY.) what thrice seven go about, their strength

me; asaii yo adharad grhas tatra santv arayyah

bala tesam dadhatu

may

he assign to

is yonder in the depth, there, let the witches be

saha yan
tena (TB.) along with that which is mine ; hansanam vacanam
yat tu tan mam dahati (MBh.) but what the words of the swans were,
that burns me ; sarvasya locanam Qastram yasya na 'sty andha eva
sah (H.) who does not possess learning, the eye of everything, blind indeed
is he.
The other arrangement, though frequent enough, is notably less

(AY.) what house

me

asti

usual.

b.

frequent conversion of the subject or object of a verb by an

added relative into a substantive clause

ruseyo vadh.6 yah (AY.) may

thus,

there not reach

9apatha9 ca yah (AY.) may

and

the curse;

the cleansing

pra "pat pau-

him a human deadly weapon

what is such a weapon); pari no pahi yad

of us what wealth [there is]; apamargo 'pa

(Ht'ly,
tect

me 'mam

dhanam

(AY.) pro-

mars^u kfetriy&m

plant cleanse

away

the disease

puskarena hrtam rajyam yac ca 'nyad vasu kimcana

(MBh.) by Pushkara was taken away

the

kingdom and whatever

other property

[there was].

Other Pronouns: Emphatic, Indefinite.

513.

a.

The

isolated

and uninflected pronominal word

self, own self.

t^itiH^svayam (from the root sva) signifies

By

its

form

it

appears to be a nom. sing., and

it is

often-

[616

PRONOMINAL DERIVATIVES.

197

used as nominative, but along with words of all persons

and numbers and not seldom it represents other cases also.

est

Svayam

b.

also used as a stem in composition: thus, sva-

is

yamja, svayambhu. But sva itself (usually adjective: below, 516 ei

has the same value in composition; and even its inflected forms are
an the older language very
o.

In

pronouns,

RV. alone

sama

used as reflexive pronoun.

rarely)

examples of two
and sima every, all.

are found a few

(accentless) any, every,

indefinite

Nouns used pronominally.

514.

a.

The noun Strain

soul is widely employed, in the sin-

gular (extremely rarely in other numbers), as reflexive pronoun of

three persons.
b. The noun

tanu body

is

employed in the same manner (but in

all

all

numbers) in the Veda.

c. The adjective bhavant, f. bhavati,
is used (as already
pointed out 456) in respectful address as substitute for the pronoun
of the second person. Its construction with the verb is in accord:

ance with

its

true character, as a

word of

the third person.

Pronominal Derivatives.
515.

From pronominal

the larger class of roots

and stems, as well as from

and from noun-stems, are formed
roots

by the ordinary suffixes of adjective derivation certain words

and classes of words, which have thus the character of pronominal
Some

adjectives.
of the more important of these

may be

briefly noticed

here.

516. Possessive s.
are formed the adjectives

a.

From

mad

the representative stems

etc.

madiya, asmadlya, tvadlya, yusmadiya,

tadiya, and etadiya, which are used in a possessive sense: relating

to me, mine, and so on.
b. Other possessives are mamaka (also
tavaka, from the genitives mama and tava.

mamaka,
And RV.

RV.) and
has once

makina.
c.

Au

yana (AV.
d. It

and

analogous derivative from the genitive amusya

of such and such a one.

is

amuijya-

etc.) descendant

was pointed out above (493) that the "genitives"

yuBmakam

asmakam

are really stereotyped cases of possessive adjectives.

VII. PRONOUNS.

518]

198

e. Corresponding to svayam (513) is the possessive sva, meaning own, as relating to all persons and numbers. The RV. has once
the corresponding simple possessive of the second person, tva thy.
f.

Foi the use of

sva

as reflexive pronoun, see above,

513 b.

g. All these words form their feminines in a.

h. Other derivatives of a like value have no claim to be mentioned

But (excepting sva) the possessives are so rarely used as to make

but a small figure in the language, which prefers generally to indicate the
possessive relation by the genitive case of the pronoun itself.
here.

617. By the suffix vant are formed from the pronominal roots,
with prolongation of their final vowels, the adjectives' mavant, tvitvant, yusmavant, yuvavant, tavant, etavant, yavant, meaning of
my sort, like me, etc. Of these, however, only the last three are in
use in the later language, in the sense of tantus and quantus. They
are inflected like other adjective stems in vant, making their feminines in vati (452 ff.).
a.

Words of

and kiyant,
in

similar

meaning from the roots i and ki are fyant

same manner: see above, 451.

inflected in the

518. The pronominal roots show a like prolongation of vowel

combination with the root df9 see, look, and its derivatives -dr^ja

and

(quite rarely) drksa: thus, madr?, -dy<ja; tvad^c,, -dye, a; yusmadr9, -dr^a; tadft, -dfta, -drksa; etadft, -dfta, -dfksa; yadft,
-dfta; Idft, -dfta, -dfksa; kidft, -dp9a, -drksa. They mean of my
sort, like or resembling me, and the like, and tadf 9 and the following
are not uncommon, with the sense of talis and qualis.
The forms in

d?9 are unvaried

minines in

519.
as

many.

(like

with

gender; those

in

dr^a (and drksa?) have

fe-

From ta, ka, ya come tati so many, kati how manyf yati
They have a quasi-numeral character, and are inflected

the numerals
the

for

I.

panca

etc.

bare stem as nom.

above, 483) only in the plural, and

thus, N.A. tati; I. etc.

and accus.

tatibhis, tatibhyas, tatlnam, tati|u.

520. From ya (in V. and B.) and ka come the comparatives

and superlatives yatara and yatama, and katara and kataxna; and
from i, the comparative itar^a. For their inflection, see below, 523.
521. Derivatives with the suffix ka, sometimes conveying a
diminutive or a contemptuous meaning, are made from certain of the
pronominal roots and stems (and may, 'according to the grammarians,
be made from them all): thus, from ta* takam, takat, takas; from
sa, saka; from ya,

yakas, yaka, yake; from asSu, aaakaii; from

amu, amuka.
a.

For the numerous and frequently used adverbs formed from pronomAdverbs (below, 1097 ff.).

inal roots, see

ADJECTIVES DECLINED PRONOMINALLY.

199

[526

Adjectives declined pronominally.

522.

number

from pronominal

others

roots,

pronouns in use

some of them coming

of adjectives

more or

analogous with

less

are inflected, in part or wholly, accord-

ing to the pronominal declension

feminine stems in

cT ta,

(like

495),

with

Thus:

a.

523. The comparatives and superlatives from pronominal roots

katara and katama, yatara and yatama, and itara;
also anya other, and its comparative anyatara
are declined like
namely,

ta throughout.
a. But even from these words forms made according
declension are sporadically met with (e. g. itarayam K.).
b.

Anya

the form

takes occasionally

anyat

in

to the adjective

composition:

thus,

anyatkama, anyatsthana.
524. Other words are so inflected except in the nom.-acc.-voc.
where they have the ordinary adjective form am, instead
of the pronominal at (ad).
Such are sarva all, vi$va all, every,
sing, neut.,

eka

one.
a.

language

These,
(e. g.

are

also,

not without exception,

at

vic,ve RV.; eke

v^vaya, viqvat,

least

in the earlier

loc. sing.,

AV.).

525. Yet other words follow the same model usually, or in

some of their significations, or optionally; but in other senses, or
without known rule, lapse into the adjective inflection.
a.

Such

are the comparatives

and superlatives from prepositional stems

adhara and adhama, antara and antama, apara and apama, avara
and avama, uttara and uttama, upara and upama. Of these, pronominal forms are

decidedly more numerous from the comparatives than from

the superlatives.

Further,

the

superlatives

(without

parama, cararna,^nidbg^Epand
comparative belong to the class
c. Further, the

words

first

para

slija right,

south;

ubhayi) of

both kinds or parties

pacjcima

corresponding

anyatama

mentioned

distant,

behind,
;

also

nema

523).

other;

western;

comparatives)

(whose positive and

ptbva prior, east; dakubhaya (f. ubhayi or

the one,

half;

and the possessive

sva.

526. Occasional forms of the pronominal declension are met with from
numeral adjectives: e. g. prathamasyas, trtiyasyam; and from other
words having an indefinite numeral character: thus, alpa few; ardha

kevala all; dvitaya of

RV. has once samanasmat.

half;

the

two kinds;

bahya

outside

and others.

527]

VIII.

CONJUGATION.

CHAPTER

200

VIII.

CONJUGATION.
527.

THE

subject of conjugation or verbal inflection

involves, as in the

other languages of the family, the dis-

tinctions of voice, tense,

a.

mode, number, and person.

Further, besides the simpler or ordinary conjugation

of a verbal root, there are certain more or less fully de-

veloped secondary or derivative conjugations.

528.

Voice. There are

(as

in.

Greek) two voices, active

and middle, distinguished by a difference in the personal

endings. This distinction is a pervading one: there is no
active personal

form which does not have

middle, and vice versa; and

it

is

its

corresponding
extended also in part to

the participles (but not to the infinitive).

520. An active form is called by the Hindu grammarians
parasmai padam a word for another, and a middle form is called
atmane padam a word for one's self: the terms might be best paraphrased by transitive and reflexive. And the distinction thus expressed

is

doubtless the original foundation of the difference of active

in the recorded condition of the language, how-

and middle forms

and reflexive meaning

measure blurred, or even altogether effaced.

ever, the antithesis of transitive

a. In the
active

epics there is

much

is in

no small

effacement of the distinction between

and middle, the choice of voice being very often determined by

metrical considerations alone.

580.

Some

verbs are conjugated in both voices, others

in one only; sometimes a part of the tenses are inflected

only in one voice, others only in the other or in both; of

a verb usually inflected in one voice sporadic forms of the
other occur; and sometimes the voice differs according as
the verb

is

compounded with

certain prepositions.

TENSE AND MODE.

201

The middle forms

531.

which there

[533

outside the present-system (for

a special passive inflection

is

and sometimes

also

within

see below,

that system,

are

768

ff.),

to

be

liable

used likewise in a passive sense.

Tense. The

532.

with

an imperfect, closely related with

2.

a prefixed augment;
(to

tenses are as follows:

3.

which in the Veda

made from

a perfect,
is

reduplication

a so-called pluperfect,

4.

added,

a present,

in form, having

made with

with prefixed augment);

it

it

1.

5.

an

aorist,

of three

different formations: a. simple; b. reduplicated; o. sigmatic

or sibilant;

a future, with

6.

tense, standing to

present; and

8.

it

in

7.

a conditional, an augment-

the relation of an imperfect to a

a second, a periphrastic, future (not found

in the Veda).
a.

usage)

names

The

tenses here distinguished (in accordance with prevailing

imperfect, perfect, pluperfect, and aorist receive those
from their correspondence in mode of formation with tenses
as

so called in other languages of the family, especially in Greek, and

In no period
all from differences of time designated by them.

not at

of the Sanskrit language is there any expression of imperfect or

nor of perfect time, except in the older language,
pluperfect time
where the "aorist" has this value later, imperfect, perfect, and aorist
;

are so

many

undiscriminated past tenses or preterits: see below*

under the different tenses.

Mode.

533.

tween the

Veda

In respect to mode, the difference be-

classical Sanskrit

and the older language of the

is
of the Brahmanas

in a less degree,

and,

especially great.
In the Veda, the present tense has, besides its indicative
a subjunctive, of considerable variety of formation, an
optative, and an imperative (in 2d and 3d persons). The same three
a.

inflection,

modes are found, though of much

less frequent occurrence, as belonging to the perfect; and they are made also from the aorists,
being of especial frequency from the simple aorist. The future has
no modes (an occasional case or two are purely exceptional).

b.

dicative

In the

classical Sanskrit,

the present adds to

an optative and an imperative

its

of which

in-

last,

538]

VIII. CONJUGATION.

moreover, the

first

And

junctive.

202

persons are a remnant of the old sub-

the aorist has also an optative, of somewhat

usually called the precative

peculiar inflection,

(or

bene-

dictive).

The

534.

and future tenses have each

present, perfect,

of them, alike in the earlier and later language,

and middle, sharing in the various peand in the Veda are

active

participles,

of the tense-formations;

culiarities

found such participles belonging also

535.

The

Tense-systems.

to the aorist.

fall

into certain well-

The present-system, composed

I.

ent tense with

its

its

modes,

with their

then,

tenses,

accompanying modes and participles,

marked groups or systems:

erit

a pair of

participle,

of the

and

pres-

its

pret-

the

per-

which we have called the imperfect.

II.

The per feet- system, composed of

fect tense (with, in the

Veda,

the so-called pluperfect) and

III.

and

sibilant,

modes and

or

systems,

composed of the

along with, in the later language,

tive (but, in the

its preterit,

its participle.

The aorist-system.

duplicated,

its

Veda, with

its

its

simple,

re-

aorist tense

"precative" opta-

modes and

various

its

participle).

IV.

The future-systems:

1.

the old or sibilant

future, with its

and
536.

its

accompanying preterit, the conditional,

participle; and 2. the new periphrastic future.

Number

and Person.

The verb

has, of course,

same three numbers with the noun: namely, singular,

dual, and plural and in each number it has the three per-

the

sons,

first,

second,

every tense and

the imperative

and

mode

third.

All of these are

except that the

first

made

in

persons of

numbers are supplied from the subjunctive.

VERBAL ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS.

203
537.

The

[-540

Verbal adjectives and nouns: Participles.

participles belonging to the

tense-systems have been

There is besides, coming

the
of
from
root
the
verb, a participle, prevailingly
directly
of past and passive (or sometimes neuter) meaning. Future

already spoken of above (534).

passive participles, or gerundives,

of several different for-

mations, are also made.

538. Infinitives. In the older language, a very con-

nouns

siderable variety of derivative abstract

only in a

few sporadic instances having anything to do with the tenseare used in an infinitive or quasi- infinitive
systems
sense

most often in the dative

case,

but sometimes also in

the accusative, in the genitive and ablative, and (very rarely)

in the locative.
infinitive,

single
to

In the classical Sanskrit, there remains a

of accusative

case-form,

having nothing

do with the tense-systems.

539.

Gerunds. A

so-called

gerund

being, like the infinitive, a stereotyped

(or absolutive)

case-form of a de-

noun
is a part of the
general verb-system in
both the earlier and later language, being especially fre-

rivative

quent in the later language, where it has only two forms,

one for simple verbs, and the other for compound. Its value
is

that of an indeclinable active participle, of indeterminate

but prevailingly past tense-character.

a. Another gerund, an adverbially used accusative in form,
found, but only rarely, both earlier and later.

540.

derivative conjugations are as follows:

intensive;

The secondary

Secondary conjugations.
3.

the desiderative;

conjugation-stem,

4.

1.

the passive;

the causative.

instead of the simple root,

the whole system of inflection.

Yet there

is

2.

is

or

the

In these,
underlies

clearly to be

seen in them the character of a present-system, expanded

into a

more

or less complete conjugation

and the passive

is

640]

CONJUGATION.

VIII.

204
be described in the

so purely a present-system that it will

the verb.
chapter devoted to that part of the inflection of
a. Under the same general head belongs the subject of

denominative conjugation, or the conversion of noun and

into

adjective-stems

conjugation-stems.

that

Further,

of

compound conjugation, whether by the prefixion of prepositions to roots or

by the addition of auxiliary verbs

And

and adjective-stems.

to

noun

finally, that of periphrastic con-

jugation, or the looser combination of auxiliaries with verbal

nouns and adjectives.

The

541.

characteristic of a proper (finite or personal)

verb-form

is its

mined

character as regards

its

in part also as regards

tions of

By

personal ending.

mode and

this alone

tense are mainly

made by

deter-

is

number and person

mode and tense. But the

and
distinc-

the formation

of tense and mode-stems, to which, rather than to the pure

the personal endings are appended.
a. In this chapter will be given a general account of the personal endings, and also of the formation of mode-stems from tensethe
stems, and of those elements in the formation of tense-stems
which are found in more than one
augment and the reduplication

root,

Then, Jn the following chapters, each tense-system

be taken up by itself, and the methods of formation of its stems,
both tense-stems and mode-stems, and their combination with the
endings, will be described and illustrated in detail. And the complete conjugation of a few model verbs will be exhibited in systetense-system.
will

matic arrangement in Appendix C.

Personal Endings.
548. The endings df verbal inflection are, as was pointed out
above, different throughout in the active and middle voices. They
are also, as in Greek, usually of two somewhat varying forms for
the same person in the same voice: one fuller, called primary; the
ther briefer, called secondary. There are also less pervading differences, depending

upon other conditions.

a. In the epics, exchanges of

eespecially the

infrequent.

substitution

of

primary and secondary active endings

ma, va,

ta, for

mas, vas, tha)

are not

[545

PERSONAL ENDINGS.

205

b.

condensed statement of

number here

son and

all

the varieties of ending for each per-

follows.

a. The primary ending in

543. Singular: First person,
The subjunctive, however (later imperative), has
is mi.
ni instead; and in the oldest Veda this ni is sometimes wanting,
and the person ends in 8, (as if the ni of Sni were dropped). The

the active

an a has come to
secondary ending is properly in; but to this
be so persistently prefixed, appearing regularly where the tense-stem
does not itself end in a (vain for varm or varam in RV., once, and
abhum MS., avadhim TS. etc., sanem TB., are rare anomalies), that
But the perit is convenient to reckon am as ending, rather than m.
fect tense has neither mi nor m; its ending is simply a (sometimes
a: 248 c) ; or, from a-roots, au.
b. The primary middle ending, according to the analogy of the
other persons, would be regularly me. But no tense or mode, at
in this
any period of the language, shows any relic whatever of a

person; the primary ending, present as well as perfect, from a-stems

and others alike, is e; and to it corresponds i as secondary ending,
which blends with the final of an a-stera to e. The optative has,
however, a instead of i; and in the subjunctive (later imperative)
appears ai for

544.

e.

Second person,

a. In the active, the primary ending

which is shortened to s as secondary as to the loss of this
s after a final radical consonant, see below, 555. But the perfect
and the imperative desert here entirely the analogy of the other
forms. The perfect ending is invariably tha (or tha: 248 c). The
imperative is far less regular. The fullest form of its ending is dhi ;
which, however, is more often reduced to hi; and in the great mais si,

(including all a-stems, at every period of the lanis present, but the bare stem stands as personal
In a very small class of verbs (7223), ana is the ending.

jority of verbs

guage) no ending
form.

There

is

an alternative ending tat; and

also

this is

even used spor-

adically in other persons of the imperative (see below,

570

1).

the primary ending, both present and

secondary stands in no apparent relation to this,

b. In the middle voice,

The

perfect, is se.

being thas

which

in the

language, se

found only sva (or svS : 248 c),

not seldom to be read as sua. In the older
sometimes strengthened to sal in the subjunctive.

and

in the imperative is

Veda
is

is

545. Third person,

a. The active primary ending is ti; the

secondary, t; as to the loss of the latter after a final radical consonant, see below, 555. But in the imperative appears instead the
peculiar ending tu; and in the perfect no characteristic consonant is

present,
b.

and the third person has the same ending as the

The primary middle ending

secondary.

is te,

first.

with ta as corresponding

In the older language, te is often strengthened to tai in

VIII. CONJUGATION.

545]

206

the subjunctive. In the perfect, the middle third person has, like
the active, the same ending with the first, namely e simply; and in
the older language, the third person present also often loses the distinctive part of its termination, and comes to coincide in form with
the first (and MS. has aduha for adugdha). To this e perhaps cor-

responds, as secondary, the i of the aorist 3d pers. passive (842 ff.).

The imperative has tftm (or, in the Veda, rarely Sm) for its ending.

546. Dual:

Both in active and in middle,

First person.

precisely like the corresperson

of the latter
ponding plural, only with substitution of v for the
to
found
vasi
has
been
va,
vahe,
vas
vahi, vahai.
occur),
(no
thus,
The person is, of course, of comparatively rare use, and from the
the dual

is in all its varieties

first

Veda no form
547.

in vas, even, is quotable.

Second and Third persons,

a.

In

the

active,

the

primary ending of the second person is thas, and that of the third
is tas; and this relation of th to t appears also in the perfect, and
runs through the whole series of middle endings. The perfect endings
are primary, but have u instead of a as vowel and an a has become
so persistently prefixed that their forms have to be reckoned as athus
;

and atus.

The secondary endings

exhibit

no definable

relation to

the primary in these two persons; they are tarn and tarn; and they
are used in the imperative as well.
b. In the middle, a long &
which, however, with the final
has become prefixed to all dual endings
a of a-stems becomes e
of the second and third persons, so as to form an inseparable part
of them (didhltham AV., and jihitham
B., are isolated anomalies).
The primary endings, present and perfect, are athe and ate; the
secondary (and imperative) are atham and atam (or, with stem-final
a, ethe etc.).
c. The Rig-Veda has a very few forms in aithe and Site, apparently
from ethe and ete with subjunctive strengthening (they are all detailed

below: see 615, 701, 737, 752, 836, 1008, 1043).

548. Plural: First person,

a.

The

earliest

form of the

active ending is masi, which in the oldest language is more frequent

than the briefer mas (in RV., as five to one; in AV., however, only

as three to four).

In the classical Sanskrit,

mas

is

the exclusive

primary ending; but the secondary abbreviated ma belongs also to

the perfect and the subjunctive (imperative). In the Veda, ma often
becomes ma (248 c), especially in the perfect.
b. The primary 'middle ending is mahe. This is lightened in
the secondary form to mahi; and, on the other hand, it is regularly (in the Veda, not invariably) strengthened to mahai in the subjunctive (imperative).

549.

Second person,

The secondary,

a.

also imperative,

The

active primary ending is tha.

is ta (in the Veda, ta only

ending

PERSONAL ENDINGS.

207

[-550

But in the perfect any characteristic consonant is

wanting, and the ending is simply a. In the Veda, the syllable na,
of problematic origin, is not infrequently added to both forms of the
ending, making thana (rarely thanft) and tana. The forms in which
once in impv.).

be detailed below, under the different formations; the

made excepting to persons of the first general

this occurs will

addition

is

very rarely

conjugation.
b.

is dhve, which belongs to the

In the subjunctive of the older lansometimes strengthened to dhvai. The secondary (and

The middle primary ending

perfect as well as the present.

guage

it is

imperative) ending is
once met with in the

dhvam

(in

BY., once dhva); and

dhvat

is

imperative (570). In the Veda, the v of all

these endings is sometimes to be resolved into u, and the ending
becomes dissyllabic. As to the change of dh of these endings to

4h, see above,

226 o.

550. Third person, a. The full primary ending is anti in

the active, with ante as corresponding middle. The middle secondary ending is anta, to which should correspond an active ant; but
of the t only altogether questionable traces are left, in the euphonic
treatment of a final n (207) ; the ending is an. In the imperative,
antu and antam take the place of anti and ante. The initial a of
all

these endings is like that of

a of a tense-stem.

am

in the 1st sing., disappearing

after the final

b. Moreover, anti, antu, ante, antam, anta are

be weakened by the loss of their nasal, becoming ati
active, this

'and after

etc.

liable to

In the

weakening takes place only after reduplicated non-a-stems

a few roots which are treated as if reduplicated: 639 ff.);

in the middle, it occurs after all tense-stems save those

ending in

a.

secondary active ending an there is a sub169b; the evidence of the Zend favors the

Further, for the

c.

us

stitute
latter

all

ur:
which

(or

form),

change anti to ati

is

etc.,

used in the same reduplicating verbs that

and which accordingly appears as a weaker

The same us is also used universally in the perthe optative (not in the subjunctive), in those forms of the
aorist whose stem does not end in a, and in the imperfect of rootcorrelative of an.

fect, in

stems ending in

a,

and a few others

(621).

The

perfect middle has in all periods of the language the

peculiar ending re, and the optative has the allied ran, in this person. In the Veda, a variety of other endings containing a r as disd.

are met with: namely, re (and ire) and rate in

the present; rata in the optative (both of present and of aorist);
rire in the perfect; ranta, ran, and ram in aorists (and in an imtinctive consonant

ram and ratam

in the imperative ra in the imperthree rate, ratam, and rata are found even
in the later language in one or two verbs (629).

perfect or two)
fect of

duh

(MS.).

The

VIII. CONJUGATION.

551-1

208

551. Below are given, for convenience, in tabular form, the

schemes of endings as accepted in the classical or later language
namely, a. the regular primary endings, used in the present indic:

and the future (and the subjunctive in part) and b. the regused in the imperfect, the conditional, the
aorist, the optative (and the subjunctive in part); and further, of
ative

ular secondary endings,

special schemes, c. the perfect endings (chiefly primary, especially in

the middle); and d. the imperative endings (chiefly secondary). To
the so-called imperative endings of the first person is prefixed the
which is practically a part of them, though really containing the

mode-sign of the subjunctive from which they are derived.

552. Further, a part of the endings are marked with an accent,
and a part are left unaccented. The latter are those which never,
under any circumstances, receive the accent; the former are accented
in considerable classes of verbs, though by no means in all.
It will
be noticed that, in general, the unaccented endings are those of the
singular active; but the 2d sing, iinkerative has an accented ending,
and, on the other hand, the whole series of 1st persons imperative,
active and middle, have unaccented endings (this being a characteristic
of the subjunctive formation which they represent).

553. The schemes of normal endings, then, are as follows

mi

:>

si

ti

am

a
tha

d.

Imperative Endings.

ani

ava

ama

din, hi,

tarn

ta

ai

avahai

amahai

sva

atham
atam

antam, atam

tu

554. In

tarn

dhvam

general, the rale is followed that an accented ending, if dis-

syllabic, is accented

are regarded,

antu, atu

tarn

in

on

this

its first syllable

respect,

as

integral

and the constant union-vowels

But the
of the endings.

parts

PERSONAL ENDINGS.

209

[557

pi. ending ate of the pres. indie, middle has in RV. the accent ate in
number of verbs (see 613, 685, 699, 719); and an occasional instance
is met with in other endings: thus, mahe (see- 719, 735).

3d

555. The secondary endings

of the second

and third persons singular,

an added consonant without vowel, should regularly (150)

be lost whenever the root or stem to which they are to be added itself ends
as consisting of

And

in a consonant.

Thus

ceptions.

this rule is in general followed; yet not

without ex-

root ending in a dental mute sometimes drops this final mute

a.
instead of the added B in the second person; and, on the other hand, a root
or stem ending in 8 sometimes drops this a instead of the added t in the

in either case, establishing the ordinary relation of 8 and t

third person

in these persons, instead of a

2d

sing,

aves

(to

3d

sing,

and

8, or t

and

t.

The examples noted

avet), ]/vid, AB.; 3d

acakat, |/cakfis, RT.

sing,

are

akat, }/k?, CB.

aghat, i/ghas, JB. AS.;

;
ac,ftt, |/9as, AB. MBh.
R.; asrat, j/sras, VS.; ahinat, yhifiB, CB. TB. GB.
Compare also the
8-aorist forms ayas and eras (146 a), in which the same influence is to

and

be seen;
(837).

ajait

further,

similar loss

AY. has once abhanas,

where a 1st
(to

sing,

is

urther the 1st sing, in

for

final

acchinam

precative

consonant

-nak, j/bhanj. There

modeled after a 3d
(to

instead of

b. Again, a union-vowel

(889 a), and

irregularly

atrnat), ytrd, KU.,

either

etc.

of any other

or i or I: see below,

is

for

yaa

excessively rare;
are also a few cases

sing.

thus, atrriara

acchinat), }/chid, MBh.

compare

am, 543 a.

sometimes introduced before the ending,

621b, 631, 819, 880, 1004a, 1068a.

few isolated cases in the older language,

c. In a

to ai: see below,

yat

is

this

is

changed

904 b, 936, 1068 a.

556. The changes of form which roots and stems undergo in

will be pointed out in detail
below, under the various formations. Here may be simply mentioned
in advance, as by far the most important among them, a distinction

their combinations with these endings

of stronger and weaker form of stem in large classes of verbs, standthe stem being of stronger form
ing in relation with the accent
when the accent falls upon it, or before an accentless ending, and of
weaker form when the accent is on the ending.

Of the endings marked as accented in the scheme, the ta of 2d

not infrequently in the Veda treated as unaccented, the tone resting
on the stem, which is strengthened. Much less often, the tarn of 2d du.
a.

pi. is

treated in the same way; other endings,

given under the various formations below.

is

only sporadically.

Details

are

Subjunctive Mode.

557. Of the subjunctive mode

fragments are

Whitney

left in

Grammar.

(as was pointed out above) only

the later or classical language: namely, in the

2. ed.

14

557]

VIII.

CONJUGATION

210

first persons imperative, and in the use (579) of the imperand aorist persons without augment after ma prohibitive. In
the oldest period, however, it was a very frequent formation, being
three or four times as common as the optative in the Rig-Veda, and
nearly the same in the Atharvan; but already in the Brahmanas it
becomes comparatively rare. Its varieties of form are considerable,
and sometimes perplexing.

so-called

fect

normal and regular formation, a special mode-stem

by adding to the tense-stem an a
which combines with a final a of the tense-stem to a. The accent
rests upon the tense-stem, which accordingly has the strong form.
Thus, from the strong present-stem doh (yduh) is made the subjunctive-stem doha; from juho (j/hu), juhava; from yunaj (j/yuj),
yunaj a; from suno (|/BU), sunava; from bhava (j/bhu), bhava; from
tuda (j/tud), tuda; from ucya (pass., >/vac , ucya; and so on.

558. In

is

made

its

for the subjunctive

559. The stem thus formed is inflected in general as an a-stem

would be inflected in the indicative, with constant accent, and a for
a before the endings of the first person (7331}
but with the
following peculiarities as to ending etc.:

560.

a.

In the active, the 1st sing, has ni as ending: thus, dohani,

But in the Rig-Veda sometimes a simply: thus,

yunaj ani, bhavanl.

aya, brava.
b. In 1st du.,
thus,

1st pi.,

and 3d

pi.,

the endings are the

secondary:

dohava, dohama, dohan; bhavava, bhavama, bhavan.

the endings are primary: thus,

C. In 2d and 3d du. and 2d pi.,
dohathas, dohatas, dohatha; bhavathas, bhavatas, bhavatha.

2d and 3d sing., the endings are either primary or secondary:

dohasi or dohas, dohati or dohat; bhavasi or bhavas, bhavati
bhavat.
d. In

thus,

or

e. Occasionally, forms with double mode-sign a (by assimilation to

the more numerous subjunctives from tense-stems in a) are met with from

non-a-stems

thus,

561. In the

asatha from as; ayas, ayat, ayfin from e

(|/i).

forms with secondary instead of primary endbeing found only in the 3d pi. (where they are more

middle,

ings are very rare,

frequent than the primary), and in a case or two of the 3d

AB. has once asyathaa).
a. The striking peculiarity of subjunctive middle inflection

sing, (and

is

the fre-

quent strengthening of e to ai in the endings. This is less general in the

very earliest language than later. In 1st sing., ai alone is found as endand in 1st du. also (of rare occurrence), only avahai
ing, even in RV.
;

is

met

with.

In

1st

found a few times),

pi.,

amahai

and

is

alone

prevails in

known

RV. and AV. (amahe is

In 2d sing., sai for se
AV. and the Brahmanas.

later.

does not occur in RV., but is the only form in

sing., tai for te occurs once in RV., and is the predominant form

In 3d

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

211

565

and the only one later. In 2d pi., dhvai for dhve is found in
and a few times in the Brahmanas. In 3d pi., ntai

in AV.,

one word in RV.,

the Brahmana form (of far from frequent occurrence); it occurs

RV. nor AV. No such dual endings as thai and tai, for the
are anywhere found; but RV. has in a few words (nine: above,

nte

for

is

neither in

and te,

547 c) aithe and

aite, which appear to be a like subjunctive strengthening

ethe and ete (although found in one

indicative form, krnvaite). Bethe ai-endings, the vowel is regularly long a; but antai instead of
antai is two or three times met with, and once or twice (TS. AB.) atai

of

fore

for atai.

562. The subjunctive endings, then,

subjunctive mode-sign, are as follows:

combination with the

in

middle.

active.,
s.

d.

ani

ava

ama

ai

athas

atha

[ase

,asi

d.

s.

p.

P-

favahai

lamahai

avahe

\axnahe

aithe

jadhve
\adhvai
(ante, anta

[asai

{as
fati

an

ataa

late

aite

\at
a.

And

in further combination with final

a of all these endings becomes a:

initial

antai

a of a tense-stem, the

thus, for example, in 2d pers.,

asi or as, athas, atha, ase, adhve.

563.

Besides this proper subjunctive, with mode-sign, In its triple

with primary, with strengthened primary, and with secondary endthe name of subjunctive, in the forms "imperfect subjunctive" and

form
ings

"improper subjunctive", has been also given to the indicative forms of imperand aorist when used, with the augment omitted, in a modal sense
(below, 537): such use being quite common in RV., but rapidly dying out,

fect

Brahmana language and

so that in the
after

ma
a.

later

it

is

hardly met with except

prohibitive.

As

to the general uses of the subjunctive,

see below,

574 ff.

Optative Mode.
564. a. As has been already pointed out, the optative is of comparatively rare occurrence in the language of the Yedas but it gains
rapidly in frequency, and already in the Brahmanas greatly outnumbers the subjunctive, and still later comes almost entirely to
;

take

its place.

b.

Its

mode of formation

is

the

same in

all

periods of the

language.

565.

a.

The

optative mode-sign is in the active voice a difit is added to a tense-stem ending in a, or

ferent one, according as

14*

565]

VIII.

CONJUGATION.

212

some other final. In the latter case, it is ya, accented

appended to the weaker form of the tense-stem, and takes
the regular series of secondary endings, with, in 3d plur., us instead of an, and loss of the a before it. After an a-stem, it is I,
unaccented this I blends with the final a to e (which then is accented
or not according to the accent of the a); and the e is maintained
unchanged before a vowel-ending (am, us), by means of an interto one ending in

this yft is

posed euphonic y.
b. In the middle voice, the mode-sign is I throughout, and takes
the secondary endings, with a in 1st sing., and ran in 3d pi. After
an a-stem, the rules as to its combination to e, the accent of the

and its retention before a vowel-ending with interposition of

a y, are the same as in the active. After any other final, the weaker
form of stem is taken, and the accent is on the ending (except in
one class of verbs, where it falls upon the tense-stem see 645) ; and

latter,

when combined to
endings (a, atham, atam).
the 1 (as

c. It is,
is

takes an inserted

y before

assuming

class of stems in the

final of
i,

an a-stem to e; but no good reason appears

rather than the I which shows itself in the other

middle voice.

566. The combined

mode-sign

and endings of the optative,

and for others

then, are as follows, in their double form, for a-stems

a. for

?\f

the vowel-

of course, impossible to tell from the form whether i or I

combined with the

to exist for

e)

non-a-stems.

[570

OPTATIVE MODE.

213

practically of rare occurrence

and

at every period of the language,

especially later.
a.

The inserted 8 runs

sons ; in the middle,

and the 2d

du.

the 2d sing,

added

8,

is

pi.,

in the active through the whole series of perallowed only in the 2d and 3d persons sing, and
and is quotable only for the 2d and 3d sing. In

it is

the precative form, by reason of the necessary loss of the

not distinguishable from the simple optative in the 3d sing,
act.,

which (compare 555 a) saves

the personal ending t instead of the precattve-sign 8 ; but the RV. usually,
and the other Vedic texts to some extent, have the proper ending yas (for
yast). As to dh in the 2d pi. mid., see 226 c.
act.,

the same

is

the case in the later language,

b. The accent

is as

in the simple optative.

568. The precative endings, then, accepted in the later language

in brackets, those which are identical with the simple

(including,

optative), are as follows:

middle.

active.
d.

s.
1

yasam

[yas]

[yat]

yasva
yastam
yastam

d,

s.

p.

yasma

isthas

yasta
yasus

!f$a

a. Respecting the precative, see further

p.

[Imahi]

[ivahi]

[Iya]

921

lyastham
lyastam

Ighvam
[Iran]

ff.

b. As to the general uses of the optative, see below,

573

ff.

Imperative Mode.

569.

adding

its

The

imperative has no mode-sign;

own endings

directly to

it is

made by

the tense-stem, just as

the other endings are added to form the indicative tenses.

a. Hence, in 2d and 3d du. and 2d pi., its forms are indistinguishable
from those of the augment-preterit from the same stem with its augment

omitted.

2d

b. The rules as to the use of the different endings

especially in
will be .given below, in connecwhere the variety is considerable

sing.,

tion with the various tense-systems.

that is peculiar in

its

use that

The ending tat, however, has

it calls

so

much

for a little explanation here.

570. The Imperative in tat. An imperative form, usually

having the value of a 2d pers. sing., but sometimes also of other persons and numbers, is made by adding tat to a present tense-stem in its weak form, if it have a distinction of strong and weak form.
a. Examples
are:
brutat, hatat, vittat; pipr-tat, jahltat,
dhattat; kynutat, kurutat; grimitat, jamtat; avatat, rakatat,
vasatat; vi$atat, syjatat; asyatat, nasyatat, chyatat; kriyatat;

570]

VIII.

CONJUGATION.

214

gaxnayatat, cyavayatat, varayatat; Ipsatat; jagrtat. No examples

have been found from a nasal-class verb (690), nor any other than those
here given from a passive, intensive, or desiderative. The few accented cases
for one

indicate that the formation follows the general rule

made with an

accented ending (552).

b. The imperative in tat

is

not a very rare formation in the older

language, being made (in V., B., and S.) from about fifty roots, and
in toward a hundred and fifty occurrences. Later, it is very unusual thus,
:

only a single example has been noted in MBh., and one inR.; and correspondingly few in yet more modern texts.

571. Aa regards

its

meaning, this form appears to have pre-

vailingly in the Brahmanas, and traceably but much less distinctly

in the Vedic texts, a specific tense-value added to its mode-value

as signifying, namely, an injunction to be carried out at a later time

than the present: it is (like the Latin forms in to and tote) a posterior or future imperative.
a.

tarn

tii

Examples

ihai

are:

Va ma

tisthantam abhyehi

na agatam pratiprabrutat (B.)

say to her

"come

'ti

to

bruhi

me

as I

stand just here," and [afterward] announce her to us as having come; yad
urdhvas tis^ha dravine *ha dhattat (RY.) when thou shalt stand upright, [then] bestow riches here (and similarly in many cases); utkulam

udvaho bhavo 'duhya prati dhavatat (AV.)

after having carried up,

tasya vittat (TS.)

be a carrier

up

the tree will ascend thee, [then] take note of

b. Examples of

the ascent;

run back again ; vanaspatir adhi tva sthasyati

its

use as other than 2d sing, are

it.

as follows

1st

avyusam jagrtad aham (AY. only case) Let me watch till day"
break; as 3d sing., punar ma
vi$atad rayih (TS.) let wealth come
to
again
me, ayaxh tyasya raja murdhanaih vi patayatat (B.) the
king here shall make his head fly off; as 2d du., nasatySv abruvan devah
punar a vahatad iti (RV.) the gods said to the two Acvins "bring them
back again"; as 2d pi., apah ...
deve^u nah suk^to brutat (TS.)
sing.,

In the later language,

ye waters, announce us to the gods as well-doers.
the prevailing value appears to be that of a 3d
sing.
thus, bhavan prasa:

dam

kurutat (MBh.) may your worship do the favor,

abhiraksatat (DKC.) ht your excellency protect him.

enam bhavan

c.
According to the native grammarians, the imperative in tat is to
be used with a benedictive implication. No instance of such use
appears
to be quotable.

d. In a certain passage repeated several times in different Brahmanas

and containing a number of forms in tat used as 2d pi.,

and Sutras,

varayadhvat

AS.
noted.

9S.).

is

No

read instead of vSrayatfit in some of the texts (K. AB.

other occurrence of the ending dhvat has been anywhere

USES OF THE MODES.

215

[573

Uses of the Modes.

572.

most

Of the

distinct

three modes,

and limited in

the

office,

imperative

is

the one

and most unchanged in

use throughout the whole history of the language. It signifies a command or

an attempt at the exercise
injunction
of the speaker's will upon some one or something outside
of himself.
a. This, however (in Sanskrit as in other languages), is
by no
means always of the same force; the command shades off into a
demand, an exhortation, an entreaty, an expression of earnest desire.

The imperative

also sometimes signifies an assumption or concession

it becomes the expression
;

and occasionally, by pregnant construction,

of something conditional or contingent; but

regular use in dependent-clause-making.
b. The imperative
thus,

now

be

how are
to

is

bravihi ko 'dyai

whom

separated
they to be

now and then used

it

does not acquire any

in an interrogative sentence:

Va may a

viyujyatam (R.) speak! who shall

by we? katham ete gunavantah kriyantam (H.j
made virtuous? kasmai pindah pradiyatam (Vet.)

shall the offering be given?

573.

The

optative appears to have as

its

primary

office

the expression of wish or desire; in the oldest language,

its

the

prevailing use in independent clauses

is

that to

which

name
a.

"optative" properly belongs.

But the expression of desire, on the one hand, passes nat-

urally over into that of request or entreaty,

so that the optative

becomes a softened imperative; and, on the other hand, it comes to

signify what is generally desirable or proper, what should or ought
to be, and so becomes the mode of
it is
prescription or, yet again,
weakened into signifying what may or can be, what is likely or
usual, and so becomes at last a softened statement of what is.
;

b. Further, the optative in dependent clauses, with relative

pronouns and conjunctions, becomes a regular means of expression
of tke conditional and contingent, in a wide and increasing variety
of uses.
C.

The

so-called precative

forms (567) are ordinarily used in

the

proper optative sense. But in the later language they are occasionally met
with in the other uses of the optative: thus, na hi prapaqyami

mama

'panudyad yac chokam (Bh G.) for I do not perceive what should dispel
my ^rief; yad bhuyasur vibhutayah (BhP.) that there should be changes.
Also rarely with ma: see 579 b.

574]

VIII.

574.

The

CONJUGATION.

comes nearly extinct

at

been pointed

has

as

subjunctive,

216
out,

be-

an early period in the history of the

it in classical
usage only two

language; there are left of

relics

the use of

its first

persons in an imperative sense,

on the speakpart; and the use of

or to signify a necessity or obligation resting

er,

or a peremptory intention

on

his

unaugmented forms (579), with the negative particle

*fT

ma,

in a prohibitive or negative imperative sense.

a. And the general value of the subjunctive from the beginning was what these relics would seem to indicate its fundamental
meaning is perhaps that of requisition, less peremptory than the im;

more so than the optative. But this meaning is liable to

the same modifications and transitions with that of the optative; and

perative,

subjunctive and optative run closely parallel with one another in the
oldest language in their use in independent clauses, and are hardly

And instead of their being (as in

distinguishable in dependent
Greek) both maintained in use, and endowed with nicer and more
distinctive values, the subjunctive gradually disappears, and the
optative assumes alone the offices formerly shared by both.
675.

The

junctive and

between imperative and suband most char-

difference, then,

optative, in their fundamental

one of degree command, requisition, wish

and no sharp line of division exists between them; they
are more or less exchangeable with one another, and comacteristic uses, is

binable in coordinate clauses.

a.

Thus, in AY.,

we have in iinpv. Qatam jiva saradah do

ubhau tau jivatam jaradasti let them
in subj., adya jivani let me live this
:

thou live a hundred autumns;

loth live to attain old age;

a hundred autumns;
in
hundreds of autumns; sarvam
ayur jivyaaam. (prec.) / would fain live out my whole term of life.
Here the modes would be interchangeable with a hardly perceptible
change of meaning.

day; (jatam jivati (jaradah he shall

opt.,

jivema (jaradam (jatam may

live

tee live

b. Examples, again, of different

modes

in

coordinate construc-

suvana putran mahisi

iyam agne narl patim videsta
bhavati gatva patim subhaga vi rajatu (AV.) may this woman,
tion are

Agni! find a spouse; giving

tuiness

birth to sons she shall become

having attained a spouse

let

her

rule

nah svastaye prabudhe nah punar dadah

a chief-

happiness; gopaya
(TS.) watch over us for
in

USES OP THE MODES.

217

579

our welfare; grant unto us to wake again; ayan nah sunuh

aa te
sumatfr bhutv aame (RV.) may there be to us a son; let that favor of
.

thine be ours.

It

same passage

in

is

not very seldom the case that versions of the

texts show different modes as various

different

readings.
c.

There

is,

in fact, nothing in the earliest

employment of these

modes

to prove that they might not all be specialized uses of forms

originally equivalent
having, for instance, a general future meaning.

576. As examples of the less characteristic use of subjunctive

and optative in the older language, in independent clauses, may be
quoted the following a gha ta gacchan uttara yugani (RV.) those
:

later ages will doubtless come; yad

if thou thinkest "I shall not die"; na

(RV.) they do not become lost;

na mara

fti

manyase

(RV.)

ta nac,anti na dabhati taakarah

no thief can harm them; kasmai devaya

havisa vidhema (RV.) to what god shall we offer oblation? agnina rayim
dive-dive (RV.) by Agni one may gain wealth every day ;
aqnavat
utaf 'nam brahman e dadyat tatha ayona qiva syat (AV.) one
.

should give her, however,

to

a Brahman; in that case she witt be propitious

and favorable ; ahar-ahar dadyat (QB.) one should give every day.

577. The uses of the optative in the later language are of the
utmost variety, covering the whole field occupied jointly by the two
modes in earlier time. A few examples from a single text (MBh.)
will be enough to illustrate them ucchistam nai Va bhunjlyam na
kuryam padadhavanam I witt not eat of the remnant of the sacrifice,
:

will not

perform the foot-lavation ; jnatin vrajet let her

nai 'vam sa karhicit kuryat she should not act
time; katham vidyam nalam nypam how can I know
utsarge aari^ayah syat tu vindeta 'pi sukham kvacit
latives;

go

to

her re-

thus at any

king Nai a?
but in case

of her abandonment there may be a chance; she may also find happiness
somewhere; katham vaso vikarteyam na ca budhyeta me priya
how can 1 cut off the garment and my beloved not wake ?

578. The later use of the first persons subjunctive as so-called

imperative involves no change of construction from former time, but
only restriction to a single kind of use: thus, dlvyftva let us two
play; kim karavani te what shall I do for thee?
579. The imperative negative, or prohibitive, is from the earliest
period of the language regularly and usually expressed by the particle
ma with an augmentless past form, prevailingly aorist.
Thus, pra pata me *ha ramsthah (AV.) fly away, do not stay
dviaan? ca mahyam radhyatu ma ca "ham dviaate radham
(AV.) both let my foe be subject to me, and let me not be subject to my foe;
urv ac, yam abhayam jyotir indra ma no dirgha abhi na^an
tamisrah (RV.) I would win broad fearless light, O Indra; let not the
a.

here;

long darknesses come upon us;

ma

na ayuh pra mosih

(RV.) do not

579]

VIII.

CONJUGATION.

218

samagvasihi m& Qucah (MBh.) be comforted; do

or bhaih (MBh. K.) do not be afraid; mS bhut
kalasya paryayah (R.) let not a change of time take place. Examples with
the imperfect are ma bibher na xnarisyasi (EV.) do not fear; thou wilt
not die; ma smai 'taut sakhin kuruthah (AV.) do not make friends
steal

away our

not grieve;

life;

mS bhaislh
:

m&

putram anutapyathah (MBh.) do not sorrow for thy son.

relation of the imperfect to the aorist construction, in point of
frequency, is in EV. about as one to five, in AV. still less, or about

of them;

The

six; and though instances of the imperfect are quotable from

the older texts, they are exceptional and infrequent ; while in the

one to
all

epics and later they

b.

RV.

the

become extremely

rare.

used prohibitively with ma in

bhujexna,
no other example, and the construction
is

single optative,

older language presents

very rare also later. In an example or two, also, the precative

B. Pane.) follows mS.

is

c.

passage

The RV. has once apparently

is

No

probably corrupt.

ma

(bhuy&t,

with an imperative; but the

met with in the older

other such case is

language (unless sypa. TA. i. 14; doubtless a bad reading for sypas) but
in the epics and later the construction begins to appear, and becomes an
;

ordinary form of prohibition

thus,

ma

do not bestow wealth on a lord; sakhi

prayacche "9 vare dhanam

mai

Vam

vada

(H.)

(Vet.) friend, do

not speak thus.

The QB. (xi. 5. 1 1) appears to offer a single example of a true subjunctive

with ma, ni padyasai; there is perhaps something wrong about the reading.
d.

e.

In the epics and later, an aorist form not deprived of augment is

met with after ma: thus,
tvaxh kalo 'tyagat (MBh.)

ma

occasionally
let

not the time pass

ma

valipatham anv agah

But the same anomaly occurs

Valfs road.

language: thus,

itive

thee,-

also

vyapaptat (B.), agas

two

(TA.),

(R.) do not follow

or three times in the older

anagat

(KS.).

580. But the use also of the optative with na not in a prohibsense appears in the Veda, and becomes later a familiar con-

na risyema kada cana (EV.) may we suffer no harm

na ca *tisyjen na juhuySt (AV.) and if he do not grant
permission, let him not sacrifice; tad u tatha na kuryat (QB.) but he
must not do that so ; na diva gayita (QGS.) let him not sleep by day; na
tvam vidyur janah (MBh.) let not people know thee. This in the
struction

thus,

at any time;

language is the correlative of the prescriptive optative, and

both are extremely common so that in a text of prescriptive character the optative forms may come to outnumber the indicative and

later

imperative together (as

is

the case, for example, in Manu).

581. In all dependent constructions,

the oldest language to establish a definite

it

is

still

distinction

harder even in

between sub-

junctive and optative; a method of use of either is scarcely to be

found to which the other does not furnish a practical equivalent

USES OP THE MODES.

219
and then,

in

optative alone.

[581

the later language, such uses are represented by the

few examples will be sufficient to illustrate this

and

conjunctions in general: ya
(RV.) which have shone forth [hith'to jayata asmakam
erto], and which shall hereafter shine forth; yo
sa eko 'sat (TS.) whoever shall be born of her, let htm be one of us ;
a.

After

relative

pronouns

vyufur yag ca nunam vyucchan

yo vSi tan vidyat pratyaksaih sa brahma veditS syfit (AV.)

whoever shall know them face to face, he may pass for a knowing priest;
jatanam j an ay 9 ca yan (AY.) of sons lorn and whom
putranam
atithir grhan agaechet (AV.) to whosethou mayesl bear; yasya
soever house he may come as guest; yatamatha kamayeta tatha kuryat
(5B.) in whatever way he may choose, so may he do it; yarhi hota yajamanasya nama grhmyat tarhi bruyat (TS.) when the sacrificing
priest shall name the name of the offerer, then he may speak svarupam
yada drastum icchethah (MBh.) when thou shalt desire to see thine
own form.
.

b. In more distinctly conditional constructions: yajama devan

yadi gaknavama (RV.) we will offer to the gods if we shall be able; yad
agne syam aham tvam tvam va gha sya aham syus te satya
iha "9fsah (RV.) if I were thou, Agni, or if thou wert I, thy wishes
should be realized on the spot; yo dyam atisarpat parastan na sa
mucyatai varunasya rajnah (AV.) though one steal far away beyond
the sky, he shall not escape king Varuna ; yad anagvan upavaset ksodhukah syad yad a9nlyad rudro 'sya pa9tin abhi manyeta (TS.)

*/ he should continue without eating, he would starve; if he should eat,

Rudra would attack his cattle ; prarthayed yadi
kagcid dantjyah

mam

sa

me puman

bhavet (MBh.)

any man

soever should desire me, he

if
should suffer punishment. These and the like constructions, with the
optative, are very common in the Brahmanas and later.

yatha 'ham gatruho 'sani (AV.) that I may

of my enemies; grnana yatha pibatho andhah (RV.) that
being praised with song ye may drink the draught; urau yatha tava
In final clauses:

c.

be a slayer

Barman madema (RV.) in order that we rejoice in thy wide protection ;

upa janita yathe 'yam punar agacchet (QB.) contrive that she come
back again; krpam kuryad yatha mayi (MBh.) so that he may take pity
on me. This is in the Veda one of the most frequent uses of the
subjunctive; and in its correlative negative form, with ned in order
(always followed by an accented verb),
not rare in the Brahmanas.

that not or lest

The

d.

indicative is

also

it

continues

very commonly used in final clauses after

yatha 'yam puruso 'ntariksam anucarati (QB.) in order

that this man may traverse the atmosphere ; yatha na vighnah kriyate (R.)
ao that no hindrance may arise; yatha 'yam
nagyati tatha vidheyam
yatha :

(H.)

it

thus,

must

be so

managed

that he perish.

581]

VIII.

CONJUGATION.

220

e. With the conditional use of subjunctive and optative is farther to

be compared that of the so-called conditional tense see below, 950.
:

f.

As

indicated by

is

of the examples given above, it is usual

many

in a conditional sentence, containing protasis and apodosis, to employ always

the same mode, whether subjunctive or optative (or conditional), in each
of the two

clauses.

For the older language,

this is a rule

well-nigh or

quite without exception.

582. No distinction of meaning has been established between

modes of the present-system and those (in the older language) of
the perfect and aorist-systems.
the

Participles.

583. Participles, active and middle, are

the tense-stems

made from

except the periphrastic future,

all

and, in

the later language, the aorist (and aorist participles are rare

from the beginning).

a.

The

participles

chap. XIII.

(952

584.

The

form

EfiT^at;

unconnected with the tense-systems are treated in

ff.).

general participial endings are ^tf ant (weak

fern. 3?ft

the active, and

^R

Sna

anti or
(fern.

atl: see above, 449)

Slcft

for

TRT ana) for the middle. But

After a tense-stem ending in a, the active participial suffix

virtually nt, one of the two a's being lost in the combination of
a.

is

and

stem-final

suffix.

b. After a tense-stem ending in a, the middle

participial suffix
is mana instead of ana.
But there are occasional exceptions to the
rule

as to the

use of

mana and ana

respectively,

which will be

Such
pointed out in connection with the various formations below.
exceptions are especially frequent in the causative: see 1043f.

The

perfect has in the active the peculiar suffix vaAs (weakest

middle form vat; fern, usi: see, for the inflection of this
participle, above, 458 ff.).
c.

form

u,

d.

For

details, as to

form of stem

etc.,

and for special excep-

tions, see the following chapters.

Augment.
585.

stem

The augment

is

a short

a, prefixed to

a tense-

and, if the latter begin with a vowel, combining with

that vowel

irregularly into the heavier or vr/ddhi diphthong

AUGMENT.

221
(136

a).

It is

,-587

always (without any exception) the accented

element in the verbal form of

which

it

makes a

part.

augment is in a few forms long a: thus, gnat,

avar, avyni, avjrnak, avidhyat, ayunak, ayukta, ayuksatam,
arinak, araik^and yas ta avidhat, RV.ii.1.7, 9?).
a. In the Veda, the

586. The augment is a sign of past time. And an augmentmade from each of the tense-stems~~from which the system
of conjugation is derived
namely, the imperfect, from the presentstem; the pluperfect (in the Veda only), from the perfect-stem; the
conditional, from the future-stem; while in the aorist such a preterit
stands without any corresponding present indicative.
preterit is

587. In the early language, especially in the EV., the occurrence

of forms identical with those of augment-tenses save for the lack of

an augment is quite frequent. Such forms lose in general, along with

the augment, the specific character of the tenses to which they belong;
and they are then employed in part non-modally, with either a present or a past sense; and in part modally, with either a subjunctive
or an optative sense
proespecially often and regularly after
hibitive (579); and this last mentioned use comes down also into the

ma

later language.
a* In RV.,

the augmentless forms are more than half as

common

as

augmented (about 2000 and 3300), and are made from the present,
perfect, and aorist-systems, but considerably over half from the aorist.
Their non-modal and modal uses are of nearly equal frequency. The tense
the

value of the non-modally used forms is more often past than present. Of
the modally used, forms, nearly a third are construed with
prohibitive ;
the rest have twice as often an optative as a proper subjunctive value.

ma

b. In
less forms

AV., the numerical

relations are very different.

many

1450), and are

uses are only a tenth of the modal.
four fifths are construed with
in

The augment-

augmented (about 475 to

prevailingly (more than four fifths) aoristic. The non-modal

are less than a third as

ma

Of

as the

the modally used forms,

prohibitive

about

the rest are chiefly optative

of the Brahmanas (not including the

they contain), the loss of augment is, save in
occasional sporadic cases, restricted to the prohibitive construction with ma;
and the same continues to be the case later.
value.

Then,

in the language

mantra - material which

C. The accentuation of the augmentless forms is throughout in accordance with that of unaugmented tenses of similar formation. Examples will
be given below, under the various tenses.

ma

d. Besides the augmentless aorist-forms with

prohibitive, there
are also found occasionally in the later language augmentless imperfect- forms
(very rarely aorist-fonns), which have the same value as if they were augmented, and are for the most part examples of metrical license. They are
especially frequent in the epics

(whence some scores of them are quotable).

588]

222

CONJUGATION.

VIII.

Reduplication.

588.

The

and declensional

derivation of conjugational

stems from roots by reduplication, either alone or along

with other formative elements, has been already spoken of
in which reduplication appears/
(259), and the \formations

have been specified: they

are,

the present (of a certain

class

and the

in primary verb-inflection,

the perfect

of verbs),

aorist (of a large

(of

and the in-

number)
and desiderative secondary conjugations contain in
stems the same element.

nearly

all),

tensive
their

589.

The general

principle of reduplication is the pre-

fixion to a root of a part of itself repeated

with consonants, the

initial

if it

begin

consonant and the vowel;

if it

begin with a vowel, that vowel, either alone or with a follow-

The

ing consonant.

and perfect and desiderative

lighter in the reduplication

in aorist

is

however, are very

Thus, especially, as regards the vowel, which

considerable.

in present

and

varieties of detail,

differences as regards

an

chiefly confined to the

general rules

initial

is

strengthened.

consonant are

intensive;

may be here

regularly shorter

than in the root-syllable,

and in intensive

longer,

is

stated,

for
all

the

less,

others,

The
and

certain

further details being

be given in connection with the account of the sep-

left to

arate formations.

590.

The consonant

general the

from

l/Sfi^T

from ysro:
a.

is

in

consonant of the root: thus, TO^T paprach

bubudh
prach; finf5T 9191* from yfsr 9ri;
first

^^

But

non-aspirate

aspirate: thus, ^tTT

b.

of the reduplicating syllable

palatal

is

substituted in reduplication for an

dadha from

is

jAJT;

f^T bibhy from

substituted for a guttural or

y^

for

bhy.

REDUPLICATION

223
thus, r&\

cak? from

y'SR

rj^ cikhid from y

kp;

5TCR jagrabh from yiTH grabh;

The

c.

sT^T

khid;

jahp from j/c^ hp.

on the other hand, of a palatal in the

guttural form has been noticed above (2161).

occasional reversion,

radical syllable to

Of two

d.

[-592

initial

consonants,

the

second,

if

it

be a

non-nasal mute preceded by a sibilant, is repeated instead

of the first: thus, rFrT tas^r from
sty; cRSJT tastha from

caskand from

r!Hr

y^STT stha;

caskhal from yFslST skhal;

qFTOT paspydh from y
FTO^spydh
sasna from
sphu$: -- but

from

HW

HR

susru from

skand;
from

sn5; HFT sasmp from

sru

from

9lis.

Accent of the Verb.

591. The statements which have been made above, and those
which will be made below, as to the accent of verbal forms, apply
to those cases in which the verb is actually accented.
a. But, according to the grammarians, and according to the invariable practice in accentuated texts, the verb is in the majority of
its occurrences unaccented or toneless.

b. That

is to say,

or so-called finite forms.

and

participles,

of course, the verb in its proper forms, its personal

The verbal nouns and adjectives, or the infinitives

are subject

to

precisely

the same laws

of accent as other

nouns and adjectives.

592. The general rule, covering most of the cases, is this The
verb in an independent clause is unaccented, unless it stand at the
or also, in metrical text, at the beginning
beginning of the clause
:

of a pada.
a. For the

case (above,

accent of the verb, as well as for that of the vocative

the beginning of a pada counts as that of a sentence,

314 c),

whatever be the logical connection of the

pada

with what precedes

it.

agnfrn ide purohitam

Agni I praise, the house-priest; sa id devesu gacchati that, truly, goes to
the gods; agne supayano bhava O Agni, be tasy of access; idam indra
Qrnuhi somapa this, O Indra, soma-drinker, hear; naxnas te rudra
of the unaccented verb

b. Examples

krnmah

homage

to

thee,

Rudra,

we

offer;

are:

yajamanasya pa9UU pahi

the sacrificers cattle protect thou.

c.

Hence, there are two principal situations in which the verb

retains its accent:

593]

593. First, the verb

of a clause

accented

is

when

224

it

stands at the beginning

verse, of a pada.

or, in

Examples of the vert accented

a.

in

CONJUGATION.

VIII.

head of the sentence

at the

qundhadhvam daivyaya karmane

prose,

*mam lokam

ceremony; apnoti

the head of the sentence

of the

are,

the

divine

in verse,

where

pure

he wins this world;

also that

is

be

for

pada, syame 'd indrasya

9armani may we be in Intro's protection; da^aya ma yatudhanan

me the sorcerers ; gamad vajebhir a sa nah may he come with good

show

in verse, where the head of the clause

things to us;

tesam pShi 9rudhl havam drink of them,

sastu pita sastu $va sastu vi^patih let
sleep,

the

let

dog

pahy asman

sleep,

vayam

ye

offer thee,

is

the

master sleep;

the

mother

vam nara

te

the king's

within the pada,

sastu

mata

sleep, let the father

vi<jvakarman namas te

Vicvakarman, homage to thee; protect us!

uce duhita prcche

men"

let

is

hear our call;

yuvam... rajna
w/

daughter said to you

pray you,

vaya indra viddhi su nah pra bharamahe we

Indra, strengthening

take note of ua.

b. Examples of the verb accented at the head of the pada

not the head of the sentence are: atha te antamanam

when

this

vidyama

sumatinam so may we enjoy thy most intimate favors; dhata 'sya

agruvai patim dadhatu pratikamyam Dhatar bestow upon this girl a

somapa

husband according

to her wish; y&tudhanasya

Soma-drinker, the progeny of the sorcerer.

slay,

594. Certain
a.

special cases

As a vocative forms no
but

under

this

of the sentence to which

is

listening ears, hear our

coll! site

prajam

head are as follows:

syntactical part

only an external appendage to

an initial vocative, or more than one, is accented, as if
in the clause or pada: thus, a<jrutkarna grudhi
it is attached,

jahi

it,

it

a verb following

were

itself initial

havam

vandamahe tva

Sita,

we

thou

of

reverence

deva vasavo raksate 'mam all ye gods, ye Vasus, protect

man; uta "ga9 cakrusam deva deva jivayatha punah likewise

thee; vf(jve
this

him,

who has committed

gods,

b. If more than

nected with them

all,

only the

as if they were initial

first

make

to

live again.

loses its accent, the others being treated

with the same adjuncts

jayati kf eti pus.yati successful he conquers,
amitran... paraca indra pra mpna jahi ca our 'foes,
verbs in

understood: thus, taranir

rules, thrives;

crime, ye gods, ye

one verb follow a word or words syntactically con-

separate clauses,

ij

away and slay,- asmabhyarh jes.i yotsi ca for us conquer

agnlsomft havffah prasthitasya vitam haryatam vr?anft
jusetham O Agni and Soma, of the oblation set forth partake, enjoy, ye
Indra, drive far

and

fight;

mighty ones, take pleasure.

c. In like manner (but much less
often), an adjunct, as subject or object,
standing between two verbs and logically belonging to both, is reckoned to the
first

ca

alone, and the second has the initial accent

slay the progeny,

tmana may

and Iring

the blessed

thus, jahi prajam nayasva

9rnotu nah eubhaga bodhatu
[and may she] kindly regard [us].

[it] hither;

one hear us,

ACCENT.

225
d. It

has even

come

to

be

[-686

a formal rule

a verb immediately

that

sa ya etam evam upaste

puryate prajaya pacubhih (QB.) whoever worships him thus is filled with
offspring and cattle.
verb

following another

is

accented:

595. Second, the verb

dependent clause.
a. The dependency of a

is

thus,

accented, whatever

its position, in

clause is in the very great majority of cases

conditioned by the relative
pronoun ya, or one of its derivatives or compounds. Thus : yam yajnam paribhur asi what offering thou protectest ;

6 te yanti ye aparisu paqyan

saha yan me asti tena

hereafter;

they

are coming

shall

behold her

yatra

am

a sor-

nah piirve pitarah pareyuh

munya yadi yatudhano asmi

me die on
yatha *hany anupurvam bhavanti as

cerer;

who

along with that which is mine,whither our fathers of old departed ;

let

the spot, if

adya

days follow one another

yavad idam bhuvanam vfyvam asti how great this whole

creation is; yatkamas te juhumaa tan no astu what desiring we sacrifice to thee, let that become ours; yatamas tftfpsfit whichever one desires
in order;

to enjoy.

b. The presence of a relative word in the sentence does not, of course,

accent the verb, unless this is really the predicate of a dependent clause:
thus,

do);

apa tye tayavo yatha yanti they make off like thieves (as thieves
yat etna jagac oa rejate whatever [is] immovable and movable

ni padyate he lies down at his pleasure.

it means if, and ced (ca-f-id) if give an
when
particle oa
accent to the verb thus, brahma ced dhastam agrahlt if a Brahman
has grasped her hand; tvarh ca soma no vago jivituni na marftmahe
if thou, Soma, wiliest us to live, we shall not die; & ca gacchan mitram
enft dadhama if he will come here, we will make friends with him.
trembles;
c.

yathakamam

The

d. There are a very few passages in which the logical dependence of

word appears to give the verb its

clause containing no subordinating

thus, sam acvaparnfic. caranti no naro 'smakam indra

rathino jayantu when our men, horse-winged, come into conflict, let the
an Imperchariot-fighters of our side, O Indra, win the victory. Rarely, too,
ative so following another imperative that its action may seem a consequence
of the latter's is accented: thus, t&yam a gahi kanvesu su sacft pfba
come hither quickly; drink along with the Kaiwas (i. e. in order to drtnfc).

accent:

e.

few other

particles give the verb

an accent, in virtue of a slight

subordinating force belonging to them: thus, especially hi (with its negation nab!), which in its fullest value means for, but shades off from that
into a mere asseverative sense; the verb or verbs connected with" it are

always accented

thus,

vi te muncantarh vimuco hf santi let them

yac cid dhi... ana<jasta iva amasi
also n6d (na-f-{d), meaning
it were unrenowned ;

release him, for they are releaaers;

if we, forsooth, are as

lest,

that not: thus,

burn thee with

his

net

tvft tapftti

beam; virajam

Whitney, Grammar.

2. ed.

a6ro arc(?&

that

ned vicchinadani

*ti

the

sun may not

Baying to himself,

15

595]
"lest

VIII. CONJUGATION.

I cut

viraj" (such cases

off the

226

are frequent in

the Brahmanas)

ukthebhih kuvid agamat

and the interrogative kuvid whether? thus,

will he come hither for our praises?

596. But further, the verb of a prior clause

is

not infrequently

accented in antithetical construction.

a. Sometimes, the relation of the two clauses is readily capable of
being regarded as that of protasis and apodosis; bnt often, also, such a
relation is very indistinct; and the cases of antithesis shade off into those
to

be rather

drawn.

arbitrarily

b. In

many

cases, the antithesis

in the two clauses of

va va, ca

eka,

them appearing

the line between

of ordinary coordination,

ca: thus,

some go on and on, others

sit

is

made

by the presence

distincter

any a any a, eka

pra-pra 'nye yanti pary any a asate

correlative

words,

about (as if

especially

it

were while some go

va sincadhvam upa va prnadhvam either pour out, or

ce 'dhyasva 'gne pra ca vardhaye 'mam both do thou
kindled, Agni,

and do thou

But

increase this person.

fill

etc.)

ud
sam

up;

thyself become

it is also

made with-

out such help: thus, pra 'jatah praja janayati pari prajata gyhnati
the unborn progeny he generates, the born he embraces; apa yusmad akra-

mln na 'sman upavartate [though] she has gone away from you, she
na 'ndho 'dhvaryur bhavati na yajnam raksansi

does not come to us;

ghnanti

the

priest

does not become

the

blind,

demons do not destroy

kena soma grhyante kena huyante

somas dipped out? by whom [on the other

whom

the

[on the one hand]

sacrifice;

by

are the

hand] are they offered?

597. Where the verb would be the same in the two

it is

antithetical Clauses,
thus, beside complete expres'si both thou art broad and thou art good,

not infrequently omitted in the second

urvi ca 'si vaavl ca

much oftener, incomplete ones like agnir amusmin loka asid
yamo *smfn Agni was in yonder world, Yama [was] in this; asthna
'nyah prajah pratitisthanti mansena *nyah by bone some creatures
stand firm, by flesh others ; dvipac ca sarvain no rakaa
catuspad yac ca
sions like

occur,

nah svam
that

is

least

(not

both protect everything of ours that is

biped, and also whatever
quadruped belongs to us.
a. Accentuation of the verb in the former of two antithetical clauses

is

rule

more

strictly

strictly

in the

followed in the Brahmanas than in

RV.

thus,

in RV.,

abhi

bhuvam) abhi 'mam ppthivim mahlm

in greatness, also to this great

earth; and even

the Veda,

and

dyam mahina bhuvam

I

am

superior to

the

sky

indro vidur angirasac. ca

ghorah Indra knows, and the terrible Angirases.

598. There are certain more or less doubtful cases

in which a
perhaps accented for emphasis.
a. Thus, sporadically before cana in
any wise, and in connection
with asseverative
particles, as kfla, anga, eva, and (in
B., regularly)
hanta: thus, hante 'mam prthivlm vibhajamahai come on! let us
share up this earth.

verb-form

is

PRESENT-SYSTEM.

227

CHAPTER

[601

IX.

THE PRESENT-SYSTEM.
599.

THE

or system of forms coming

present-system,

from the present-stem,

is composed (as was

pointed out
of
a
indicative
with
a subabove)
present
tense, together

junctive (mostly lost in the classical language), an optative,

an imperative, and a participle, and also a past tense, an

augment-preterit, to which we give (by analogy with the
Greek) the name of imperfect.
a.

These

forms

"special tenses", while

as if the former

go in Sanskrit grammars by the name of

the other tense-systems are styled "general tenses"

often

were made from a special tense-stem or modified

root,

while the latter came, all alike, from the root itself. There is no reason
why such a distinction and nomenclature should be retained; since, on the
one hand, the "special tenses" come in one set of verbs directly from the
root,

stems

and, on the other hand, the other tense-systems are mostly made from
and, in the case of the aorist, from stems having a variety of

form comparable with that of present-stems.

600. Practically, the present-system

is

the most prom-

inent and important part of the whole conjugation, since,

from the

earliest period of the language,

much more

frequent than those of

all

its

forms are very

the other systems

together.
a. Thus, in the Veda, the occurrences of personal forms of this system
in the Aitareya Brahmana,
;

are to those of all others about as three to one

in the Hitopadec.a,

as five to one;

eight to one; in

Manu,

601. And, as there

in

which

is also

different roots

being their

as

six

to

one; in the Qakuntala,

great variety in the

form their present-stem,

most conspicuous

difference,

is

of their principal classification; and a verb

this or of that conjugation,

in

which

its

as

as thirty to one.

present-stem

is

or class,

made
is

manner
this,

said to be of

according to the

made and

as

the basis

inflected.

15*

way

602

IX. PRESENT-SYSTEM.

228

602. In a small minority of verbs, the present-stem

identical with the

Then

root.

is

there are besides (excluding

the passive and causative) seven more or less different methods of forming a present-stem from the root, each method

number

being followed by a larger

or

These

"conjugation-classes",

the

are

down by

"classes"

the native

or

smaller

Hindu grammarians.

of verbs.

They

as

laid

are

ar-

ranged by the latter in a certain wholly artificial and unsystematic order (the ground of which has never been dis-

and they are wont

covered);

works according

by the root standing

to

be designated in European

Hindu example,
each class in the Hindu

to this order, or else, after

at the

head of

arrangement and nomenclature will be

followed here, namely as below
the classes being diin
vided (as is usual
European grammars) into two more
lists.

different

general classes or conjugations, distinguished from one another by wider differences than those which separate the
special classes.

The

603.

classes

of the FIRST or NON-a-CoNJUGATiON

are as follows:

The rooj-class
Hindu grammarians)

I.

the

with the root

itself:

(second
;

thus,

its

or ad- class, of

present-stem

ad

eat; ^

is

coincident

go;

3TIH 5s

dun milk.
yS go; fes^dvis hate;
H. The reduplicating class (third or hu-class)
the root is reduplicated to form the
present-stem:

sit; 7J\
Li/-

class,

from |/^ hu sacrifice; ^T dadS from

ip^ juhu
y^J d5 give; fsR bibhy from ]/H bhy bear.
HI.
(seventh or rudh-class); a
^The^nasal

thus,

..clajss

extended to the syllable ^ na in strong forms, is

inserted before the final consonant of the root:
thus,
nasal,

(or
(or

^nm^runadh) from

g^yunaj)

from

y^rudh

xgs^yuj

join.

obstruct;

[606

CONJUGATION-CLASSES.

229
IV.
lable

The mi-class

a.

nu

added

is

or su-class); the

(fifth

the root: thus,

to

syl-

L^

gg sunu from

su press out; 5TTW apnu from

obtain.
v^FT^Sp

>/H

b.

small

very

number

and

roots ending already in *Mi,

of

half-a-dozen)

(only

one very common

also

and quite irregularly inflected root not so ending (Sfi

ky make), add 3 u alone to form the present-stem. This
is

may be best ranked by us as

thus, cFT tanu from yrpT^tan
V. The na-class
^TT

Hindu grammarians it
a sub-class, the u -class:

the eighth or tan-class of the

n5

(or,

thus, shim
SrPTT

in
I

weak

krina

stabhna

stretch.

(ninth or kri-class);

forms,

^ nl)

(or stUuil

(or Srpft stabhnl)

added

is

krini)

the

from

from

syllable

to the root

ylfft

l^a

kri buy;

yTtP^stabh

estab-

lish.

604. These classes have in

amental characteristic,

now upon

common,

as their

a shift of accent:

the ending, and

now upon

most fund-

the tone being

the root or the class-

sign.
Along with this goes a variatior in the stem itself,
which has a stronger or fuller form when the accent rests

upon it, and a weaker or briefer form when the accent is

on the ending these: forms are to be distinguished as the
strong stem and the

weak stem

respectively (in part, both

have been given above). The classes also form their optative active, their 2d sing, imperative, their 3d pi. middle,

and

their middle participle, in a different

manner from the

others.

605. In the

classes of the

the present-stem ends in

a,

SECOND

or a-CoNJUGATiON,

and the accent has a fixed

remaining always upon the same syllable of the

stem, and never shifted to the endings.
Also, the optative,
place,

the 2d sing, impv., the 3d

pi.

middle, and the middle par-

605

IX. PRESENT-SYSTEM.

230

unlike those of the other con-

ticiple, are (as just stated)

jugation.

The

606.

VI.

classes of this conjugation are as follows

The a-class,

or bhu-class)
root,

unaccented a-class

or

the added class-sign

which has the accent,

is (if

is

a simply

capable of

it)

(first

and the

strength-

ened by guna throughout thus, *&( bhava from ]W bhu

be; TO naya from y^ft nl lead; 5Tm bodha from ySTU
:

budh wake; 5J^ vada from i/of^ vad speak.

VII. The a-class, or accented a-class
tud- class)
class;

the added class-sign

but

it

is a, as in the preceding
has the accent, and the unaccented root

remains unstrengthened
thrust;

sfcja

^JsJ

su give
c^

]/H

added

from

thus, cT^ tuda

v^jsf^spj

to

let loose;

from
"Qfi

y^

tud

suva from

birth.

The ya- class

VIII.

(sixth or

the root,

or

(fourth

div-class)

which has the accent:

ya

is

thus, ^c?J

divya from yf|^div (more properly <)of div: see 765)

nan bind;
play; ^J nahya from
g^IT krudhya
from
be angry.
i/gj^krudh
IX. The passive conjugation is also properly a

y^

present-system only, having a class-sign which is not

extended into the other systems though it differs mark;

edly from the remaining classes in having a specific

meaning, and in being formable in the middle voice

from

all transitive verbs.

Its inflection

may

therefore

best be treated next to that of the ya-class, with

which

most nearly connected, differing from it as the

a-class from the a-class.
It forms its stem, namely, by

it

is

adding an accented ya

to the root thus, 5^1 adya from

ad eat;
^IT rudhya from j/"^ rudn obstruct;
budhya from j/g^budh wake; fJ5I tudya from
tud thrust.
:

[611

CONJUGATION-CLASSES.

231

607. The Hindu grammarians reckon a tenth class or cur-class,

having a class-sign aya added to a strengthened root (thus, coraya
from j/cur), and an inflection like that of the other a-stems. Since,
however, this stem is not limited to the present-system, but extends
while it also has to a great
also into the rest of the conjugation
extent a causative value, and may be formed in that value from a
it will be best treated in full along with
large number of roots
the derivative conjugations (chap. XIV.,

608.

small number of roots

1041

ff.).

add

in the present-system a oh,

or substitute a ch for their final consonant, and form a stem ending
This is
in cha or cha, which is then inflected like any a-stem.

doubtless, a true class-sign, analogous with the rest;

but the verbs showing it are so few, and in formation so irregular,
that they are not well to be put together into a class, but may best
be treated as special cases falling under the other classes.
historically,

a. Roots adding

ch

are r

and yu, which make the stems rccha and

yuccha.

^^

b. Roots substituting ch for their final are is, us (or vas shine),
the stems iccha, uccha, gaccha, yaccha.

gam, yam, which make

c.

Of the

clearly stems,

so-called roots ending in ch, several are more or less

whose use has been extended from the present to other systems

of tenses.

609. Roots are not wholly limited, even in the later language, to
one mode of formation of their present-stem, [but are sometimes reckoned
as belonging to two or more different conjugation-classes. And such variety
formation is especially frequent in the Veda, being exhibited by a
considerable proportion of the roots there occurring ; already in the Brahmanas,
however, a condition is reached nearly agreeing in this respect with the
of

The different present-formations sometimes have differences of meaning ; yet not more important ones than are often found belonging to the same formation, nor of a kind to show clearly a difference of
classical language.

value as originally belonging to the separate classes of presents. If anything

of this kind is to be established, it must be from the derivative conjugations,

which

are separated

by no fixed line from the present-systems.

610. We take up now the different classes, in the order in

which they have been arranged above, to describe more in detail, and
with illustration, the formation of their present-systems, and to notice
the irregularities belonging under each class.

I.

Root-class (second, ad-class).

611. In this class there

is

also present- stem,

and

is

to it

no claqg-sign; the root itself

are added directly the per-

IX. PRESENT-SYSTEM.

611]

232

but combined in subjunctive and optative

sonal endings

with the respective mode-signs; and in the imperfect the

augment
a.

is

prefixed to the root.

The accented endings

where

(552)

regularly

take

the accent

on the augment

and before
them the root remains unchanged; before the unaccented endings,

except in the imperfect,

it falls

the root takes the guna-strengthening.

b. It

is

only in the

first

come immeand that the roles for

three classes that the endings

diately in contact with a final consonant of the root,

consonant combination have to be noted and applied. In these classes, then,

additional paradigms will be given, to illustrate the modes of combination.

1.

612.
mid.),

pi.

Present Indicative.

The endings

are the primary (with

added

bare root.

and has guna,

to the

if

Examples

capable of

sit,,

6;

5{

3d

ate in

root takes the accent,

in the three persons sing. act.

of inflection:

strong form of root-stem,

as

it,

The

a.

weak

active,

root

go:

form, ^ i; middle, root

stem Ss (irregularly accented throughout: 628).

middle.

active.
s.

exni

d.

p.

ivas

imas

ithas

itha

itas

yanti

s.

d.

p.

asvahe

asmahe

asathe

addhve

asate

asate

eti

asse

b. root dvis. hate: strong stem-form, dves.; weak, dvis..

rules of combination for the final s., see 226.
1

dvesmi dvisvas

dvismas

dveksi

dvifflias

dvesmi

dvistas

dvistha
dvisanti

dvise
dvikse
dviste

dvifvahe
dviaathe
dvisate

For

dvifmahe
dviddhve
dvisate

duh

milk: strong stem-form, doh; weak, duh. For rules

of combination for the final h, and for the conversion of the initial
c. root

222 a, 155, 160.

duhvas
duhmas
dhoksi dugdhas dugdha
dogdhi dugdhas duhanti

to dh, see

o,,^

2
3

dohmi

duhvahe
duhe
dhukse duhathe
dugdhe duhate

duhmahe
dhugdhve
duhate

ROOT-CLASS (SECOND, ad-CLASS).

233

root lih lick: strong stem, leh;

final h, see 222 b.

d.

weak,

1-615
lih.

For rules of

combination of the
1

lehmi

lilie

lihvahe

lihmahe

leksi

lihvas
lldhas

lihmas

lldM

likije

lihathe

lidhve

ledhi

H^lias

lihanti

lldhe

lihate

lihate

613. Examples
sing, are

of the

3d

mid. coincident in form with the 1st

sing.

not rare in the older language (both V. and B.)

the most frequent

duhe, vide, c,aye more sporadic are cite, bruve, huve.

To tha of the 2d pi. is added na in sthana, pathana, yathana.
The irregular accent of the 3d pi. mid. is found in RV. in rihate, duhate.
Examples of the same person in re and rate also occur: thus (besides
examples

are Ice,

62930,

those mentioned below,

arhire (unless these

reduplication:

are to

635), vidre, and, with auxiliary vowel,

be ranked, rather, as perfect forms without

790 b).
Present Subjunctive.

2.

614. Subjunctive forms of this class are not uncommon in the

older language, and nearly all those which the formation anywhere
admits are quotable, from Veda or from Brahmana.
complete

paradigm, accordingly, is given below, with the few forms not

actually quotable for this class enclosed in brackets. We may take
as models (as above), for the active the root i go, and for the
middle the root as sit, from both of which numerous forms are met
with (although neither for these nor for any others can the whole
series be found in actual use).
a.

The mode-stems are aya (e+a) and asa

(as-f-a) respectively.

asai

Jasase
\asasai

Jasate
\asatai

615. The RV. has no middle forms in ai except those of the first
The 1st. sing. act. in a occurs only in RV., in aya, bravS,
stava. The 2d and 3d sing. act. with primary endings are very unusual
in the Brahmanas.
Forms irregularly made with long a, like those from
present-stems in a, are not rare in AV. and B. thus, ay as, ayat, ayan;
person.

bravat; bravathas; asatha, ayatha, bravatha, hanatha;

adan, dohan. Of middle forms with secondary endings are found hananta,

asat,

3d

pi.,

example.

and iqata, 3d

sing, (after

The only dual person

in

ma
aite

prohibitive),
is

bravaite.

which

is

an isolated

61

6]

IX. PRESENT-SYSTEM.

Present Optative.

3.

The

616.

of this

signs

234

personal endings combined with the mode-

mode

and unstrengthened

in

y5

(JJT

act.,

have been

I in mid.)

The stem-form

given in full above (586).

is

the unaccented

root.
middle.

active.
s.

d.

p.

iyam

iyava

iyama

iyas

iyatam

iyatam

d.

s.

p.

asimahi

asiya

asivahi

iyata

asithas

asiyatham asidhvam

iyiis

asita

aslyatani

^ITrT

iyat

The
>/lih, lihyam and lihiya.
example above given is enough, with
to show the normal accentuation in the
from

duhyam and duhiya;

V'duh,

asiran

In the same manner, from ydvia, dvisyani and dvisiya ; from

a.

inflection is so regular that the

the addition

middle:

thus,

of dvisjiya,
sing, dvisiya,

dvisiyatham, dvisiyatam;
b. The BY. has once

4.

its

to

pi.

tana

dvisithas,

dvislta;

du.

dvislvahi,

dvisimahi, dvieidhvam, dviflran.

in

2d

pi.

act.

(in

syatana).

Present Imperative.

617. The imperative adds, in second and third persons,

own endings (with SJrTPT atSm in 3d pi. mid.) directly
the root-stem. The stem is accented and strengthened

3d sing, act.; elsewhere, the accent is on the ending

and the root remains unchanged. The first persons, so called,
of the later language are from the old subjunctive, and

in

have

its

strengthened stem and accent; they are repeated

here from where they were given above (614 a).

sing, act.,
classes)
if it

the ending

fa dhi

if

is

In the 2d

regularly (as in the two following

the root end with a consonant, and

end with a vowel.

As examples we

already used for the purpose.

f% hi

take the roots

ROOT-CLASS (SECOND, ad-CLASs).

235
a.

Thus, from the roots

and

d.

v-o

etu

5TTH as:
middle,

active,

ayani

[-619

d.

p.

ayava

ayama

asai

asavahai

asamahai

itam

ita

assva

asatham

addhvam

6191

IX. PRESENT-SYSTEM.

The middle

b.
to the

unstrengthened

(dNIUI dvis. ana,

c.

participle has the

236

ending 5TR ana, added

root: thus,
^ETR iyana, If^^R

duhana,

'Ri^w lihana,

The root as forms

the anomalous and isolated

asma

(in

RV.

also asana).
d.

But a number of these

a double accent,

participles in the older language have

either on the ending or on the radical syllable:

i9ana and iQana, ohana and ohana, duhana and duhana (also
dughana), rihana and rfhana, vidana and vidana, suvana and
the last having in
suvana, stuvana and stavana and stavana
part also a strong form of the root.
thus,

6.

Imperfect.

620. This tense adds the secondary endings to the root

by prefixion of the augment.

as increased

guna-strengthening

(if

capable of

it)

the singular active, although the accent

Examples of inflection are

augment.
a.

From

the roots 5

and

5TITT

P-

ayam

aiva

aima

asi

asvahi

asmahi

as

aitam

aita

asthas

asatham

addhvam

asatam

asata

aitam
ayan
From the roots dvis and
advesam advisva advisma
advet
advistam advista
advistam advisan
advet
b.

always upon the

middle,

ait

is

d.

d.

root has the

5s:

active,

The

in the three persons of

asta

duh and

lih:

advisvahi
advismahi
advifthas advisatham advid^hvam
advista
advisatam advisata

advisi

adoham aduhva
aduhma aduhi
aduhmahi
aduhvahi
adhok
adugdham adugdha adugdhas aduhatham adhugdhvam
adhok adugdham aduhan adugdha aduhatam
aduhata

aleham alihva

alet

ahdham

alet

alidham

621.

alihma

alihi

alihvahi

alihmahi

alldha
alihan

alidhas
alldha

alihatham
alihatam

alldhvam

Roots ending in a
take us instead of an in 3d pi.
a.

alihata

may in the later language optionally

act. (the a being lost before it) ; and

ROOT-CLASS (SECOND, ad-CLASS).

237

[625

always do so: thus, ayus from >/ya, apus from

ybhs,. The same ending is also allowed
and met with in the case of a few roots ending in consonants
namely
vid know, caks, dvis, duh, mrj. RV. has atvisus.
b. The ending tana, 2d pi. act., is found in the Veda in ayatana,
in the older they

>/pa protect,

abhus from

asastana, aitana, abravitana. A strong stem is seen in the

homa, and the 2d pi. abravita and abravltana.
To save the

c.
root

ad

inserts

characteristic endings

in

2d and 3d

a: thus, adas, adat; the root as

636); compare also 631

622. The use of the persons of this

aslt (see below,

sing,

inserts I:

1st pi.

act.,

the

asis,

thus,

4.
tense, without augment, in

the

older language, has been noticed above (587). Augmentless imperfects of

this class are rather uncommon in the Veda: thus, nan, ves, 2d sing.;

ban, vet, staut, dan

vasta, suta, 3d

623. The

sing.
01

first

(?),

3d

sing.;

bruvan, duhus, caksus, 3d

root-form of aorist

this imperfect: see below,

forms, having an imperative value,

sing,

in its formation with

is identical

829 ff.

624. In the Veda (but hardly outside

2d

pi.;

mid.

of the RV.) are found certain

made by adding the ending si

to the (accented and strengthened) root. In part, they are the only root-forms
belonging to the roots from which they come thus, josi (for jos$i, from yjus,),
dhaksi, parsi (]/pr pass), prasi, bhaksi, ratsi, s.atsi, hosi; but the
:

majority of

them have forms (one or more) of a

them: thus, ksesi (j/ksi

of a root-aorist, beside

(}/nac. attain), nesi,

matsi, xnasi (]/ma

root-present, or sometimes
rule),

measure'),

jeai, darsi,

naksi

yaksi, yamsi, yaei,

y6tsi, rasi, vaksi (]/vah), veal, 9rosi, saksi. Their formal character
but they are probably indicative persons of the
is somewhat disputed;
root-class, used imperatively.

625. Forms

of this class

are

made from nearly

150

roots,

the earlier language, or in the later, or in both: namely,

from about 50 through the whole life of the language, from 80 in the
older period (of Veda, Brahmana, and Sutra) alone, and from a few
either in

(about 15) in the later period (epic and classical) only*. Not a few
of these roots, however, show only sporadic root-forms, beside a more
usual conjugation of some other class; nor is it in all cases possible
to separate clearly root-present from root-aorist forms.

roots of this class, as of the other classes of the first

transfers to the second or a-conjugation, forming
a conjugation-stem by adding a to their strong or weak stem, or
a.

Many

conjugation, show

Such statements of numbers, with regard to the various parts of the

system of conjugation, are in all cases taken from the author's Supplement
to this grammar, entitled "Roots, Verb-Forms, and Primary Derivatives of
the Sanskrit Language", where lists of roots', and details as to forms etc.,
are also given.

625

IX. PRESENT-SYSTEM.

238

even to both: thus, from y'mrj, both marja (627) and mrja. Such
transfers are met with even in the oldest language; but they usually
become more frequent later, often establishing a new mode of present
inflection by the side of, or in substitution for, the earlier mode.
b.

number of

roots offer

of inflection;

irregularities

these

are, in the main, pointed out in the following paragraphs.

Irregularities of the Hoot-class.

626. The roots of the class ending in u have in their strong
forms the vrddhi instead of the guija-strengthening before an ending
beginning with a consonant: thus, from j/stu, staumi, astaut, and
the like: but astavam, stavani, etc.
a. Roots

found

to

exhibit this peculiarity in

actual use

are

ksnu,

sku, stu, snu (these in the earlier language),

yu unite,
(or su)
nu, ru, and him. RV. has once stosi, and anavan. Compare also 633.

su

impeZ,

627. The root mrj

has the vrddhi-vowel in

also

its

strong

amart 150b); and the same strengthening is said to be allowed in weak forms before endings beginning
with a vowel: thus, marjantu, amarjan; but the only quotable case
Forms from a-stems begin to appear already
is marjita (LQS.).
in AV.
forms: thus, marjmi, amarjam,

a In the other tense-systems,

often the

vrddhi

also,

and in

derivation,

mrj shows

instead of the guna-strengthening.

628. A number of roots accent the radical syllable throughout,

both in strong and in weak forms: thus, all those beginning with a
long vowel, as, I<J, ir, 19 ; and also caks, take, tra, ni&s, vas clothe,
9inj, 9! lie, and su. All these, except taks and tra (and tra also in
the Vedic forms),

are ordinarily conjugated in middle voice only.

Forms with the same irregular accent occur now and then in the
Veda from other verbs: thus, matsva, yaksva, saksva, saksva,
rdhat.

Middle participles so accented have been noticed above (619d).

e2e Of

the roots mentioned in the last paragraph, 91 lie has

the guna-strengthening throughout: thus, 9&ye, 9686, 9ayiya, 9ayana,
and so on. Other irregularities in its inflection (in part already noticed)
are the 3d

pi. persons 9erate (AV. etc. have also 9ere), 9eratam,

a^erata (RV. has also &9eran), the 3d sing. pres. 9&ye (E.) and impv.
9ayam. The isolated active form &9ayat is common in the older
language; other. a-forms, active and middle, occur later.

630. Of the same

certain endings

roots,

I<J

and 19 insert a union-vowel

before

thus, 19186, I9idhve, Idisva (these three being the only

forms noted in the older language); but RV. has ikse beside
the
:

$vU. has once i9ite

for

is$e.

The 3d

pi.

l9ire

accent) is also apparently present rather than perfect

the 3d sing. impf. ai9a (like aduha:
635).

I9ise;
(on account of its
The MS. has once

[636

ROOT-CLASS (SECOND, ad-CLASS).

239

631. The roots rud weep, svap sleep, an breathe, and c,vas How
a union-vowel i before all the endings beginning with a consonant, except the s and t of 2d and 3d sing, impf., where they insert
instead either a or I: thus, svapimi, (jvasisi, aniti, and anat or
anlt. And in the other forms, the last three are allowed to accent
either root or ending: thus, svapantu and (jvasantu (AY.), or
svapantu etc. The AY. has svaptu instead of svapitu.
insert

a. In the older language, yvam makes the same insertions: thus,

vamiti, avamlt ; and other cases occasionally occur: thus, janisva, vasisva
(>/vas clothe'), cjnathihi, stanihi (all RV.), yaxniti (JB.), (jocimi (MBh.).
On the other hand, /an early makes forms from an a-stem: thus, anati

(AV.); pple

anant

(gB.); opt

anet (AB.).

632. The root brti speak, say (of very frequent use) takes the
union-vowel 1 after the root when strengthened, before the initial
consonant of an ending: thus, bravlmi, bravisi, braviti, abravis,
abravit; but brumas, bruyam, abravam, abruvan, etc. Special
occasional irregularities

are

brumi,

bravflii,

abruvam, abruvan,

bruyat, and sporadic forms from an a-stem. The subj. dual bravaite
has been noticed above (616); also the strong forms abravita,
abravitana (621 a).
633. Some

of the roots in

are allowed to be inflected like

bru:

namely, ku, tu, ru, and stu; and an occasional instance is met with of
a form so made (in the older language, only tavlti noted; in the later,
only stavimi, once).

am

634. The root

(hardly found in the later language) takes I as
union-vowel: thus, amisi (RV.), amlti and amit and amisva (TS). From
y'c.am occur gamisva (VS. ; TS. 9amisva) and qamldhvam (TB. etc.).
635. The

>/duh in the older language hare been

mid. duhate, duhre, and duhrate;
3d sing. impv. duham, pi. duhram and duhratam; impf. act. 3d sing.
aduhat (which is found also in the later language), 3d pi. aduhran
(beside aduhan and duhus); the mid. pple dughana; and (quite unexampled elsewhere.) the opt. forms duhiyat and duhiyan (RY. only).
The MS. has aduha 3d sing, and aduhra 3d pi. impf. mid., apparently
formed to correspond to the pres. duhe (613) and duhre as adugdha and
aduhata correspond to dugdh eand duhate: compare ai<ja (630), related
in like manner to the 3d sing. 190.
irregularities

already in part noted: the

Some
weakened
636.

3d

of

pi. indie,

of the roots of this class are abbreviated or otherwise

in their

The

weak forms:

root

SRT^

thus

as be loses

its

vowel in weak forms

(except where protected by combination with the augment).

Its 2d sing, indie, is 3% asi (instead of assij ; its 2d
sing,

impv.

is

^fl edhi

(irregularly

from

asdhi).

The

insertion of

if

636]
^

IX. PRESENT-SYSTEM.

2d and 3d

in

has been

impf.

sing.

240
noticed

already

above.
a.

The forms

of this extremely

common

verb are, then,

as follows:
Optative.
d.

p.

^TPT

^
syam

santi

HTTrT

FOTTT^

HTTcFT^

syas

syatam

syata

HTTrT^
syat

ttHrllH^

HJIT^

syatam

syiis

Imperative.
i

syama

syava

Imperfect.

TOTR

TOTO

TOFT

asani

asava

asama

asam

asva

asma

edhi

stam

sta

MB

astam

tata

astu

stam

santu

asit

astam

asan

Participle Hrf sant

(fern, ^cft sati).

b. Besides the forms of the present-system,

this root only

a perfect, asa

etc. (800),

there is

made from

of wholly regular inflection.

The Vedic subjunctive forms are the usual ones, made upon the
They are in frequent use, and appear (asat especially) even
The resolution siam
in late texts where the subjunctive is almost lost.
As 2d and 3d sing. impf. is a few
etc. (opt.) is common in Vedic verse.
times met with the more normal as (for as-s, as-t). Sthana, 2d pi., was
C.

stem asa.

noted above (613).

d. Middle forms from }/as are also given by the grammarians as allowed with certain prepositions (vi+ati), but they are not quotable; smahe
and syamahe (!) occur in the epics, but are merely instances of the ordi-

(529 a). Confusions of primary and secondary

sva and sma (not rare), and, on the other hand, syavas

nary epic confusion of voices

endings

and

namely,

syamas

compounded
to

A middle present indicative is said to be

and 2d persons) with the nomen agentis in tr (tar)

are also epic.

(in

1st

form a periphrastic future in the middle voice (but see below, 947).
1st sing, indie, is he; the rest is in the usual relation of middle

The

to active forms (in

the root itself).

2d

pers.,

se,

dhve, sva, dhvam, with

total

loss

of

241

[-640

(SECOND, ad-CLASS).

637. The root han smite, slay is treated somewhat after the
manner of noun-stems in an in declension (421) in weak forms, it
and v) of a personal
loses its n before an initial consonant (except
and
ending (not in the optative), and its a before an initial vowel
:

in the latter case its h, in contact with the n, is

Present Indicative,

Imperfect.

d.

s.

p.

8.

d.

P-

ahanva
ahatam
ahatam

ahanma

hanmi

hanvas

hanmas

ahanam

hansi
hanti

hathas
hatas

hatha

ahan
ahan

ghnanti

a. Its participle is

jahi

(by

changed to gh (com-

Thus, for example:

pare 402).

ghnant

(fern,

anomalous dissimilation,

ahata

aghnan

ghnati). Its 2d sing. impv. is

the model of reduplicating

on

forms).

b. Middle forms from this root are frequent in the Brahmanas, and
those that occur are formed in general according to the same rules: thus,

hate,

hanmahe, ghnate; ahata, aghnatam, aghnata

(in

hanita). Forms from transfer-stems,

ghna, are met with from an early period.

ahata); ghnlta (but

also

AB.,

also

hana

and

638. The root va<j be eager is in the weak forms regularly and
usually contracted to 119 (as in the perfect: 794 b): thus, U9masi
once apparently abbreviated in RV. to (jmasi), U9anti; pple
(V.
uqant, uQana. Middle forms (except the pple) do not occur; nor do
:

the

weak forms
a.

RV. has

of the imperfect, which are given as auQva, austam, etc.

in

like,

639. The root

manner the

90-8

participle

order shows

usana from

some of the

the root

vas

clothe.

peculiarities of a

reduplicated verb, lacking (646) the n before t in all 3d persons pi.

and in the active participle.
part of its active forms
namely,
the weak forms having endings beginning with consonants (including

are said to come from a stem with weakened vowel,

the optative)
(as do the aorist, 854, and some of the derivatives)
but, except9i
ing the optative (9iSyam etc., U. S. and later), no such forms are
;

quotable.
a.

The 3d

sing. impf.

is

a9at (555 a), and the same form

is

said

be allowed also as 2d sing. The 2d sing. impv. is 9adh (with total

loss of the s); and RV. has the strpng 2d pi. <jastana (with anomalous
to

accent); and a- forms, from stem (jasa, occasionally occur.

b. The middle inflection is regular, and the accent (apparently)

always upon the radical syllable (saste, (jasate, qasanaj.
c. The root da-9 worship has in like manner (RV.) the pple da^at
(not daxjant).

640. The double

plication of

so-called root

ghas and has

Whitney, Grammar.

2. ed.

jaks

respectively.

eat,

laugh

It has the

is

an evident redu-

absence of
16

in act.

IX. PRESENT-SYSTEM.

640]
3d persons

pi.

which belong

242

and pple, and the accent on the root before vowel-endings,

reduplicated verbs; and it also takes the union-vowel i

to

manner of rud etc.

made with utter loss of the

in the

For

031).

(above,

final sibilant, see

its

forms and derivatives

233 f.

641. Certain other obviously reduplicated verbs are treated by

native grammarians as if simple, and referred to this conjugation
such are the intensively reduplicated jagr (1020 a), daridra (1024 a),

.the

and vevi (1024 a), didhi

etc.

and cakas (677).

(676),

Reduplicating Class

II.

642. This djtss forms

(third,

hu-class).

present-stem by prefixing a

its

reduplication to the root.

As regards the [colasonant^of the reduplication,

the general rules which have already been given above (590)
a.

643.

are followed.
b.

longlvowel

lable: thus,

^T dad5

sT^ juhu from

is

yq

c. For verbs in

reduplication by
;

i,

replaced by

which a and

see below,

cakrant (RV.)

is

da;

The vowel

bhy ; fTOf^pipr/o from yVR

yoj

etc.

from

ha.

/^

reduplication, but

shortened in the reduplicating syl-

js

660.

ft

fspft
ft

bibhi from

]^ft

bhl;

y never appears in the

i: thus, fe>T
^

bibhr from

pr/c.
also are irregularly represented in the

Thero ot vyt (V. B.) makes vavartti

very doubtful.

d. The only root of this class with initial vowel is r (or or);
takes as reduplication i, which is held apart from the root by an
interposed y: thus, iyar and iy? (the latter has not been found in
it

actual use).

644.

The present-stem of

this

class

(as

of the other

classes belonging to the first or non-a-conjugation)

has a

form: a stronger form, with gunated root-vowel;

and a weaker form, without guna: thus, from y^ hu, the
two forms are
juho and sTT juhu; from j/*ft bhl, they
sjj^TT

double

are
is

RH

bibhe and

fspft

bibhi.

And

the rule for their use

the same as in the other classes of this conjugation: the

strong stem

is

found before the unaccented endings

and the weak stem before the accented.

(552),

REDUPLICATING CLASS (THIRD, hu-cLASs).

243

647

645. According to

all the analogies of the first general conjushould expect to find the accent upon the root-syllable
when this is strengthened. That is actually the case, however, only
in a small minority of the roots composing the class namely, in hu,
bhl (no test-forms in the older language), hri (no test-forms found in
the older language), mad (very rare), jan (no forms of this class
found to occur) ci notice (in V.), yu separate (in older language only),

gation,

we

and

bhy in the later language (in V. it goes with the majority:

but RV. has bibharti once, and AV. twice; and this, the later
accentuation, is found also in the Brahmanas); and RV. has once
in

In all the rest

it rests
apparently, by a recent transfer
upon the reduplicating instead of upon the radical syllable. And in
both classes alike, the accent is anomalously thrown back upon the
reduplication in those weak forms of which the ending begins with
iyarsi.

a vowel; while
compare 666 a).

in the other

weak forms

upon the ending (but

is

it

a. Apparently (the cases with written accent are too few to determine
the point satisfactorily) the middle optative endings, lya etc. (566), are
reckoned throughout as endings with initial vowel, and throw back the

accent upon the reduplication.

646.

The verbs of

this

class lose

the

^ n

in the 3d

x.

and in the imper-

pi. endings in active as well as middle,

fect

have

3H

us instead of 5R an

and before

this a final

"S,

radical vowel has guna.

1.

647.

Present Indicative.

The combination

of stem and endings

as in

is

the preceding class.

Examples

of inflection:

a.

y^ hu sacrifice

stem-form, sT^t juh6; weak form, p5" juhu

juhomi
2

d.

strong

(or juhu).

middle.

active.
s.

p.

juhuvas juhumaa

slliN

sl^MM

juhosi

juhuthaajuhutha

siiJri

st^rlH

juhoti

juhutaa juhvaU

st^Bi

sfs^lri

s.

d.

juhve

juhuvahe

si.g>^

2*^'^
juhvathe

juhuse

p.

juhumahe
sj-Spfef

juhudhve

st,g>ri

3^'^

3^^

juhut6

juhvate

juhvate
16*

244

IX. PRESENT-SYSTEM.

647]

Root H bhp bear (given with Vedic accentuation):

strong stem-form, fspq^ bibhar; weak, fen bibhy (or bibhr).
b.

bibhyvahe bibhrmahe

bibhanni bibhyv&s bibhrmas

bibhre

bibharai

bibhythas bibhytha

bibhyse bibhrathe

bibhydhve

bibharti

bibhrt&s

bibhrte

bibhrate

bibhrati

bibhrate

nu

hu

and u: see below,

c.
(like that of the class-signs
of the endings of 1st du.
697 a) is said to be omissible before v and
and pi. : thus, juhvas, juhv&he, etc. ; but no such forms are quotable.

The

of

Present Subjunctive.

2.

648. It is not possible at present to draw a distinct line between

those subjunctive forms of the older language which should be reckoned as
belonging to the present-system and those which should be assigned to the
or even, in

perfect

some

cases, to the reduplicated aorist

and intensive.

Here will be noticed only those which most clearly belong to this class
the more doubtful cases will be treated under the perfect-system.
Except
;

in

first

persons (which continue in use

language),

from roots

subjunctives

present-system are of

as "imperatives"

down

having unmistakably

to the later

reduplicated

from frequent occurrence.

far

649. The subjunctive mode-stem is formed in the usual manner,

with the mode-sign a and guna of the root-vowel, if this is capable
of such strengthening. The evidence of the few accented forms met
with indicates that the accent is laid in accordance with that of the
strong indicative forms thus, from >/hu, the stem would be juhava;
from ybhy, ft would be bibhara (but bibhara later). Before the
mode-sign, final radical a would be, in accordance with analogies
elsewhere, dropped: thus, dada from yd&, dadha from >/dha (all
the forms actually occurring would be derivable from the secondary
roots dad and dadh).
:

650. Instead

of giving a theoretically complete scheme of

be better to note all the examples quotable from
the older language (accented when found so occurring).

inflection,

it

will

a. Thus, of 1st persons, we have in the active juhavani, bibharani,

in the
dadani, dadhani, jahani; juhavama, dadhama, jahama;
middle,
dadhai, mimai; dadhavahai; juhavamahai, dadamahe,

dadamahai, dadhamahai.
b. Of other persons,

we have with primary endings

in

the

bibharasi (with double mode-sign: 560 e), dadhathas, juhavatha

active
(do.)

[663

REDUPLICATING CLASS (THIRD, hu- CLASS).

245

and juhavatha; in the middle, dadhase; dadhate, rarate, dadhatai,

with secondary endings, dadhas, vivesas, juhavat, bibharat,
dadatai ;

yuyavat, dadhat, dadhanat, babhasat ; dadhan, yuyavan, juhavan.

3.

Present Optative.

To form this mode, the optative endings given

ahove (566 a), as made up of mode-sign and personal endings,
The accent is as
are added to the unstrengthened stem.
already stated (645 a). The inflection is so regular that it is
651.

unnecessary to give here more than the

first

persons of a

single verb: thus,

middle.

active.
d.

s.

d.

s.

p.

juhuyam juhuyava juhuyama juhviya

etc.

etc.

4.

652.

with the

The
root,

the ending

is

sonant:

juhvimahi

etc.

etc.

Present Imperative.

endings, and the

mode

of their combination

have been already given. In 2d sing, act.,

f% hi after a vowel, but f?I dhi after a con-

hu, however, forms sT^fil juhudhi (apparently,

in order to avoid the recurrence of

syllables)

jiihvivahi

etc.

etc.

p.

and other examples of

ftj

in two successive

dhi after a vowel are

found in the Veda.

653. a.

Example

of inflection:
middle.

active.
s.

d.

p.

juhavani juhavava juhavama

^\

d.

s.

p.

juhavai juhavavahii juhavamahai

g^r

pPJ\

sprfa
juhudhi

5^rT
juhutam juhuta

juhusva juhvatham

juhudhvam

juhotu

juhutam jiihvatu

juhutam juhvStam

jiihvatam

^raiH^

b.

The verbs of

the other division differ here, as in the indicative,

namely, in all the

in the accentuation of their strong forms only:

246

IX. PRESENT-SYSTEM.

653]

persons (borrowed subjunctives), and in the 3d sing, act.: thus,

the older language) bfbharani etc., bibhartu, bibharai etc.

first
(in

654. Vedic

are

irregularities "of inflection

2d persons

in

strong forms

1.

the occasional use of

yuyodhf, c.ic.adhi (beside

lyarta, dadata and dadatana, dadhata

thus,

yuyotam

(beside yuyutam) ;
dadhatana (see below, 668), pipartana, juhota and juhotana,
yuyota and yuyotana; rarasva (666); 2. the use of dhi instead of

and

hi

after a

tana

in

vowel (only in the two instances just quoted);

pi. act.: namely, besides those just given,

3.

the ending

in

jigatana,

2d

dhattana, mamattana, vivaktana, didistana, bibb.it ana, jujustana,

juhutana, vavrttana: the cases are proportionally much more numerous
in this than in any other class; 4. the ending tat in 2d sing, act., in
dattat, dhattat, piprtat, jahltat.

Present Participle.

5.

655.

As

the active participle-stem

elsewhere,

made mechanically from

thus,

sjc^ri

stem ends in

made

a.

the 3d pi. indie, by dropping ^

thus,

sT^H

The middle

juhvana,

it.

ending

The

3H

i:

has no

The feminine

(444).

participles are regularly

pipana (]/p&

drink).

Imperfect.

As already pointed

guna before

it

bibhrana.

fo|44llU

irregular accent in

6.

class takes the

inflection,

and weak forms

51fft atl.

RV. shows an

656.

In

jiihvat, f%yFT bibhrat.

distinction of strong

may be

out,

the 3d

us, and a

pi.

act.

final radical

of this

vowel has

strong forms are, as in present indic-

ative, the three singular active persons.

657.

Examples

of inflection:
middle.

active.
s.

d.

p.

s.

d.

p.

ajuhavam ajuhuva

ajuhuma

ajuhvi

ajuhuvahi

ajuhumahi

ajuhos

ajuhutam ajuhuta

ajuhuthas ajuhvatham ajuhudhvam

ajuhot

ajuhutam ajuhavus

ajuhuta

ajuhvatam ajuhvata

REDUPLICATING CLASS (THIRD, hu-CLASS).

247
a.

From

abibhar

j/H

bhy , the 2d and 3d

sing. act.

abibhar-s and abibhar-t)

(for

and

663

are

so in all other

where the strong stem ends in a consonant. The 3d

act. is yfcH^U abibharus; and other like cases are

cases
pi.

abibhayus, acikayus, asusavus.

abibhrus

b. In MS., once,

is doubtless

a false reading.

658. The usual Yedic

irregularities in 2d pi. act.

strong forms,
occur in this tense also thus, adadata, adadhata ;

and the ending tana

adattana, ajahatana. The RV. has also once apiprata for apiprta
in 3d sing, mid., and abibhran for abibharus in 3d pi. act. Examples
:

forms are <ji9as, vives, jigat; jihita, Q^Ita, jihata;

of augmentless

and, with irregular strengthening,

yuyoma

(AV.), yuyothas, yuyota.

659. The roots that form their present-stem by reduplication

are a very small class, especially in the modern language; they are
only 50, all told, and of these only a third (16) are met with later.
It is, however, very difficult to determine the precise limits of the
class, because of the impossibility (referred to above, under subjunctive
648) of always distinguishing its forms from those of other reduplicating conjugations and parts of conjugations.
:

a. Besides the irregularities in

others

may he

tense-inflection already pointed out,

noticed as follows.

Irregularities of the Reduplicating Class.

660. Besides the roots in r or ar

namely,

r,

ghr

(usually

the following roots having

written ghar), tr, py, bhr, sr, hr, prc
a or a as radical vowel take i instead of a in the reduplicating
syllable: ga go, mft measure, mft bellow, 96, h5 remove (mid.), vac,

sac; vac. has both i and a; ra has i once in RV.

drink ghra, han, hi, see below (6704).

for stha,

pft

661. Several roots of this class in final a change the 5, in weak

forms to i (occasionally even to i), and then drop it altogether before
endings beginning with a vowel.
a. This

is

in close analogy with the treatment of the vowel of the

class-sign of the na-class: below,

These

717.

roots are:

662. 9& sharpen, act. and mid. thus, c.ic.&ti, c^imasi,

9i9adhi: above, 654), Qigatu, ac^at, 919116, 9(9^.
:

663.
thus,

mS

mimati,

mimatu.

bellow,

act,

mimiyat;

HV. has once

and

m&

mimite,

mimanti 3d

measure,

mid. (rarely also act.):

mimate,
pi.

(for

JjiQihi (also

amimita;

mimati).

mimihi,

IX. PRESENT-SYSTEM.

664]

664. ha remove, mid.:

thus,

665. ha

jfhite, jihidhve, jihate;

B. has

jihatam; ajihlta, ajihata.

248

jihltham

(for

jihi^va,

jihatham).

with the former),

quit, act. (originally identical

shorten the i to i: thus, jahati, jahita, jahitat (AV.)

may
jahimas

further

(AV.),

jahitas (TB.), jahitam (TA.), ajahitam (TS. AB.). In the optative,

the radical vowel is lost altogether; thus, jahyam, jahyus (AV.). The
2d sing, impv., according to the grammarians, is jahihi or jahihi or

jahahi; only the

a.

first

appears quotable.

Forms from an a-stem, jaha,

are

made

for this

root,

and even

derivatives from a quasi-root jah.

666. ra

give,

augment); and, with

a. In these

mid.: thus,

raridhvam, rarithas
ririhi.
But AY.

i in reduplication,

verbs,

the

accent

is

generally constant

(impf.

without

has rarasva.

on

the

redu-

plicating syllable.

667. The two roots da and dha (the commonest of the class)
vowel altogether in the weak forms, being shortened
to dad and dadh. In 2d sing. impv. act., they form respectively
dehi and dhehi. In combination with a following t or th, the final
dh of dadh does not follow the special rule of combination of a
final sonant aspirate (becoming ddh with the t or th: 160), but
the more general rules of aspirate and
as also before a and dhv
of surd and sonant combination; and its lost aspiration is thrown
back upon the initial of the root (155).
lose their radical

668. The inflection of >/dha

is,

then, as follows:

Present Indicative.
middle.

active.
s.
1

d.

s.

p.

d.

p.

dadhami dadhvas dadhmas

dadhe

dadhvahe

dadhmahe

dadhasi
dadhati

dhatse
dhatte

dadhathe
dadhate

dhaddhve

dhatthas dhattha
dhattas dadhati

dadhate

Present Optative.
i

dadhyam dadhyava dadhyama dadhiya dadhivahi

etc.

etc.

etc.

etc.

etc.

dadhimahi
etc.

Present Imperative.

dadhani dadhava dadhama

dhehi
dhattam dhatta
dadhatu dhattam dadhatu

adadham adadhva adadhma

dadhavahai dadhamahai
dadhai
dhatsva dadhatham dhaddhvam

dhattam dadhatam

dadhatam

Imperfect.
2
a

adadhaa adhattam adhatta

adadhat adhattam adadhus

adadhi
adadhvahi adadhmahi
adhatthas adadhatham adhaddhvam
adhatta adadhatam adadhata

dadhat; mid. dadhana.

Participles: act.
a. In the
i'or

[676

KEDUPLICATING CLASS (THIRD, hu-CLASS).

249

which there

middle (except impf.), only those forms are here accented

authority in the accentuated texts, as there is discordance

is

between the actual accent and that which the analogies of the class would
lead us to expect.
RV. has once dhatse: dadhe and dadhate might be
far

so

perfects,

(dadhita

the form

as

is

RV.

concerned.

thrice); several other texts

accents

dadhita once

have dadhita, dadhlran, dadlta.

b. The root da is inflected in precisely the same way, with

change everywhere of (radical) dh to d.
669. The older language has irregularities as follows: 1. the usual
strong forms in 2d pi., dadhata and adadhata, dadata and adadata;
2. the usual tana endings in the same person, dhattana, dadatana, etc.
(654, 658); 3. the 3d sing, indie, act. dadhe (like 1st sing.); 4. the 2d
And R. has dadmi.
sing. impv. act. daddhi (for both dehi and dhehi).

670.

number of

roots have been transferred from this to the

749), their reduplicated root becoming a

stereotyped stem inflected after the manner of a-stems. These roots
a- or

bhu-class

(below,

are as follows:

671. In all periods of the language, from the roots stha stand,
and ghra smell, are made the presents tisthami, pibami
which
(with irregular sonantizing of the second p), and jighrami
then are inflected not like mimami, but like bhavami, as if from

pa

drink,

the present-stems tistha,

pba,

jighra.

672. In the Veda

and

dha

are

(especially; also later), the reduplicated roots

sometimes turned into the a-stems dada and dadha,

inflected as if roots

same character

rarate (j/ra

are
give:

dad

and

dadh

made from
3d

of

to

of saqc, from

I/hi

gh

other roots:

or

and single forms of the

mimanti (]/ma

thus,

freMotu),

jighna, is made from

and conversion, usual in this
when in contact with n: 637); and some of the forms
a like secondary stem,

radical vowel,

ysac, show the same conversion

to

674. In AB. (viii. 28), a similar secondary

or ha: thus, jighyati, jighyatu.
675.

sing. mid.).

673. In the Veda, also,

|/han (with omission of the
root,

of the a-class

da

few so-called roots of the

first

an a-stcm, saqca.

form, jighya,

or root-class are

is

given to

the products

more or less obvious: thus, jaks (640), and probably

9a (from )/9a8) and cake (from j/ka<j or a lost root kas see). In the
Veda is found also sage, from ]/sac.
of reduplication,

676. The grammarians reckon

of the

(as already noticed,

641)

several roots

most evidently reduplicate character as simple, and belonging

Some

to the

daridra, vevl) are regular intensive

stems, and will be described below under Intensives (1020 a, 1024 a);
didhi shine, together with Vedic did! shine and pipi swell, are sometimes

root-class.

also classed

of

these (jagr,

as intensives;

but they have not the proper reduplication of

IX. PRESENT-SYSTEM.

676]

250

and may perhaps be best noticed here, as reduplicated present-stems

with irregularly long reduplicating vowel.
such,

a. Of pres. indio. occurs in the older language only didyati, 3d pi.,

with the pples didyat and didhyat, and mid. dldye, dldhye, didhyatham, with the pples dldyana, didhyana, pipyana. The subj. stems

didaya, didhaya, pipaya, and from them

are

are

made forms with both

primary (from didaya) and secondary endings (and the irregularly accented
didayat and didayat and didhayan). No opt. occurs. In impv. we have
didihf (and didihi) and plpihi, and pipyatam, pipyatam, pipyata.

adides and pipes, adidet and adidhet and apipet (with

In impf.,

apipema

augmentless forms),

and

b.
thus,

(with strong form of root), and

adidhayus

apipyan.

(irregular)

few forms from

all

didhaya and pipaya

the three show transfer to an a-inflection:

(impv.), apipayat, etc.

j/mi bellow are amlxnet and mixnayat.

C. Similar forms from

677. The stem cakas

the grammarians as a root,

shine (sometimes caka<j) is also regarded by

and supplied as such with tenses outside the
It is not

present-system
which, however, hardly occur in genuine use.
known in the older language.

678. The

bhas

root

taking

the

form

(pple).

For

babdham,

baps:

chew loses

thus,

its

radical

vowel in weak forms,

babhasti, but bapsati (3d

pi.),

bapsat

233 f.

see

679. The root bhi fear is allowed by the grammarians to shorten

vowel in weak forms: thus, bibhimas or bibhimas, bibhiyam or
bibhiyam; and bibhiyat etc. are met with in the later language.
its

680. Forms
jajfiiBe,

of this class from

are

jajnidhve

yjan

give birth, with

the

given by

grammarians,

added

thus,

but have never

been found in use.

681. The

roots oi

and cit have in the Veda reversion of C to k in

thus, cikesi, cikethe (anomalous,

the root-syllable after the reduplication

cikyathe), cikitam, aciket, cikyat (pple); cikiddhi.

for

682. The
is contracted to

root

hvar

and

contracts to

root

has i in the reduplication (from

forms are to be reckoned here) has

(if its

hur:

the y), and

So the

The

thus,

in reduplication,

juhurthas.

Nasal Class (seventh, rudh-class).

III.

683.

vyao

vie in weak forms: thus, viviktas, aviviktam.

roots of this class all

their class-sign

is

end in consonants.

And

a nasal preceding the final consonant: in

weak

forms, a nasal simply, adapted in character to the

consonant but in the strong forms expanded to the syllable

the

*T

na,

which has the accent.

NASAL CLASS (SEVENTH, rudh-CLASS).

251
a. In

few of the verbs of the

other tense-systems: they are afij,

join

Examples of inflection:

strong stem-form, IF^sT

o -vyunaj

the nasal extends

class,

For the rules of combination of

into

a. the

root

weak, TT^
o -sTyunj.

'

final j, see

219.
middle.

active.
d.

B.

also

bhanj, hins: see below, 694.

Present Indicative.

1.

684.

[686

p.

d.

s.

P-

yunajmi yunjvas yunj mas

yunje

yunjvahe

yunjmahe

yunaksi yunkthas yunktha

yunkse

yunjathe

yungdhve

yunakti yunktas yunjanti

yunkte

yunjate

yunjate

b. the root

bases J\QN runadh and

"^T^rudh obstruct;

For rules of combination of

final

dh, see 153, 160.

runadhmi rundhvas rundhmas rundhe rundhvahe rundhmahe

runatsi
3

(\uiti

runaddhi
c.

runddhas runddha

"P^

jryfri

runddhas rundhanti

runtse

rundhathe runddhve

^%

^Mici
runddhe rundhate

"^%
rundhate

Instead of yunkthas, yungdhve, and the like (here and in

it is allowed and more usual (231) to write

the impv. and impf.j,

yunthas, yundhve, etc.

and, in like manner, rundhas, rundhe,
for runddhas, runddhe; and so in other like cases.
;

685. Vedic
3d

irregularities

mid. like the 1st

of inflection
as

vrnje;
mid. in anjate, indhate, bhunjate.
sing.

a.

Yunanksi,

are: 1. the ordinary use

2.

of a

the accent on te of 3d pi.

in BhP., is doubtless a false reading.

2.

686. The stem

sing.,

is

Present Subjunctive.
made, as usual, by adding a to the strong
Below are given as if made

present-stem: thus, yunaja, runadha.

686]

IX. PRESENT-SYSTEM.

from j/yuj

which examples have been noted as

the forms for

all

252

actually occurring in the older language.

middle.

active.
d.

s.
1

2
3

d.

s.

p.

yunajani yunajava yunajama

yunajas
yunajatas yunajan
yunajat

p.

yunajamahai
yunajadhvai

yunajal

yunajate

687. The RY. has once anjatas, which is anomalous

Forms with double mode-sign

from the weak tense-stem.

made
met with:

as being

are

trnahan (AV.), radhnavat and yunajan (B.) ; and the only

quotable example of 3d du. act. (besides anjatas) is hinasatas ($B.).
B. has also hinaaavas as 1st du. act.: an elsewhere unexampled form.

thus,

Present Optative.

3.

688.

The

made, as elsewhere, by adding the

compounded mode-endings to the weak form of present-

Thus

stem.

optative

is

active.

middle.

d.

s.

yunjyam yunjyava yunjyama

etc.

a.

like

epics

etc.

AB. has once the anomalous

bhunjiyam

yunjiya yunjivahi yunjimahi

etc.

etc.

-yat,

yunjiyat,

(bhunjiyatam once

d.

s.

p.

etc.

1st sing. act.

are here

in GGS.).

MBh.,

etc.

vrnjiyam.

And

forms

and there met with in the

too,

has once

bhunjitam.

4. Present Imperative.

689. In this class

(as

the roots

the ending of the 2d sing. act.

is

d.

end in consonants)

always fa dhi.

active.
s.

all

middle,
p.

s.

d.

p.

yunajani yunajava yunajama

yunajai

yungdhi yunktam yunkta

yunksva yunjatham

yungdhvam

yunaktu yunktam yunjantu

yunktam yunjatam

yunjatam

yunajavahai yunajamahai

[694

NASAL CLASS (SEVENTH, rudh-CLASS).

253

690. There

is

no occurrence,

The Veda

verbs of this class.

the ending tat in

so far as noted, of

has, as usual, sometimes

sometimes the ending tana, in the 2d

pi.

act.:

strong forms, and

unatta, yunakta,

thus,

anaktana, pinastana.

Present Participle.

5.

The

691.

preceding ones
mid.

participles are
:

thus, act.

E1TR yunjana

(but

6.

The example

692.

made

in this class

TOr^yunjant

RV. has

(fern.

as

in the

TOrft yunjati)

indhana).

Imperfect.

of the regular inflection of this tense

needs no introduction:
middle.

active,
d.

ayunjma ayunji

ayunjvahi

ayunjmahi

ayunajam

ayunjva

ayunak

ayunktam ayunkta ayunkthasayunjathamayungdlivam

ayunak

ayunktam ayunjan ayunkta

ayunjatam ayunjata

a. The endings a and t are necessarily lost in the nasal class

throughout in 2d and 3d sing, act., unless saved at the expense of the
final radical consonant: which is a case of very rare occurrence (the

only quotable examples were given at

693. The Veda shows no

555

a).

irregularities in this tense.

Occurrences of

augmentless forms are found, especially in 2d and 3d sing,

an accent

like that of the present:

for

act.,

showing

example, bhinat, prnak, vrnak,

pinak, rinak.
a.

The

1st sing.

acchinadam) were

act.

atrnam and acchinam

555 a.

(for

atrnadam and

noted above, at

694. The roots of this class number about thirty, more than
them being found only in the earlier language; no new ones
make their first appearance later. Three of them, arij and bhanj and
hins, carry their nasal also into other tense-systems than the present.

half of

Two, rdh and ubh, make present-systems also of other classes having
a nasal in the class-sign: thus, rdhnoti (nu-class) and ubhnati
(na-class).

694-

IX. PRESENT-SYSTEM.

-]

of the roots

Many

a.

254

make forms from secondary a-stems

thus, from

umbha, chinda, trnha, pinsa, prnca, bhunja, rundha,

anja, unda,
etc.

qinsa,

Irregularities of the Nasal Class.

695. The
trnecLhu;

trnehmi:

origin apparently a desiderative from

weak forms:

in the

hinste, blnsana (bnt hinasat

and hinsyat

NU- and

u-classes

697. A.

tu, etc. into trnedlii,

has also such forms as

ti,

grammarians,

224 b.
bins (by

root

the

accents irregularly the root-syllable

IV.

/\t-\f\\)

to

according

see above,

696. The

trh combines trnah with

root

and,

etc.

(fifth

thus,

yhan)

hinsanti,

and eighth, su- and tan-classes).

The present-stem

of the nu-class

is

made by

adding to the root the syllable *T nu, which then in the

strong forms receives the accent, and is strengthened to ^TT no.

The few

B.

end in
(or

^n,

kar)

roots

of the u-class (about half-a-dozen)

with the exception of the later irregular 9R ky

for which, see below, 714.
The two classes,

then, are closely correspondent in form;

and they are wholly

accordant in inflection.
a.

v and

The u of

(nu-class)

either class-sign is allowed to be dropped before

pi. endings, except when the root

of the 1st du. and 1st

ends in a consonant;

becomes v or uv, according as

consonants (129 a).

1.

698.

u before a vowel-ending
preceded by one or by two

and the
it

is

Present Indicative.

Examples of inflection:

A.

nu-class;

root

su press out: strong form of stem,

JHT suno; weak form,
sunu.
?R

oo

active.

middle,

d.

p.

33^

ggro

sunomi

sunuvas

sunumas

^Rtft
o

WW3"v
oo

TR5T

sunosi

sunuthas sunutha

>jo

s.

d.

p.

^
sunve

gj*%
sunuvahe

3311%
sunumahe

?m
oo

HHl9
o

W&l
oo

sunuse

sunvathe

sunudhve

AND

Nil-

255

H-Tilrl

U- (FIFTH

H^cfH^
sunutas

sunoti

AND EIGHTH,

SU-

H-<*(TI

gg^

sunvanti

sunute

AND

tan-CLASSES)

sunvate

sunvate

The forms sunvas, sunmas, sunvahe, sunmahe

a.

native with those given here for 1st du.

From

more common.

)/ap,

however

with u can occur: thus, apnuvas,

vanti, apnuve, apnuvate.

and

(for

and

pi.,

[700

are alter-

in practice are

example), only the forms

apnumahe; and

B. u-class; root rFT tan stretch:

also only

apnu-

strong form of stem,

tano; weak, rpT tanu.

tanomi

tanvas

etc.

etc.

The

b.
is

pi.

tanve

etc.

etc.

tanvahe

tanmahe

etc.

etc.

inflection is so precisely like that given

not worth writing out in

and
(as

tanmas

above that

The abbreviated forms

full.

in

it

1st du.

are presented here, instead of the fuller, which rarely occur

no double consonant ever precedes).

699. a. In the older language, no strong 2d persons da. or pi.,

and no thana-endings, chance to occur (but they axe numerous in the
The RV. has several cases of the irregular
see below).
impv. and impf.
:

accent in

3d

pi.

mid.: thus,

krrivate, tanvate,

manvate, vrnvate,

sppivate.
b. In RV. occur also several 3d

pi.

mid. in ire from present-stems

rnvire, pinvire, ^rnvire, sunvire, hinvire.

Of these, pinvire and hinvire might be perfects without reduplication
from the secondary roots pinv and hinv (below, 716). The 2d sing. mid.
of this class

passive

(with

thus, invire,

value)

^rnviae (RV.)

of

is

anomalous

and questionable

character.

2.

Present Subjunctive.

700. The subjunctive mode-stem is made in the usual manner,

by adding a to the gunated and accented class-sign: thus, sunava,
In the following scheme are given all the forms of which
examples have been met with in actual use in the older language
from either division of the class; some of them are quite numerously

tanava.

represented there.
middle.

active.
s.

d.

s.

p.

d.

p.

sunavani sunavava sunavama sunavai sunavavahai aunavamahai

sunavatha sunavase sunavfiithe
sunavas

sunivat

sunavan

B1

iBunav&tai

aunavanta

701]

IX. PRESENT-SYSTEM.

256

701. Of the briefer 1st sing, act., RV. has krnava and hinava.
Forms with double mode-sign occur (not in RV.)
thus, krnavat and
:

karavat (AV.); aqnavatha (K.), krnavatha (VS.; but -vatha in

Kanva-text). karavatha (QB.). On the other hand, aqnavatai is found
once (in TS.). Forms like apnuvani, ardhnuvat, a9nuvat, met with
now and then in the older texts, are doubtless to be regarded as false
RV. has in a single passage krnvaite (instead of krnavaite) ;
readings.
the only form in aithe

is

a9navaithe.

Present Optative.

3.

The combined endings

weak tense-stem: thus,

(566) are added,

702.
to the

middle.

active.
d.

s.

H*efltl

H^tHH
o3^ IH^
sunuyam sunuyava sunuyama
a.

p.

H^H!^

H'cJta!^

sunviya sunvivahi sunvimahi

etc.

etc.

From

d.

s.

p.

H^tlM

etc.

as usual,

etc.

etc.

etc.

j/ap, the middle optative

and

would be apnuvlya

so in other like cases.

4.

703.

The

Present Imperative.

inflection of the imperative is in general like

that in the preceding classes.

As regards the 2d

the rule of the later language

is

taken whenever the root

ends in a consonant; other-

wise, the tense-

son

(for

(or

itself

sing, act.,

that the ending

mode-} stem stands by

f% hi

itself as

An

the earlier usage, see below, 704).

is

2d per-

example of

inflection is:
middle.

active.
d.

s.

H^cnH

Hiefiei

H-IGMH

sunavani sunavava sunavama

93

3^

d.

s.

p.

p.

g^

^Hcjicj^

sunavai

sunavavahai sunavamahai

yn^m^

93^

sunu

sunutam sunuta

sunusva sunvatham

sunudhvam

oo
sunotu

sunutam sunvantu

^HHIH
oo
sunutam sunvatam

sunvatam

-\

-v.

257

AND

From

a.

U- (FIFTH

|/ap, the

AND

AND EIGHTH,

BU-

2d sing.

would be apnuhi; from

act.

tan-) CLASSES.

706
y"a9,

From ya,p, too, would

be made apnuvantu, apnuvatham, apnuvatam, apnuvatam.
from }/dhrs, dhrsnuhi; and so on.

earliest language, the rule as to the omission of hi

with final vowel does not hold good: in RV., such forms as

704. In the
after a root

inuhi, krnuhi, cinuhi, dhunuhi, (jrnuhi, sprnuhi, hinuhi, and

tanuhi, sanuhi, are nearly thrice as frequent in use as inu, <jrnu,
sunu, tanu, and their like; in AV., however, they are only one sixth
as frequent; and in the Brabmanas they appear only sporadically: even
(with dhi) occurs several times in RV. RV. has the 1st sing.
hinava. The ending tat is found in krnutat and hinutat, and
kurutat. The strong stem-form is found in 2d du. act. in hinotam and
krnotam; and in 2d pi. act. in krnota and krnotana, 9rnota and
(jrnotana, sunota and sunotana, hinota and hinotana, and tanota,
karota. The ending tana occurs only in the forms just quoted.

Qrnudhi
act.

5.

Present Participle.

The endings

705.

5ffF

weak form of tense stem

sunvant

(fern. ^*CJH!

thus, from yTT su

sunvati), mid.

H^FT

come

act.

n^ri

sunvana; from VrR

(fern. H^rf) tanvati), cF^fFT tanvana. From

ap, they are MIM^-H apnuvant and MIMc(H apnuvana.

H^rl tanvant

tan,

6.

706.
is

ant and 5TR ana are added to the

Imperfect.

The combination of augmented stem and endings

according to the rules already stated: thus,

middle,

active,

d.

d.

asunavam asunuva

asunuma asunvi

asunutam asunuta

asunos

asunuvahi

^H*<ri

asunutam asunvan asunuta

asunot
a.

asunumahi

asunuthas asunvatham asunudhvam

yyniH^

vahi,
with

P-

asunvatam

asunvata

Here, as elsewhere, the briefer forms asunva, asunma, asunare allowed, and more usual, except from roots

asunmahi

as dhp: which makes, for example, always

and also adhrsnuvan, adhrsnuvi, &dhrnuvatham,
adhrsnuvatam, adhrsnuvata.
final

consonant,

adhysnuma

etc.,

Whitney, Grammar.

2.

ed.

17

IX. PRESENT-SYSTEM.

707]

258

707. Strong stem-forms and tana-ending are found only in RV., In

Augmentless forms with accent are minvan,
akrnota, akrnotana.
rnutA.
708. About fifty roots make, either exclusively or in part, their
present-forms after the manner of the nu-class half of them do so
only in the older language; three or four, only in the later.
:

As

a.

to transfers to the a-conjugation, see below,

716.

709. The roots of the other division, or of the u-class, are

extremely few, not exceeding eight, even including tr on account
of tarute BY., and ban on account of the occurrence of hanomi
once in a Sutra (PGS. i. 3.27). BR. refer the stem inu to in of the
u-class instead of i of the nil-class.

nu and

Irregularities of the
710. The
the

root

be pleased

trp

said

is

u-classes.

by the grammarians

to retain

however,

where,
unlingualized in the later language
forme of conjugation of this class are very rare; while in the

Veda the

regular change is

of its

class-sign

made:

711. The root c,ru hear

thus,

tfpnu.

contracted to 9? before the classIts forms ?rnviae and

c,rnu as stem.
is

sign, forming grnd and

$rnvir6 have been noted above (690b).

712. The root

B. and S.) shortens

dhunu

(earlier

dhu
its

shake in the later language (and rarely in

vowel, making the stem -forms dhuno and

dhuno, dhunu).

718. The so-called

dissyllabic and belonging

root

urnu,

treated

by the native grammarians

to the root-class (I.),

is

as

properly a present-stem

of this class, with anomalous contraction, from the root vr

In
(or var).
the Veda, it has no forms which are not regularly made according to the

nu-class
as

but in the Brahmana language are found sometimes such forms

if from an u-root of the root class
(626); and the gram-

urnauti, as

marians make for

is

urnu

(K.) or

or

714.
is

it

a perfect, aorist, future, etc.

urnuhi; its
urnvita (TS.).

aurnos, Surnot;

impf.,

The extremely common

root

Its

2d

its

opt. mid.,

Sfi

kr

sing.

impr.

act.

urnuvlta

(or kar)

make

in the later
language inflected in the present-system ex-

clusively

according to the u-class (being the only root of

that class not

ending in

the strong form of stem

the

guna-stiengthening,

n).
it

(as

It has the irregularity that in

well as the class-sign) has

and that in the weak form

it

is

Nil-

259

AND

U- (FIFTH

AND EIGHTH,

BU-

AND

[714

tan-) CLASSES.

changed to kur, so that the two forms of stem are SfiJT karo
and 3\j\ kuru. The class-sign 3 u is always dropped before

of

v and

q"

of the opt.

of the

1st du.

Thus

act.

1.

and

pi.,

middle.

d.

p.

p.

kurve

kurvahe

kurmahe

kurmas

eft^ifa

cft^gjH^

J^

3T^

kuruthas

kurutha

J(i^
kuruse

epqtel

karosi

kurvathe

kurudhve

karoti

kurutas

kurvanti

kurute

kurvate

kurvate

jtiH^
kuryam

on^cfiJui

karavani

Present Optative.
eftcjlq

JITR

JQTT'T

kuryava

kuryama kurviya kurvivahi

opcJlHt^.

cpcjfcit'c

etc.

etc.

etc.

kurvimahi

etc.

etc.

Present Imperative.

3.

st){c(|H
^1^
eft^c(|o|
cfj^qjq^
C^^CHH^
karavava karavama karavai karavavahai karavamahai

_______
2

d.

kurvas

etc.

s.

karomi

2.
i

also before

Present Indicative.

active.
s.

and

________

________

c^cfl^H

J^

cfc^fH

^hfrT

cfl^fel

kuru

kurutam

kuruta

kurusva kurvatham kurudhvam

karotu

kurutam

kurvantu kurutam kurvatam

4.

cfr^iTCf

kurvatam

Present Participle.

(fern, chclff)

5.

kurvati)

jcfjm

kurvana

Imperfect.

o
akaravam akurva

akurma

akurvi

akurvahi

akurmahi

akaroa

akurutam akuruta akuruthas akurvatham akurudhvam

akarot

akurutam akurvan akuruta

o
akurvatam

akurvata
17*

715]

IX. PRESENT-SYSTEM.

715. In RV.,

this

root

regularly inflected

is

in the present-system

according to the nu-class, making the stem-forms kpno and krnu; the
only exceptions are kurmas once and kuru twice (all in the tenth book) ;
in AV., the nu- forms are still more than six times as frequent as the
u-forms (nearly half of which, moreover, are in prose passages); but in
the

Brahmana language and

later,

the u-forms are used to the exclusion

of the others.

a.

As

b.

What

1st sing. pres.

act.

found

is

irregular forms from

kr

kurmi

as

in the epos.

a verb

of the nu-class occur in

the older language have been already noticed above.

The

c.

isolated form

tarute, from

shows an apparent analogy

j/tr,

with these u-forms from kj\

716. A few verbs belonging originally to these classes have

been shifted, in part or altogether, to the a-class, their proper
class-sign having been stereotyped as a part of the root.

RV. we

a. Thus, in

and

find forms both

from the stem

inu (yi

or in),

from inva, representing a derivative quasi-root inv (and these

alone occur in AV.).
So likewise forms from a stem rnva beside

also

latter

ynu ()/f); and from hinva beside those from hinu (yhi).
so-called roots jinv and pinv are doubtless of the same origin, although

those from

The

unless pinvire
pinu are met with at any period
be so regarded; and AV. has the participle pinvant, f.
The grammarians set up a root dhinv, but only forms from

no forms from the stem

699 b)

(above,

pinvati.

dhi (stem dhinu) appear

adhinvit is found in PB.).
b.

cinvata

Occasional

a- forms

to

are

occur

in

the

met with

(the

aorist

from other roots:

thus,

present-system

also

dunvasva.

etc.,

V. Na-class (ninth or kri-class).

717.

The

the syllable

in the
ing,

it

^TT

weak
is

*ft

the ^ i of

class-sign of this class is in the strong forms

nS, accented,

forms, or

is

to

the root;

upon the end-

ni disappears altogether.

Present Indicative.

Example of

inflection:

root

form of stem, sffta krlnS; weak form,

a vowel,

added
falls

ni; but before the initial vowel of an ending

jft

1.

718.

which

where the accent

sfflrn

krln).

spft

kri buy: strong

sfitnfl

krlni (before

middle,

actire.
d.
1

[722

Nfi-CLASS (NINTH, kri-CLASS).

261

d.

P-

Sfillillft

krinami krmlvas

krinimas

kiinivahe krmimahe

krtne

shim ft shluily^

stfhita

shluflN

shluiiy

shluil9

krinasi

krinithas

krmitha

krmise

krinathe

krimdhve

krinati

krinitas

krinanti

krmlte

krinate

krinate

719. In the Veda, the 3d sing. mid. has the same form with the 1st
in grne; the peculiar accent of 3d pi. mid. is seen in punate and rinate;
and vrnimahe (beside vrnimahe) occurs once in RV.

Present Subjunctive.

2.

in
is,

720. The subjunctive forms which have been found exemplified

Veda and Brahmana are given below. The subjunctive mode-stem
of course, indistinguishable in form from the strong tense-stem.
the 2d and 3d sing. act. (with secondary endings) are indistin-

And

guishable from augmentless imperfects.

middle,

actire.
d.

s.
1

2
3

krinani

krinama

krmas
krmat

krinatha
krinan
3.

mode

721. This
regularity;

d.

s.

p.

p.

krmai krmavahai krmamahai

krmasai
krinatai
krmantai

Present Optative.
is

formed and inflected with entire

owing to the fusion of tense-sign and mode-sign

some of its persons are indistinguishable from

in the middle,

persons are as follows:

Its first

augmentless imperfects.

middle,

active.
s.

krinlyam
etc.

d.

kriniyava kriniyama

4.

722.

The ending

ceded by a vowel,

is

p.

krinimahi

krinlya krinivahi
etc.

etc.

etc.

d.

s.

p.

etc.

etc.

Present Imperative.
in 2d sing,

act.,

as being always pre-

hi (never fa dhi)

examples of an omission of

it.

But

this

and there are no

person

is

forbidden

IX. PRESENT-SYSTEM.

722]
to be

formed in the

classical

262

language from roots ending in

a consonant; for both class-sign and ending

is

substituted

TR ana.

the peculiar ending

middle.

active.

d.

d.

p.

ohluilpl

sftlmioi

stiluiiH

^ifflf

stilui<=(^

sftlmiH^

krinani

krinava

krinama

krinaf

krinavahai

krinamahai

krimbi

krinitam

krinita

krimsva krinatham

krinidhvam

krlnatu

krinitam

krinantu

s.

s.

stU ultai

5fc)m?j

H^cfjl

p.

m ini H

krinitam krmatam

Examples of the ending ana

grhSna, badhana, stabhana.
a.

2d

in

sing.

act.

krmatam
are a<jana,

723. The ending ana is known also to the earliest language; of the
examples just given, all are found in AY., and the first two in BY. others
are isana, mugana, skabhana. But AY. has also grbhnihi (also AB.),
and even grnnfihi, with strong stem; BhP. has badhnlhi. Strong stems
;

farther fonnd in grnahi and strnahi (TS.), prnahi (TB.), and

Qrinahi (Apast.), and, with anomalous accent, pun&hi and 9rnfth (SY.)
The ending tat of 2d sing. act.
and, in 2d pi. act., in punata (RV.).
occurs in grhnltfit, janitat, punitat.
The ending tana is found in

are

punitana, prnltana, (jrinitana.

5.

724.

The

example,

act.

Present Participle.

participles

shlUM^

are . regularly

krinant

formed:

ehlUIHl krinati);

(fern.

for

thus,

mid.

stiluiH krinSna.
6.

725. There

is

Imperfect.

nothing special to be noted as to the

inflection of this tense:

an example

is

active.

middle.
s.

d.

akrinam akriniva

akrmima

akrini

akrinaa

akrinltam

akrinita

akrinlthas akrinatham akrinldhvam

akrinat

akrinltam

akrinan

akrinivahi akrlnimahi

y5fIluflH

akrinita

akrinatam akrinata

726.
tense

[732

NS-CLASS (NINTH, kri-CLASS).

263

been pointed out above that augmentless persons of this

part indistinguishable in form from subjunctive and optative
Such as certainly belong here are (in V.) ksinam; a<jnan,
It has

are in

persons.

rinan; grbhnata, vrnata.

MBh. has a$nl8 after ma.
a.

AB. has the

false

The AV. has once minlt

form ajanimas, and in

A A.

instead of

occurs

minat.

avrmta

as

3d plural.

727. The roots which form their present-systems, wholly or in

manner of this class, are over fifty in number but, for
about three fifths of them, the forms are quotable only from the older
part, after the

language, and for half-a-dozen they make their first appearance later
for less than twenty are they in use through the whole life of the
;

language, from the

a.

As

Veda down.

to secondary a-s terns, see

731.

Irregularities of the na-class.

728.

a.

The

roots ending in

class-sign: thus, from i/pu,

ju, dhu, lu.

shorten that vowel before the

punati and punlte;

b. The root vli (B.S.) forms either

vlma

in like

also

or vlina.

729. The root grabh or grab (the former Vedic)

to

manner

is

weakened

grbh or grh.
a.

As the

easy to see

perfect also in

why

weak forms has grbh

or

grh,

it

is

the grammarians should not have written r instead of

not

ra

in the root.

few of the roots have a more or less persistent

the present-system; such are without nasal
before the class-sign: thus, grath or granth, badh or bandh, math
or manth, skabh or skambh, stabh or stambh.
730.

a.

nasal in forms outside

b.

The

root jna also loses its nasal before the class-sign

thus,

janati, janite.

731. Not rarely, forms showing a transfer to the a-conjugation

met with: thus, even in RV., minati, minat, aminanta, from
Vmi', in AV., $rrja from j/$r; later, gr-hna, j&na, prina, mathna,
etc.
And from roots pr and my are formed the stems prna and
mrna, which are inflected after the manner of the a-class, as if from
roots prn and mrn.
are

732. In the Veda, an apparently denominative inflection of a

stem in ay a is not infrequent beside the conjugation of roots of this
Class: thus, grbhaya, mathayati, a9rathayas, skabhayata, astabhayat, prusayante, musayat, and so on. See below, 1066b.

IX. PRESENT-SYSTEM.

733]

264

Second or a-Conjugation.

We

733.

Second

come now

mode

similar in their

common

jheij:

of inflection than the preceding classes;

characteristics,

repeated in summary.
2.

stem;

which compose the

These are more markedly

to the classes

or a-Conjugation.

They

already stated,

are

1.

final

may be

here

a in the preseut-

a constant accent, not changing between stem and

ending (Jp a briefer form of the optative mode-sign in the

active, namely I instead of ya (combining in both voices
;

alike with a to e)

when

tat

(t) the absence of any ending (except

used) in 2d sing. impv. act. ;(1p the conversion

is

of initial a of the 2d and 3d du. mid. endings to e

use of the full endings ante, anta, antam in 3d

forms (?J the invariable use of an (not us) in 3d

;

act.

$D and

mid. pple.

m
1st

(or

1st

impf.

sing.

stem-final

rt))

mid.

pi.
pi.

the

impf.

the use of mana instead of 5na as ending of the

9.

Moreover,

and v of

the stem-final a becomes & before

but not before

personal endings
here,

is lost,

as

before the 3d pi.

am

endings,

of

the

and the short a of the ending remains

the contrary): thus, bhavanti (bhava-f-anti), bhavante

abhavam (abhava-j-am).

(bhava-j-ante),

a. All these characteristics belong not to the inflection of the

a-present-systems alone, but also to that of the a-, reduplicated, and
aa-aurists, the s-future, and the desiderative, causative, and denoman
inative present-systems. That is to
wherever in

a-stem

is

found,

it is

VI.

p>/\-gfr\A.

A-class

The present-stem

734.
51

say,
inflected in the same manner.

(first,

bhu-class).

of this class

made by adding
and, when that is

is

a to the root, which has the accent,

possible

(235,

bhava from
budh;
vad;

240),

cfffe

strengthened

to

jaya from }/%

from
sarpa
V^p^syp;
kri<la from

y^bhu;
TC

is
sT?T

gniqiig*fjfl|

guna.

ji; 5JTU

Thus,

*&

bodha from

but 5^ vada from

A-CLASS

265

Present Indicative.

1.

The endings and

735.

[737

(FIRST, bhu-CLASS).

the rules for their combination

with the stem have been already fully given, for this and
the other parts of the present-system; and

them by examples.
Example of inflection:

only remains

it

to illustrate
a.

bhava (bho-j-a:

root

*T

131).
middle.

active.
d.

d.

s.

p.

bhavaW bhavavas

bhavajnas

bhave

bhavasi

bhavathas bhavcitha bhavase

bhavati

bhavatas

b. The V.

*&

bhfi be; stem

bhavanti

bhavate

bhavavahe

bhavamahe

bhavethe

bhavadhve

bhavete

bhavante

has but a single example of the thana-ending,

namely

vadathana

(and no other in any class of this conjugation). The 1st pi.

mid. manamahe (RV., once) is probably an error. RV. has cjobhe once
as

3d

singular.

2.

Present Subjunctive.

736. The mode-stem is bhava (bhdva+a). Subjunctive forms

of this conjugation are very numerous in the older language; the
following scheme instances all that have been found to occur.
middle.

active.
d.

s.

bhavani
fbhavasi

jbhavas
fbhavfiti

ibhav&t

class;

bhavfiva

bhavama

bhavai

bhavathas bhavatha /bhavase

\bhavasai
bhavate
I
bhavatas bhavan
ibhavatai

p.

bhavavahai bhavamahai
bhavfidhvai

bhavaite

fbhavanta
ibhavantai

737. The 2d du. mid. (bhavaithe) does not chance to occur in this
and yataite is the only example of the 3d person. No such pi.

mid. forms as

bhavadhve, bhavante
bhavanta (which are

final

a; such

erly

augmentless

2d

d.

P-

as

sing. act. in

imperfects.

The

are

made from any

class with

stem-

very common) are, of course, propBrahmanas (especially $B.) prefer the

asi and the 3d in St.

AB. has the 3d

sing. mid.

tai; and a 3d pi. in antai (vartantSi KB.) has been noted once.
has examples, area and mada, of the briefer 1st. sing. act.

hara-

RV.

IX. PRESENT-SYSTEM,

738-]

266

Present Optative.

3.

The scheme of optative endings

738.

combined with

as

the final of an a-stem was given in full above (566).

middle,

active,
d.

s.

d.

s.

p.

bhaveyam bhaveva bhavema bhaveya

bhavetam bhaveyus bhaveta

bhavet

The RY. has once the 3d

pi.

mid.

bhaveyatam bhaveran
bharerata

one

(for

other

AY. has udeyam from >/vad.

few instances are met with of middle 3d persons from a-stems

example, see
b.

bhavemahi

bhavevahi

bhavetam bhaveta bhaveth&s bhaveyatham bhavedhvam

bhaves

a.

p.

752 b).

eta and eran. For convenience,

together here (excepting the more numerous causative
forms, for which see 1043c); they are (so far as noted) these: naylta S.

in ita and (very rarely) Iran, instead of

they

and

AB.
is

may be put

later,

9afislta S., cjraylta S.;

dhaylta

and hvayiran S., dhmaylta U.

isolated and anomalous.
S.

4.

S.,

dhyayita

active

bhavava bhavama bhavai

bhava

bhavatam bhavata bhavasva bhavetham

bhavatu

bhavatam bhavantu bhavatam bhavetam

bhavavah&i

740. The ending tana in 2d

thana in the
nahyatana

is

d.

bhavani

as is

C.

middle,

d.

a-class (and

hvayita

Qansiyat

of the imperative inflection

active,

tion

U.,

form

Present Imperative.

An example

739.

An

pi. act. is as rare in this

bhavamahai

bhavadhvam
bhavantam
whole conjuga-

present: the Y. affords only bhajatana in the

in the ya-class: 760 c). The ending tat of 2d

on the other hand, is not rare; the RY. has avatat, osatat,
dahatat, bhavatat, yacchatat, yacatat, raksatat, vahatat; to which
AY. adds jinvatat, dhavatat; and the Brahmanas bring other examples.
MS. has twice svadatu (parallel texts both times svadati): compare

sing, act,

similar cases in the a-class:

752 c.

A-CLASS

267

5.

741.

[744

(FIRST, bhU-CLASS).

tv^V <fl-

Present Participle

The endings

5rf ant

and 1JR mana are added

the present-stem, with loss, before the former,

stem- vowel:

mid.

H<=1HI1
a.

act.

thus,

JJcftT^bhavant

WN>
to

of the final

H^fft bhavanti)

(fern.

bhavamana.

small number of middle participles appear

stems of this class (as of other a-classes: see

suffix ana instead of mana: thus, namana,

to

be made from

752 e, 1043f) by

the

pacana, qiksana, sva-

jana, hvayana (all epic), majjana and kasana (later); and there are
Vedic examples (as cyavana, prathana, yatana or yatana, 9umbhana,
all RV.) of which the character, whether present or aorist, is doubtful
:

compare 840, 852.

6.

742.

An

Imperfect.

example of the imperfect inflection

middle,

active,
d.

abhavam abhavava

is:

d.

abhavama abhave

abhavavahi abhavamahi

abhavas

abhavatam abhavata abhavathas abhavetham abhavadhvam

abhavat

abhavatam abhavan

743. No forms in tana

are

abhavata
made

abhavetam abhavanta

in this tense from any a-class.

Examples of augmentless forms (which are not uncommon) are: cyavam,

avas, dahas, bodhat, bharat, caran, n&9an ; badhathas, vardhata,
Qocanta. The subjunctively used forms of 2d and 3d sing. act. are more
frequent than those of either of the proper subjunctive persons.

744. A far larger number of roots form their present-system

according to the a-class than according to any of the other classes
in the KV., they are about two hundred and forty (nearly two fifths
of the whole body of roots) in the AV., about two hundred (nearly
the same proportion) for the whole language, the proportion is still
larger, or nearly one half the whole number of present-stems namely,
over two hundred in both earlier and later language, one hundred
:

and seventy-five in the older alone, nearly a hundred and fifty in

the later alone. Among these are not a few transfers from the classes of the first conjugation: see those classes above. There are no
roots ending in long a
except a few which make an a-stem in
some anomalous way: below, 749 a.

IX PRESENT-SYSTEM.

745]

268

Irregularities of the a-class.

745.

few verbs have irregular vowel-changes in forming the

present-stem: thus,
a.

uh

b.

krp

consider has guna-strengtliening (against

krap)

(or

240):

thus,

ohate.

lament, on the contrary, remains unchanged

thus,

kfpate.
c.

gull hide has prolongation instead of

guna:

d.

kram

vowel in the active, but not

but the vowel-quantities are

stride regularly

in the middle:

lengthens

its

kramati, kramate;

thus,

thus,

somewhat mixed up, even from the oldest language down

said to form
sition

rinse the

but

etc.,

is

klam

cam

not quotable;

tire is

with the prepo-

mouth forms acamati.

language are found occasional forms of this class from

wipe; and they show the same vrddhi (instead of guna) which belongs
e.

mrj

klamati

guhati.

In the

later

to the root in its

f.

more proper

inflection

The grammarians give

(627):

number

thus,

of roots in

marjasva.
urv, which they de-

Only three are found in (quite

limited) use, and they show no forms anywhere with short u. All appear
The root murch or
to be of secondary formation from roots in r or ar.
clare to lengthen the

murch
g.
as

in the present-stem.

coagulate has likewise only

The onomatopoetic

sthiv, and declared

pare

to

root

in quotable forms.
is written by the grammarians
vowel in the present-system: com-

s$hiv spew

lengthen

its

240 b.
746. The roots dang

of which the nasal

is

bite,

ranj

color,

sanj hang, svanj embrace,

in other parts of the conjugation not constant,

the present-system: thus, da^ati etc.; safij forms both

sajati and sajjati (probably for sajyati, or for sasjati from sasajati); math or manth has mathati later. In general, as the present
lose it in

of this class is a strengthening formation, a root that has such a

nasal anywhere has it here also.

747. The roots gam

reach make the present-stems
g^)and yam
gaccha and yaccha: thus, gacchami etc.: see 608.

748. The root sad sit forms aida (conjectured to be contracted

from sisda for sisada
thus, sidami etc.
:

tM class from other classes are not rare, as

TrfinRfArft
has been already^ointed out above, HdfiT throughout the present-system and in occasional forms.
The most important cases are the
749.

following
a.

to

The

roots in a, stha stand,

pa

drink,

and ghra

smell,

form

(tisthami etc.), piba (pibami etc.), and

for these and other similar cases, see 6714.

the present-stems tistha

jfghra (jfghrami
b.

etc.)

Secondary root-forms like inv, jinv, pinv, from simpler roots

ACCENTED a-CLASS

269

[-752

(SIXTH, tud-CLASS).

of the nu-class, are either found alongside their originals, or have

crowded these out of use: see 716.

its

750. On the other hand, the root dham or dhma blow forms
from the more original form of the root: thus,

present-stem

dhamati

etc.

Accented a-class

VII.

751.

The present-stem

of this class has the accent on

a, and the root remains unstrengthened. In

whole inflection, it follows so closely the model of the

the class-sign
its

tud-class).

(sixth,

preceding class that to give the paradigm in full will be

unnecessary (only for the subjunctive, all the forms found

be instanced).

to occur will

752.

Example of

root

inflection:

fifSJ

Present Indicative.

1.

middle,

active.
d.

s.

f^l

vi9 enter; stem

d.

s.

p.

ft

vi9avas

vi9amas
etc.

etc.

etc.

2.

vi^avahe

vi9amahe

etc.

etc.

etc.

Present Subjunctive.
vi^avahai

\vi<;a8

vicjantai
a.

single

example of the briefer

only forms in aithe and Site are

3.

1st

sing.

act.

is

mr/ksa.

The

prnaithe and yuvafte.

Present Optative.

vi9emahi
etc.

etc.

etc.

b. The RY. has the ending

rata in juserata 3d pi. mid.

etc.

tana once

etc.

etc.

in tiretana

2d

pi. act.,

and

IX PRESENT-SYSTEM.

752]

Present Imperative.

4.

The

first

persons having been given above as subjunc-

the second are added here:

tives,
2

270

fiftF

feMHH^

fesirT

feSTR

KUBMH^

fe$iyr^

viga

vi^atam

viQata

vi^asva

vi^etham

viQadhvam

etc.

etc.

etc.

etc.

etc.

c.

suvatat

The ending tat

;

etc.

found in RV. and AV. in mrdatat, vrhatat,

is

not infrequent in the Brahmana language

are

other examples

khidatat, chyatSt, prcchatat, viqatat, srjatat; and later, sprqatat. The 3d sing, act nudatu and muncatu occur in Sutras (of. 740).

thus,

Present Participle.

5.

The
d.

active

participle is

The feminine

of the

finflrT

vi9&nt;

active participle

is

the middle

usually

is

made from the

viQanti; but sometimes from the weak: thus,

sincantl and sincati (RV. and AV.), tudantl and tudatl (AV.): see
strong stem-form:

above,

thus,

449 d,e.

e.

Middle

participles

ana

in

dhraana, Ii9ana, qyana, in the

spr^ana in the later (cf. 741 a).
6.

avi9am avi^ava

instead

of

mana

older language;

are

dhuvana,

kr^ana, muncana,

Imperfect.

avisama

avi^e

etc.

etc.

avi9avahi

avi^amahi

etc.

etc.

f.

Examples

of augment! ess forms accented are srjas, srjat, tiranta.

g.

The

a-aorist

(846 ff.)

is

etc.

etc.

in general the equivalent, as regards

its

forms, of an imperfect of this class.

753. Stems of the a-class are made from nearly a hundred and
for about a third of these, in both the earlier and the

fifty roots:

for a half, in the earlier only; for the remainder,

nearly twenty, only in the later language. Among them are a number of transfers from the classes of the non-a-conjugation.
a. In some of these transfers, as prn and mrii (731), there takes
later language;

place almost a setting-up of independent roots.

b. The stems iccha,

uccha, and rccha are reckoned

vas shine, and r go.

as belonging

respectively to the roots is desire,

C.

The

roots

written

by the Hindu grammarians with final o

and forming the present-stems chya,

namely, cho, do, 90, and so

ACCENTED a-CLASS

271
dya, ^yd, sya,
to

be reckoned

fication

more properly

are
to

761

g).

(as having an accented

this class than to the ya-class,

puts them (see

[759

(SIXTH, tud-CLASS).

They appear

to

in

the stem)

where the native

classi-

be analogous with the

stems ksya, sva, hva, noted below (755).

754. The

roots from

which a-stems are made have certain noticeable

Hardly any of them have long vowels, and none have

long interior vowels; very few have final vowels; and none (save two or
three transfers, and ]/lajj be ashamed, which does not occur in any accenpeculiarities of form.

tuated text, and is perhaps to be referred rather to the a-class) have a as

radical vowel, except as this forms a combination with r, which is then

reduced with

it to

or

some of the usual substitutes of

r.

Irregularities of the a-class.

755. The roots in i and u and u change those vowels into iy

and uv before the class-sign: thus, ksiya, yuva, ruva; suva, etc.;
and eva, hva occur, instead of suva and huva, in the older language,
while TS. has the participle ksyant.

(also

E. has dhuva from >/dhu.

756. The three roots in r form the present-stems kira, gira

and gur, jur,
gila), tira, and are sometimes written as kir etc.
;

tur are really only varieties of gr, jr, tr; and bhur and sphur are
evidently related with other ar or y root-forms.
a.

The common

757. As

root

to the stems

prach ask makes the stem prccha.

-driya and -priya, and mriya and dhriya,

sometimes reckoned as belonging to this

class,

see below,

773.

758. Although the present-stem of this class shows in general

a weak form of the root, there are nevertheless a number of roots
belonging to it which are strengthened by a penultimate nasal. Thus,
the stem munca is made from }/muc release; silica from |/sic sprinkle; vinda from yvi&find; krnta from yTsft cut; piiuja from ypiq
adorn; trmpa from ytrp enjoy; lux&pa from yiup break; limpa from
ylip smear; and occasional forms of the same kind are met with from
a few others, as tunda from ytud thrust; brnha from >/brh strengthen; drnha (beside drnha; from ]/drh make firm; c,umbha (beside
9umbha) from 1/9 ubh shine; TS. has 9rnthati from y^rath (instead
of 9rathnati ; uficha, vindha, sumbha, are of doubtful character.
instances made by transfer
unda, umbha, rnja, pinsa, yunja, run-

a. Nasalized a-stems are also in several

from the nasal class: thus,

dha, 9insa.

VIII.

759.

Ya-class

The present-stem

(fourth, div-class).

of this class adds

accented hut unstrengthened root.

ya

to the

Its inflection is also

pre-

y\^S^V
o

IX. PRESENT-SYSTEM.

759]

cisely like that of the a-class,

same abbreviated form

760.

272

and may be presented in the

as that of the a-class.

of inflection: root

Example

nan bind;

stem R^T nahya.

Present Indicative.

1.

middle.

active.
d.

s.

nahyami nahyavas nahyamas

etc.

etc.

etc.

etc.

etc.

Present Subjunctive.

nahyama nahyai

nahyani

p.

nahye nahyavahe nahyamahe

etc.

2.
1

d.

s.

p.

nahyavahai nahyamahai

fnahvasi
2

Inahyas

a.

3d

pi.

nahySsai

nahyadhvfii

nahyatai

nahyantai

mid. in antai (jayantai) occurs once in TS.

3.

Present Optative.

nahyeyam nahyeva nahyexna

etc.

nahyeya nahyevahi nahyemahi

etc.

etc.

etc.

etc.

etc.

b. For two or three 3d sing. mid. fonris in ita (for eta), see

738 b.

4. Present Imperative.
2

nahya nahyatam nahyata

etc.

etc.

nahyaava nahyetham nahyadhvam

etc.

etc.

etc.

etc.

Of the ending tana, RV. has one example, nahyatana; the

ending tat is found in asyatat, khySyat&t, na^yatftt.
c.

5.

The

Present Participle.

active participle

yanti); the

middle

is

is

^pp^nahyant

(fern.

H^ril nah-

HCJJ^H nahyamSna.
6.

Imperfect.

anahyam anahyava anahyama anahye anahyavahi anahyamahi

etc.

etc.

etc.

etc.

etc.

etc.

[761

Ya-CLASS (FOURTH, dlv-CLASS).

273

d. Examples of augmentless forms showing the accent belonging to the

present-system are gayat, paqyat, pac.yan, jayathas.

761. The ya-class stems are more than a hundred and thirty in
number, and nearly half of them have forms in use in all periods of
the language, about forty occurring only in the earlier, and about

modern

thirty only in the

a.

Of the

signify a state

klam

angry,

period.

making ya-stems, a very considerable part (over

roots

of feeling,

a condition of

or

ksudh

be -weary,

be hungry,

mind

muh

or

body:

thus,

be confused,

fifty)

kup

lubh

be

be Lust-

<juf be dry, etc. etc.

ful,

b.

number have

further

more

or

less distinctly

passive sense,

and are in part evident and in part presumable transfers from the passive
or ya-class, with change of accent, and sometimes also with assumption of
active endings.

not possible to draw precisely the limits of the divi-

It is

but there are in the older language a number of clear cases, in which
the accent wavers and changes, and the others are to be judged by analogy
sion

Thus, >/muc forms

with them.

regular accent.
roots

mucyate

once or twice, beside the usual

is the

RV. and AY.; and in the Brahmanas the former

in

mucyate,

Similar

thus, from

changes

are

destroy, ji or

kfjfi

found also in ya-forms

jya

injure,

tap

heat,

from other

drh make

firm,

ml

Active
damage, ric leave, lup break, ha leave.
forms are early made from some of these, and they grow more common
It is worthy of special mention that, from the Veda down, jayate is
later.

pac

cook,

bom

etc. is

of

yjan

pp

fill,

found as altered passive or original ya-formation by the side

give birth.

c. A considerable body of roots (about forty) differ from the above in

having an apparently original transitive or neuter meaning: examples are

nah

as throw,

bind,

pa$

see,

pad

go,

qlis clasp.

of various meaning, and of somewhat doubtd.

ful character and relations, having present-stems ending in ya, are by the
Thus:
native grammarians written with final diphthongs, ai or e or o.

number

of roots,

reckoned as ending in Si and belonging

e. Roots

to the

a-(orbhu-)

As these show abundantly, and for the

most part exclusively, a-forms outside the present-system, there seems to
be no good reason why they should not rather be regarded as S-roots of
class, as

gai

sing

the ya-class.
think,
boil,

pya
stya

fill

They

are

up,

mla

stiffen.

by the addition of

cay

etc.).

ksa

burn,

ga

sing,

va

gla

be weary, trfi save,

dnya

era
are evident extensions of simpler roots
Some of
The secondary roots tSy stretch (beside tan), and
a.
ra
them

relax,

bark,

be

blown,

cya

coagulate,

observe (beside ci) appear to be of similar character.

f.

class,

(gayati

as

Roots reckoned as ending in e and belonging to the a- (or bhu-)

dhe suck (dhayati etc.). These, too, have a-fonns, and some-

times i-forms, outside the present system, and are best regarded as a-roots,
either with a weakened to a before the class-sign of this class, or with

Whitney, Grammar.

2. ed.

18

IX. PRESENT-SYSTEM.

761]
weakened
suck,

ma

hu).

As

to

and inflected according

i or i

exchange,

va

weave,

of kindred form

vya

274

They are dhS

hva caJZ (secondary, from
day share and vyay expend

to the a-class.

envelop,

may be mentioned

(probably denominative of vyaya).

few roots artificially written with final o

g.
ya-class, with radical vowel lost before the class-sign

and reckoned
:

thus,

do

to

cut,

the

bind,

etc.
These, as having an accented a in the sign, have
be
to
no
put in this class; and they are better referred to the
right
plainly
Outside the present-system they show a- and
a-class (see above, 763 c).

dyati

pres.

i-forms

and in that system the

ya

often resolved into ia in the oldest

is

language.

762. The ya-class is the only one thus far described which shows
any tendency toward a restriction to a certain variety of meaning. In this
tendency, as well as in the form of its sign, it appears related with the
the
meaning which is next to be taken up
Though very far from being as widely used as the
it is in
latter beside other present-systems,
some cases an intransitive
conjugation by the side of a transitive of some other class.
class of distinctly defined

passive, with ya-sign.

Irregularities of the ya-class.

763. The roots of this class ending in

am

lengthen their vowel

in forming the present-stem : they are klam, tarn,

be quiet, gram: for example, tamyati, <jramyati.

ever, only

ksamyate

764. The root

occurs;

mad

and

9am

labor

dam, bhram, 9am

From ksam, howmakes qamyati (B.).

has the same lengthening: thus, madyati.

765. The roots in Iv

namely, div, siv, sriv or 9riv, and
are writsfliiv (from which no forms of this class are quotable)
ten by the grammarians with iv, and a similar lengthening in the
present-system is prescribed for them.
a.

They appear

to

be properly

dm

etc.,

since their vocalized final

in other forms is always

with the assumed root

u; div is by this proved to have nothing to do

div shine, which changes to dyu (36 Id): compare

240 b.
766. From the roots jp and ty (also written as jur and tir or
tur)
come the stems jirya and tirya, and juiya and turya
(the last two only
in RV.); from

py comes purya.

767. The

root

vyadh

is

abbreviated to

vidh:

thus,

vfdhyati.

And

any root which in other forms has a penultimate nasal loses it here thus,
drhya from drnh or dyh; bhragya from bhranq or bhrag ; rajya from
:

rafij or raj.

CCENTED ya-CLASS

IX.

768.

771

(PASSIVE).

Accented ya-class: Passive conjugation.

\^

form of present-stem, inflected with

used only in a passive sense, and is formed

certain

middle endings, is
from all roots for which there

an

is

occasion to

make

a passive

accented

to the
f ya added
from
ban
hanya
MIUI
apya
^?J
slay,
from
from
grhya
Jf^T
obtain,
gyh
(or
grab)
j/Tng
v^TR^ap
seize
and so on, without any reference to the class accordIts

conjugation.
root:

sign

is

y^

thus,

ing to which the active and middle forms are made.

709. The form of the root to which the passive-sign is added
on the sign) the weak one: thus, a penultimate
nasal is dropped, and any abbreviation which is made in the weak
forms of the perfect (794), in the aorist optative (922 b), or before
ta of the passive participle (954), is made also in the passive present-

is

(since the accent is

system: thus, ajya from ]/anj,

>/vac, ijya from

badbya from j/bandh, ucya from

770. On the other hand, a

liable

to

where

it

final vowel of a root is in general

the same changes as in other parts of the verbal system
is followed by y: thus

and

a. Final i

are lengthened: thus, xniya from i/mi;

suya

from ]/su;
b. Final a is usually changed to 1: thus, dlya from ]/da; hlyi
from i/ba: but jnaya from j/jna, and so khyaya, khaya, mnaya, etc.;

Final y is in general changed to ri: thus, kriya from

preceded by two consonants (and also, it is claimed, in the root
y), it has instead the guna-strengthening
thus, smarya from j/smy
and in those roots which show a change
(the only quotable case)
of r to ir and ur (so-called f-verbs: see 242), that change is made
here also, and the vowel is lengthened: thus, 9lrya from y<ft', purya from
o.

but

if

771.
that

^f

The

like
inflectiom of thejpasgiver-stem
imprecisely

the other a-stems;

that of the

class

therefore, in the
a.

stem

Example

flfiTr

last

it

given.

differs

It

only in accent from

may be

here presented,

same abbreviated form:

of inflection: root

ky make; passive-

kriya:
18*

'

IX. PRESENT-SYSTEM.

771]

Present Indicative.

1.
s.

d.

kriye

kriyavahe

etc.

etc.

2.

p.

kriyamahe
etc.

Present Subjunctive.

The forms noticed as occurring

b.

276

in the older language are

alone here instanced:

d.

s.
1

p.

kriyamahai
kriyadhvai

kriyai

The 3d

c.

ending antai

pi.

is

found once (ucyantfti

K.).

Present Optative.

3.

kriy^ya

kriy6vahi

kriyemahi

etc.

etc.

etc.

forms of the passive optative chance to occur in RV. or AV.

they are found, however, in the Brahmanas. ChU. has once dhmayita.
d.

No

Present Imperative.

4.
2

etc.

etc.

5.

This

e.

is

kriyadhvam

kriyetham

kriyasva

etc.

Present Participle.

made with

the

suffix

ifH

mSna:

thus,

kriyamSna.
In use, this participle

f.

participle

mana

by

its distinctively

is

well distinguished from the other passive

present meaning

thus,

krta done, but kriya-

in process of doing, or being done.

6.

akriye

akriyavahi

etc.

g.

The passive-sign

Imperfect.

is

akriyamahi
etc.

etc.

never resolved into ia in the Veda.

772. The roots tan and

khan

parallel roots in a: thus, tayate,

usually form their passives from

(but also tanyate, khan-

kh&yate

SO-CALLED TENTH OR CUT-GLASS.

277

[775

yate) ; and

dham, in like manner, makes either dhamyate or dhmayate.

The corresponding form to j/jan, namely jayate (above, 761 b), is
apparently a transfer to the preceding class.

773.

By

their form,

mriyate

and

dhriyate maintains
die and dhr hold ;
although neither is used in a proper passive sense, and mr is not
transitive except in the derivative form mr^ (above, 731). With them
are to be compared the stems a-driya heed and a-priya be busy,
which are perhaps peculiar adaptations of meaning of passives from
the roots dr pierce and pr ftt.
is

itself,

steadfast,

dies,

are passives from the roots

774. Examples of the

ya- or intransitive

mr

of stems from the ya- or passive

were given above (76 Ib); and it was
also pointed out that active instead of middle endings are occasionally, even
in the earlier language, assumed by forms properly passive: examples are
class to the

a dhmayati
however

epics,

forms:

529 a),

and
(as

vy

transfer
class

aprus.yat

(3.),

bhuyati (MaiU.).

a part of their general confusion

active

of active

In

the

and middle

endings are by no means infrequently taken by the

passive: thus, $akyati,

sruyanti, bhriyantu, ijyant-,

The so-called Tenth or

etc.

cur-Class.

775. As was noticed above (607), the Hindu grammarians

and, after their example, most European also
recognize yet another conjugation-class, coordinate with those already described; its
stems show the class-sign aya, added to a generally strengthened
root (for details as to the strengthening, see 1042). Though this is
no proper class, but a secondary or derivative conjugation (its stems
are partly of causative formation, partly denominative with altered
accent), an abbreviated example of its forms may, for the sake of

accordance with other grammars, be added here.

a.

Example: root cint

think, meditate;
active.

stem cintaya:

IX. PRESENT-SYSTEM.

776]
Uses

of the

278

Present and Imperfect.

776. The uses of the mode-forms of the present-system have

been already briefly treated in the preceding chapter (572 ff.). The
tense-uses of the two indicative tenses, present and imperfect, call
here for only a word or two of explanation.
777. The present has, besides its strictly present use, the same
subsidiary uses which belong in general to the tense: namely, the
expression of habitual action, of future action, and of past action in
lively narration.
a. Examples of future meaning are: imfofr ced va ime cinvate
tata eva no bhbhavanti ($B.) verily if these build this up, then they

of us ; agnir atmabhavam pradad yatra

vanchati naisadhah] (MBh.) Agni gave his own presence wherever the
Nishadhan should desire; svagatam te stu kim karomi tava (R.) wel-

will straightway get the better

come

to thee;

what

shall

b. Examples

asid

danuh

<jaye

I do for thee?

are: uttara
sahavatsS na dhenuh (KV.)

of

past meaning

adharah putra

stir

mother was over,

a cow with her calf; pr alias ant i ca
the

the son under; there Danu lies, like

tarn kecid abhyasuyanti ca 'pare akurvata day am kecit (MBh.)
some ridicule her, some revile her, some pitied her; tato yasya vacanat

tatra 'valambitas tarn sarve tiraskurvanti (H.) thereupon they

him by whose advice they had alighted there.

all

fall to reproaching

778. In connection with certain

more

particles, the present has rather

definitely the value of a past tense. Thus
:

With pura formerly: thus, saptarsln u ha sma vai pur a

rk}6 {ty acaksate (B.) the seven sages, namely, are of old called the
bears ; tanmatram api cen mahyam na dadati pura bhavan (MBh.)
if you have never before given me even an atom.
a.

b. With the asseverative particle sma: thus, c.ramena ha sma

vai tad deva jayanti yad esam jayyam asa rsaya^ ca (<;B.) in
truth, both gods and sages were wont to win by penance what was to be

won; avistah kalina dyute jlyate

being possessed by Kali, was beaten in

sma nalas tada

(MBh.)

then Nala,

play.

c. No example of this last construction is found in either RV. or

AY., or elsewhere in the metrical parts of the Veda. In the Brahmanas,

only habitual action is expressed by it. At all periods of the language, the
use of sma with a verb as pure assererative particle, with no effect on the

tense-meaning, is very common; and the examples later are hardly to be

of which the whole
distinguished from the present of lively narration
construction is doubtless a form.

770. The imperfect has remained unchanged in value through

the whole history of the language; it is the tense of narration; it
expresses simple past time, without any other implication.
a. Compare what is said later (end of chap. X. and chap. XI.) as to
the value of the older past tenses, the perfect and aorist.

[782

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PERFECT.

279

CHAPTER

X.

THE PERFECT-SYSTEM.

THE

perfect-system in the later language, as has

been seen above (535), consists only of an indicative tense
780.

and a

both of them in the two voices, active

participle

and middle.
a. In the oldest language, the perfect has also its modes and
augment-preterit, or pluperfect, or is not less full in its apparatus
of forms than is the present-system (see 808 ff.).

its

781.

The formation

in all verbs, differences

of the perfect

is

among them being

essentially alike

of only subord-

inate consequence, or having the character of irregularities.

The

characteristics of the formation are these:

1.

a stem

made by

reduplication of the root;

a distinction between stronger and weaker forms of

stem, the former being used (as in presents of the First
2.

or non-a-conjugation) in the
all

other persons
3.

singular active,

the latter in

endings in some

respects peculiar,

unlike those of

the present;
4.

the frequent use, especially in the later language,

between stem and endings.

\Reduplication. In roots beginning with a con-

of a union-vowel %

782.

sonant, the reduplication

which forms the perfect-stem

is

of the same character with that which forms the present-

but
stem of the reduplicating conjugation-class (see 643)
with this exception, that radical Ef a and 5TT 5 and fj p (or
5TJ" ar)

have only

5f a,

and never

i,

as vowel of the re-

duplicating syllable thus, from >/q PV fill comes the presentstem fqq pipy, but the perfect-stem qq papr; from y^TT m5
:

782]

X. PERFECT-SYSTEM.

measure comes the present-stem

stem

mama; and

?PTT

280

mimS, but the

rf?

perfect-

so on.

a. Irregularities of roots

with initial consonants will be given below, 784.

783. For roots beginning with a vowel, the rules of

reduplication are these:

a.

root with

sonant repeats the

a before a single final conwhich then fuses with the radical

initial ET
5f a,

S (throughout the whole inflection): thus, 1R

5d from y%$ ad eat; and in like manner STIsT aj, 5fR an,
vowel

to 5TF

THJ

5r
b.

5h.

(as if

The

root fj

from 5^"

root with

j*

forms likewise throughout

ar).

or

3 u

before a single final conso-

nant follows the same analogy, except in the strong forms

here the vowel of the radical syllable has guna,
(sing, act.)
;

e or Eft o; and before this, the reduplicating

becoming
vowel maintains its independent form, and is separated from
1

the radical syllable by

its

own semivowel:

ig

comes

^19

in

weak

come ^rMic and .SCHTMIVOC.

a single vowel,

i,

from yOT
^^

forms, but ^P^iyes. in strong; from

l/3rMic, in like manner,

root

thus,

*N

also

falls

under

this

rule,

The
and

forms ^T iy (y added before a vowel) and ^& iye.

c. Roots which begin with vowels long by nature or by
position do not in general make a perfect-system, but use
instead a periphrastic formation, in

of an auxiliary verb

noun
d.

1087 fj
if

(see

To

is

added

below, chap. XV.:

this

rule,

which the perfect tense

to the accusative of a verbal

107Off.).

howeverj^y^pVfteam (probably

originally

ap:

constitutes an exception, mSttffg the constant perfect-stem ftp (as

from ap: above, a). Also are met with I$6 (RV.) and iflire from
and irire (V.) from >/Ir.

>/I4,

e.

For the peculiar reduplication an, belonging

initial rowels, see below,

\J

to certain

roots

with

788.

784.
number of roots beginning with va and ending with
a single consonant, which in various of their verbal forms and derivatives abbreviate the va to u, do it also in the perfect, and are
treated like roots with initial u (above, 783 b), except that they retain

REDUPLICATION

281

[-788

full form of root in the strong persons of the singular active.

Thus, fromj/ya^jjpea& come uc and uvac; from /vas dwett come
iif and uvas; and so on.

the

The

a.

roots showing this abbreviation are vac, vap, vad, va9,

va weave is said to follow the same rule.

vas, van; and

b. A single root beginning with ya, namely yaj

offer, has the
same contraction, forming the stems iyaj and ij.
c. Occasional exceptions are met with: as, vavaca and vavakse
(RV.); vavapa and vavaha and vavahatus (E. and later); yeje (V.).

785.
take

number of

roots having

ya

after a first initial consonant

(from the y) instead of a in the reduplicating syllable:

thus,

from )/vyac comes vivyac; from /pyft comes pipya.

a. These

roots are

vyac, vyath, vyadh, vya,

pyS, syand;

jyft,

and, in the Veda, also tyaj, with cyu and dyu, which have the rootvowel u. Other sporadic cases occur.
b. A single root with va
svap, which forms susvap.
c.

These

roots

is

treated in the same

way

are for the most part abbreviated in the

namely

weak forms:

794.

see below,

786. A considerable number of roots have in the Veda a long

vowel in their reduplication.
a.

Thus, of roots reduplicating with a: kan, kip, grdh, trp, trf,

mah, mrj, mr9, ran, radh, rabh, vane, van,

v&9, vrj, vrt, vrdh, vrs, 9ad prevail, sah, skambh.

drh, dhr, dhrs, nam,

va9, vas

Some

clothe,

occur only in

of these

isolated

cases;

many have

also

Most are Vedic only; but dadhara is common

Brahmana language, and is even found later. As to jagr, see
short vowel.

forms with
also

in

the

1020 a.

b. Of roots reduplicating with I: the so-called roots (676) didhl

and didl, which make the perfect from the same stem with the present:
thus, dldetha, didaya; didhima, didhyus (also dldhiyus, didiyus).
But plpi has pipye, pipyus, etc., with short i. In AV. occurs once
jlhi^a, and in AB. (and AA.) blbhaya.
c.

Of

with u: tu, ju, and

roots reduplicating

911 (or (jva).

few roots beginning with the (derivative: 42) palatal mutes

and aspiration show a reversion to the more original guttural iu the radical

787.

yd

forms cikit ;
forms ciki ;
thus,
]/hi forms jighi; j/han forms jaghan (and the same
reversions appear in other reduplicated forms of these roots: 2161).
root di. protect is said by the grammarians to form digi; but neither root
syllable after the reduplication

ydt

yji forms jigi;

nor perfect

is

788.

quotable.

small

number of roots with initial a or r

an in the perfect.

(ar)

show

the anomalous reduplication

a.

Thus (the forms occurring mainly in the older language only)

X. PERFECT-SYSTEM.

788]

>/anj or aj, which forms

the pres.

282

anakti, has the perfect anan-

(with anaja and anajyat);

j/a$ attain (from which comes once in RV. anasamahai), has the
weak forms anae.ma etc. (with opt. anaqyam), finale etc. (and L$S.
has anac.adb.ve), and the strong forms anaruja and anac.a
along with

ja and anaje

etc.

the regular a<ja etc.;

which comes once rnadhat) has anrdhus and anrdhe;

arc has anrcus and anrce, and later anarca and anarcus;

]/ydli (from

yrc

or

1/arh has (in TS.) anrhiis;

(RV., once) has been referred to a root ah, elsewhere unknown,
and explained as of this formation ; hut with altogether doubtful propriety.

anaha

b.

with

The

later

sets up the rule that roots beginning

than one consonant have fin as their regular

grammar, then,

a and ending with more

and such perfects are taught from roots like aks, arj, and
ac; but the only other quotable forms appear to be anarchat
(MBh.) and anarsat (TA.); which are accordingly reckoned as "pluperfects".

reduplication;

anc

or

789. One or two individual cases of irregularity are the following:

a.

The extremely common root.bhu be has the anomalous redubabhu ; and, in the Veda, ]/su forms

plication ba, forming the stem

in like manner sasu.

b. The root bhr bear has in the Veda the anomalous reduplication
ja (as- also in intensive: 1002); but RV. has once also the regular babhre,
and pple babhrana.
c. The root sthiv spew forms either tisthiv (QB. et al.) or is$hiv
(not quotable).
d. Vivakvan (RV., once) is doubtless participle of
ular reduplication (as in the present, 660).

yYac, with

irreg-

790. Absence of reduplication is met with in some cases. Thus

a. The root vid know has, from the earliest period to the latest,
a perfect without reduplication, but otherwise regularly made and
inflected: thus, veda, vettha, etc., pple vidvans. It has the meaning of a present The root vid. find forms the regular viveda.
:

few other apparently perfect forms lacking a reduplication are

they are taksathus and taksus, yamatus, skambhathus
and skambhus, nindima (for ninidima?), dhise and dhire (? i/dha),
and vidre and arhire(P see 613). And AV. VS. have cetatus. The
participial words da9vans, midhvans, sahvans are common in the oldest
language; and RV. has once januaas (j/jria), and khidvas (voc.), perb.

found in RV.

haps for oikhidvas.

C.

few sporadic, cases

also

are quotable from the

later

language,

karsatus, cesta and cestatus, bhrajatus, sarpa, gansus and <jansire, dhvanaire, sransire, jalpire,
edhire; also the pples qansivans and dar^ivans, the latter being not
especially from

infrequent.

the epics:

thus,

STRONG AND

283

791. For an anomalous

WEAK

case

or

[793

STEM-FORMS.

two of reduplicated preposition, see

below, 1087f.

Strong and weak stem-forms.

792.

In the three

persons of the singular active, the root-syllable is accented,

and exhibits usually a stronger form than in the rest of the
tense-inflection.

The

difference

is

effected partly

ening the root in the three persons referred

it

in the others, partly

by strength-

to, partly

by

doing both.

by
weakening
793. As regards the strengthening:
a. A final vowel takes either the guna or vyddhi change
in 1st sing, act., guna in 2d, and vy ddhi in 3d: thus, from

y$

bhi, 1st fiR bibhe

f^

bibhai; from

2d

or JSR bibhSi; 2d fiJH bibh6;

1st

ky,

j/Sfi

rl^f cakar or ^Hil^

r^f cakar, 3d ^RTTJ" oakSr.

b. But the u of j/bhu remains unchanged, and adds

vowel-ending: thus,

Medial

babhdva

3d

cakar,

before a

etc.

a before a single final consonant follows

the analogy of a final vowel, and is lengthened or vriddhied
c.

5[

in the 3d. sing.,

tap, 1st

and optionally in the

or rfiTFMatSp, 2d

flcF^tatap

first:

thus,

rfrF^tatap,

from
3d

tatSp.
d. In the earlier language, however, the weaker of the two forms
allowed by these rules in the first person is almost exclusively in use : thus,
1st only bibhaya, tatapa ; 3d bibhaya, tatapa. Exceptions are cakara
and jagraha (doubtful reading) in AV., cakara in A^S. and BAU. (QB.
cakara), jigaya in AQS., as first persons.

e.

medial short vowel has in

the guna-strengthening (where this

all
is

three persons alike

possible:

240): thus,

from y?3g druh comes ^lqg dudroh; from yfesT ^19 comes
from yzRR kyt comes r\3\t\ cakart.

fij^5T^vive9;

f. An initial short vowel before a single final consonant is to be

treated like a medial, but the quotable examples are very few name:

iyesa from j/if seek, uvocitha and uvoca from |/uc, uvosa
from |/u. As to roots i and p, whose vowels are both initial and
ly,

see above,

final,

783 a, b.

g. These rules are said by the grammarians

always

when

it

has simple

tha

to apply to the

as ending-, if it has

itha (below,

2d

sing,

797 d),

X. PERFECT-SYSTEM.

793]
the accent

is

allowed to

284

on any one of the syllables of the word, and

weak form (namely, in

fall

the root-syllable if nnaccented has sometimes the

794 e; and in certain other

however, affords no example
of a 2d sing., whatever its ending, accented on any other than the radical
syllable, or failing to conform to the rales of strengthening as given above
contracted stems with

for medial

The

as vivijitha).

verbs,

a: below,

earlier language,

(in a, c, e).

Occasional Instances of strengthening in other than the singular

h.

met with:

yuyopima and vive9UB (RV.), pasparqus

cakartus and cakartire, cakarsatus, juguhire, nanamire, bibhedus, vavahatus, vivec,atus, vavarsus. The
persons are

thus,

(KeU.), and, in the epics,

roots dy, pr, and <jr, and optionally jr, are said by the grammarians to
have the strong stem in weak forms ; bat no examples appear to be quotable.
and in the
AV., however, has once jaharue (probably a false reading)
;

later language occur

i.

The

root

caskare (>/kr

mjj

scatter)

and tastare.

has (as in the present-system

627) vrddhi

guna in strong forms thus, mamarja ; and ]/guh

745 c) has u instead of o (but also juguhe E.).

of

instead

(also as in present

794. As regards the weakening in weak forms

has been seen above (783 b) that roots beginning with i

fuse reduplicating and radical syllable together to I or u in the

a. It

or

(784) that roots contracting va and ya to u or i

in the reduplication do it also in the root in weak forms, the two
elements here also coalescing to u or I.

weak forms; and

b.

few roots having

ya and va

after a first initial consonant,

and

ya and va to i and
y'vyadh (but vivyadhus

reduplicating from the semivowel (785), contract the

u: thus, vivic from j/vyac, vividh from

The extended roots jyfi, pya, vyfi, $vft,
MBh.), susup from >/svap.
hvft show a similar apparent contraction, making their weak forms from
the simpler* roots jl, pi, vi, c,u, hu, while hvfi must and <jva may get
strong forms
the others).
their

also

from the same (and only jijyaii

is

quotable from

see 729 a) conroot grabh or grah (if it be written thus

*
gyh, making the three forms of stem jagrah (1st and 2d sing,
act), jagrah (3d), and jagrh; but prach (if it be so written: see 756 a)
remains unchanged throughout.
c.

tracts

The

to

d.

Some

roots omit in

weak forms

of this tense, or in

a nasal which is found in its strong forms:

(RV.) from
j/daruj;

thus,

some of them,

we have cakrade

etc.

from j/tans; dada^varis (RV.) from

(AV.) from j/bandh; sejus (^B.) from
from >/8kambh; tastabhus etc. (V.),

ykrand; tatasre (RV.)

bedhus, bedhe,

etc.

caskabhana (AV.)
taatabhana (V.B.), from /stambh. Compare also 788 a.
e. A number of roots having medial a between single consonants
drop that vowel. These are, in the later language, gam, khan, jan,
j/safij;

STRONG AND

285

WEAK

[795

STEM-FORMS.

ban, ghas; they form the weak stems jagxn, cakhn, jajn, jaghn
(compare 637), jaka (compare 640): but RV. has once jajanus.
f.

In

the

mamnate

old

language

found in like manner

are

mamnathe

and

]/man; vavne from /van; tatne, tatnise, tatnire

from ytan (beside tatane, and tate, as if from )/ta); paptiuia and
paptus and paptivans from /pat (beside pet-forms below, g) ; papne from |/pan; sa^cima and sa9cus, sa9ce and saqcire, from ]/sac.
from

g. Roots mjjreneral haying_medial a before a single final consonant, and beginning also with a single consonant that is repeated
that is, not an aspirate, a guttural
unchanged in the reduplication

contract their root and reduplication together into

mute, or h
one syllable, having e as its vowel thus, /sad forms the weak stem
sed, /pac forms pec, /yam forms yem; and so on.
:

h. Certain roots not having the form here defined are declared by the

most of them optionally;

grammarians to undergo the same contraction
and examples of them are in general of very rare occurrence. They are as

radh (radh?),

follows: raj (E.G.) and

notwithstanding their long rowel;

RV. down), though their inifrom
C.),
(occurs
tial is changed in reduplication; trap, tras (tresus E.G.), qrath, syarn,
svan, though they begin with more than one consonant dambh (debhus,
RV., from the weaker dabh), though it ends with more than one; and

phan, phal (phelire

bhaj

bbraxn (bhremus

etc.

KSS.), bhraj, granth, svanj, in spite of more

reasons than one to the contrary.

And C.B. has sejus from /sanj, and
KB. has 9remus from /^ram. On the other hand, RV. has once rarabh-

ma, and
i.

is

R. has

papatus,

This contraction

is

for

petus, from /pat.

allowed also in 2d sing.

act.

when

the ending

itha: thus, tenitha beside tatantha (but no examples are quotable

from the older language).

j.

The

contraction

roots

9a$ and dad (from dS: 672)

but no perfect forms of either appear

are
to

said

to reject

the

have been met with

in use.

k. From ytf (or tar) occurs terus (R.) ; and jerus from yjr is.
authorized by the grammarians
both against the general analogy of roots in r.
1. Roots ending in a lose their a before all endings beginning
with a vowel, including those endings that assume the union-vowel i
unless in the latter case it be preferred to regard the i as a
(796)
weakened form of the a.

795.

The

Endings, and their union with the stem.

general scheme of endings of the perfect indicative has

been already given (553

c)

(543 a) that roots ending in

sing, active.

an

dit

has also been pointed out

a have

?ft

5u in

1st

and 3d

795

X. PERFECT-SYSTEM.

286

a. The ending maa instead of ma is found in 9\i9rumas (E.G.).

For the alleged occurrence of dhve instead of dhve in 2d pi. mid., see

226 c.
796. Those of the endings which begin with a con-

sonant

namely

vahe, *|% mahe,

and in the

2T

ij

tha,

dhve,

va,

re in middle

IT

nia in active;

se,

5|%

are very often,

language usually, joined to the base with

the help of an interposed union- vowel ^ i.
later

a. The union-vowel i is found widely used also in other parts of the

general verbal system: namely, in the sibilant aorist, the futures, and the
verbal nouns and adjectives (as also in other classes of derivative stems).

In the later language, a certain degree of correspondence is seen among the

different parts of the same verb, as regards their use or non-use of the
connective; but this correspondence is not so close that general rules respecting it can be given with advantage; and it will be best to treat each
formation by itself.

b.
itself

The

is

perfect

the tense in which the use of

most widely and firmly

The most important

797.

has established

in the later language.

rules as to the use of

in

the later language are as follows:

a.

b.

The ^ re of 3d pi. mid. has it always.

The other consonant-endings, except 51 tha of 2d

sing, act., take

But

it

in nearly all verbs.

rejected throughout by eight verbs

namely ky
make, bhf bear, sy go, vp choose, dru run, 9ru hear, stu praise, sru
flow; and it is allowably (not usually) rejected by some others, in
general accordance with their usage in other formations.
c.

d.

it

In 2d

is

sing, act, it is rejected

verbs just given, but also by

but

it is also

cluding those in

ending
e.

and
5TT

is "*& itha),

The

criticise the

ending in vow-

it

(of

many
is

verbs which reject

optional in

which the

and most of those in

a
^

many
is
i,

lost

I,

out into infinite

detail,

in

it

verbs, in-

when
and

the
3" u.

rules of the grammarians, especially as regards the use of

or itha, run

one another;

taken by

others,

which in other formations have no

els or in consonants,

^ i;
other formations

many

not only by the eight

tha

and are not wholly consistent with

and, as the forms are very infrequent, it is not possible to

statements made, and to tell how far they are founded on the

facts of usage.

[800

fDINGS.

287
With

f.

this

ed into y or

a final radical

i,

iy.

or I

is

not combined, but chang-

The u of ybhu becomes uv throughout before

a vowel.

wise.

798. In the older language, the usage

Thus.
a. In the RV.,

the union-vowel i

is

is

in part quite

other-

taken by roots ending in con-

sonants provided the last syllable of the stem is a heavy one, but not other-

wise: thus, asitha, uvocltha, viveditha, but tatantha and vivyaktha;

ucima, paptima, sedima, yuyopima, but jaganma, jagrbhma, yuyuj-

ucise, jajnise, sasahise, but vivitse and dadrkse; bubhujmahe

and c,ac admahe etc. (no examples of ivahe or imahe chance to occur,
nor any of either idhve or dhve); ijire, jajnire, yetire, tataksire,
but caklpre, vividre, duduhre, pasprdhre, tatasre (and so on:

ma;

The only exception in RV. is vettha from Vvid,

twenty-two forms).
without i (in Br., also attha from yah: below, 801 a). The other Vedic
texts present nothing inconsistent with this rule, but in the Brahmanas 3d
forms in ire are made

pi.

ire, yuyujire,

after light syllables also

thus, sasrjire,

bubudh-

rurudhire.

b. In roots ending with a vowel, the early usage is more nearly like
Thus: for roots in a the rule is the same (except that no 3d
sing, in itha is met with), as dadhima, dadhise, dadhidhve, dadhire
(the only persons with i quotable from RV. and AV. ; and RV. has dadhre
the

later.

roots in r appear also to follow the later rule: as cakrse,

paprse, vavrse, vavrmahe, but dadhrise and jabhrige, and in 3d
pi. mid. both cakrire and dadhrire;
j/bhu has both babhutha
But there are
(usually) and babhuvitha, but only babhuvimd (AV.).
found, against the later rules, susuma, cicyuse, juhure, and juhure,

twice);

without i: the instances are too few to found a rule upon.

799. The ending rire

of

3d

pi.

mid.

is

found in RV. in six forms

namely, cikitrire, jagrbhrire, dadrire, bubhujrire, vividrire, sasrjrire; to which SV. adds duduhrire, and TB. dadr<jrire.

800.

Examples of inflection. By way

tion of the rules given above

may he

given in

of illustrafull

the per-

fect indicative inflection of the following verbs:

a.

As example of the normal

we take the root

final consonant,

form of perfect-stem
bubudh.

^RT&J

d.

^^1^01

'-

its

strong

form, 3sRj

middle.
p.

d.

^c<|LfIT

bubodha bubudhiva -dhima

g^budh

of a root with

know:

weak

is

active.
s.

inflection

00
bubudhe -dhivahe

-dhimahe

'

X. PERFECT-SYSTEM.

800]
o

sioJMejH

SfsHI

bubodhitha

-dhathus

-dha

bubodha

-dhatus

-dhus

oo o

oo

-x

3ritrGf

oicHMI^

oo

oo

288

oo

bubudnise -dhathe -dhidhve

X

793

bubudhe

-dhate

-dnire

accent in 2d sing. act. (above,

g) needs to be noted both in this and in the remaining paradigms.
b.

The

c.

As example of the normal

u- vowel, we may take the

asserted

of possible

Tariety

inflection of a root with

root

final i or

^ft

nl lead:

its

forms

and Rjft ninl.

of stem are JHHU ninay or
Piiiqjunay,
i

r-.

ninaya, ninaya

ninyima ninye

ninyiva

ninetha, ninayitha ninyathus ninya

uinyatUB ninyus

ninaya
d.

The

"^

FRT

(HHIU

root krl would

ninyivahe ninyimahe

ninyise

ninyathe

ninyidhve

ninye

ninyate

ninyire

make (129 a)

and j/bhu
cikriyatus, cikriyiis, etc.
active (middle forms not quotable}

in

weak forms cikriyiva,

is inflected

as follows in the

babhuva

babhutha, babhtivitha

babhuva

Other roots
an ending.

we may

and

or

u change

As example

e.

a,

in

dad

this to

(or

uv

before the

initial

vowel of

of the inflection of a root ending in ^T

take ^T d5 give:

its

forms of stem are

^T dad5

dadi: see above, 7941).

dad&u

dadiva

dadima

^w, ^BT

^OT^

dada

dadise

dadatha, daditha dadathus

3

babhuviva
babhuvima
babhuvathus babhuva
babhuvatus
babhuviis

dade

dadivahe dadimahe

^m

^&

dadathe

dadidhve

dadire

^g^

^PT^

^ ^

dadau

dadatus

dadus

dade

dadate

J
f.

The RV. has once papra

for

paprau

(and jaha for jahau?).

[800

EXAMPLES OF INFLECTION.

289

As example of a root with medial 5f a showing fuof root and reduplication, resulting in medial ^ e, in

g.

sion

the

weak forms (794 g), we may take cH^tan

stretch:

its

and
forms of stem are HH\tatan or
rTrTH^tatan,
1

RrTT. rfrTH

H^f

^PnT

tatana, tatana

teniva

tenima tene

tenivahe tenimahe

HH-y ?HTO

rii^H^

HTO

H*T

HlHN$

flf^T

tatantha, tenitha tenathus

tena

tenise tenathe

tenidhve

RrTR

HHcjH^

^3^

^1^

^T

tatana

tenatus

tenus

tene

tenate

tenire

^ftfi

root jan, with the others which expel medial a in weak

forms (794 e), makes jajantha or jajnitha, jajniva, jajnus jajne,
jajnimahe, jajnire; and so on.

The

h.

As example

i.

to

3u

of a root with initial

plication to

speak:

^3T

in

weak forms

forms of stem are

its

uvaca, uvaca

uciva

(784),

3cfcF

3c|M

x^rirtH^ v^rj^H^

uvaca
j.

jitha;

ucatus

va contracted

we may

ucua

take

s^vac

uvac or 35TI^ uvSc, and

ucdma uce

uvaktha, uvacitha uoathus uca

:t

5f

and contracted with the redu-

in the reduplication,

uci^e

ucivahe

ucimahe

ucathe

ucidhve

^3J%

v^^lrl

^ft(

uce

ucate

ucire

In like manner, ]/yaj forms iyaja or iyaja, iyastha or iyaand so on; yuc has uvoca and uvocitha in the

ije, ijise,

strong forms, and all the rest like vac.

k.

Of

inflection

the four roots in 5R r mentioned at 797 c, the

is

as follows:

cakara, cakara cakrva

cakyma cakre

rlTO

r|5hy^

rTSft

cakartha

cakrathus cakra

cakara
Wbitiiey,

cakratus
Qraiumar.

2.

ei.

cakrus

cakrvahe cakpnahe

r\?h$\
?J^
cakrse cakrathe cakrdlive

rf^

cakre

cakrate

cakrire
19

800]

X. PERFECT-SYSTEM.

Of

1.

made

290

the roots in f? r in general, the

first

persons are

as follows:

dadhara, dadhara dadhriva dadhrima dadhre dadhrivahe dadhrimahe

m. We may
is

further

add here,

finally,

is

given above)

asa

asitha

notice

few

be,

asima

asiva
asathus
asatus

asa

801.

the active inflection (the middle

which (like babhuva and cakara,

frequently employed as an auxiliary.

not in use) of the perfect of as

asa
asus

miscellaneous irregularities

call

still

for

The root ah speak occurs only in the perfect indicative, and

only in the 3d persons of all numbers and in the 2d sing, and du.,
in active (and in 2d sing, the h is irregularly changed to t before
the ending): thus, attha, aha; ahathus, ahatus; ahus (in V., only
a.

aha and ahus

are

met

with).

From >/va weave,

b.

the

3d

pi.

act.

uvus

occurs in RY.,

other perfect form appears to have been met with in use. It

by the grammarians to be inflected regularly as va; and also as

present-stem

and

is

vaya: 76 If), with

weak forms,

further, in the

The

c.

root

vya

envelop

va

is

and no
allowed

vay

(the

in

weak forms;

has in RV. the perfect-forms

vivyathus

contraction of

to

as simple u.

and vivye, and no others have been met with in use; the grammarians
require the strong forms to be made from vyay, and the weak from vi.
d.

The

root i

go forms in RY. and AY. the 2d sing. act. iyatha

Hire from ]/ir, RY. has several

beside the regular iyetha; and beside

times erire.

e. RY. has an anomalous accent in dadrQe and dadixjre (beside

dadrkse) and the pple dadrqana. And ciketa (once, beside ciketa) is

perhaps a kindred anomaly.

f.

(242)

Persons of the perfect from the ir-forms of roots in changeable r

and tistire (both RY.); and they have corresponding

are titirus

participles.

g. The bastard root urnu (713) is said by the grammarians to make

the perfect-stem urnunu; the roots majj and nac, are said to insert a
nasal in the 2d sing, active, when the ending is simple tha: thus, ma-

manktha, nananstha

(also mamajjitha and nec.itha).

may be noted sasajjatus (MBh.: ]/sanj, which has in
the secondary form sajj), rurundhatus (R.), and duduhus (BhP).
The anomalous ajagrabhaisam (AH. vi. 35) seems a formation on

h. Further
passive
i.

the perfect-stem (but perhaps for ajigrabhisan, desid.v).

[805

'ARTICIPLE.

Perfect Participle.
802.

The ending

of the active participle

(that is to say, in the strong

ii

forms

it is

is

effa

vSns

contracted to 33T

and replaced by 3rT vat in the middle

It is added to the weak form
above, 458 ff.)

in the weakest,

forms

see

of the perfect stem

and plural of the

as shown, for example, in the dual

active inflection of the given verb;

and,

mechanically, the weakest participle-stem is identical with

the 3d pi. active.
Thus, gstyin^ bubudhvSns, PlHloliu
nimvans, rHc| |u cakrvdns.

weak form of the

803. If the

perfect stem

the ending takes the union-vowel

^
disappears in the weakest cases): thus,
labic,

is

monosyl-

(which, however,

HMNlU

tenivans,

adivSns

srf^TCTJajnivSns, 4|lf^ejlU
ad: 783 a), and so on; c^clltl dadivSfts and

from roots in

a, are to

5(T

the other according as

be reckoned in the one

we view

the ^

as

(from

its like,

class or

weakened

root-

vowel or as union-vowel (7941).

a. But participles of which the perfect-stem is monosyllabic by absence of the reduplication do not take the union-vowel
thus, vidvans,
:

and in

dft?va&a (SV. dayivana), mI<JlivaAs, aahvaria, khidvans (?); and RV. has also dadvans (AY. dadivans and once dadavans)
from ]/da (or dad: 672); and an-a9variB (]/a9 eat) occurs in TS. and
TB. But AV. has vi9ivans and varjivans (in negative fern, avarjusi).
V.,

804. Other Vedic

irregularities calling

for notice are few.

The long

vowel of the reduplication (786) appears in the participle as in the indicative

thus, vavrdhvans, sasahvans, jujuvans. RY. and AY. have sasavans
:

from }/aan or sa.

RV. makes the

different modifications

of the root:

participial forms of /ty or tar from

Rethus, titirvaris, but tatarusas.

specting the occasional exchanges of strong and

see above, 462 c.

805.

a.

From

roots

gam

and

ban

the

weak stem in

Yeda makes the

inflection,

strong stems

212 a)

and jaghanvans; the later language

allows either these or the more regular jagmivans and jaghnivans (the
weakest stem-forms being everywhere jagmus and jaghnua).
RY. has

jaganvans

also

(as to the n, see

tatanvana.
19*

806]
b.

X. PERFECT-SYSTEM.

From

three roots,

vid

find,

292

vie, and drc,, the

later

language

allows strong participle-stems to be made with the union-vowel, as well as

in the regular manner without it: thus, vivi9ivans or viviqvans ; dadr^ivftftB occurs in

806.
is

added

KthU. PB. has once cicchidivans.

The ending of the middle participle is 5na. It

weak form of perfect-stem, as this appears

to the

in the middle inflection: thus, eJ&JllH

^H

niny&na,

bubudhSna,

dad&na, ?F!H tenana, sTfTR jajnSna,

a. In the Veda, the long reduplicating vowel is

thus,

participles:

shown by many middle

vavydhana, vavasana, dadrhana, tutujana, etc.

RV. has c.ac.ayana from 1/91 (with irregular guna, as in the present-sys629); tistirana from )/str; and once, with mfina, sasymana

tem:

from ]/sr.
accented (as

few participles with long redupl. vowel have

if rather

intensive:

1013):

babadhana, gc^adana, (ju^ujana,

thus,

tutujana

it

(also

irregularly

tutujana),

c,n(juvana.

807. In the later language, the perfect participles have nearly gone
out of use; even the active appears but rarely, and is made from
very few verbs, and of the middle hardly any examples are quotable,
save such as the proper name yuyudhana, the adjective anucfina
learned in scripture, etc.

Modes

of the Perfect.

808. Modes of the perfect belong only to the Vedic language,

and even are seldom found outside of the Rig-Veda.
a. To draw the line surely and distinctly between these and the
mode-forms from other reduplicated tense-stems
the present-stem of the
is not posreduplicating class, the reduplicated aorist, and the intensive
sible, since no criterion of form exists which does not in some cases fail, and
since the general equivalence of modal forms from all stems
(582), and the
common use of the perfect as a present in the Veda (823), deprive us of
a criterion

of meaning.

There can be no reasonable doubt, however, that

a considerable body of forms are to be reckoned

here;

optatives like

Sna-

and babhuyas and babhuyat, imperatives like babhutu, subjunclike jabharat, show such distinctive characteristics of the perfect

9yam
tives

formation that by their analogy other similar words are confidently classed
as belonging to the perfect.

809. The normal method of making such forms would appear

be as follows: from a reduplicated perfect-stem, as (for example)
mumuc, an imperative would be made by simply appending, as
usual, the imperative endings; the derived subjunctive mode-stem
would be mumoca (accented after the analogy of the strong forms
to

MODES.

293

[812

of the perfect indicative), and would take either primary or secondary endings and the optative mode-stems would be mumucya in
;

mumuci (accent on personal endings) in the middle.

the great majority of the forms in question (about three
quarters) are made in these ways. Thus:
the active,

and

And

810. Examples of the regular subjunctive formation are:

a. with

secondary endings, active:

3d

paprathas, cakanas,
sing., cakanat, jabharat, raranat, sasahat, paspar^at, piprayat; 1st pi., cakanama,
tatanama, 9U9avama; 3d pi., tatanan, paprathan (other persons do
sing.,

mamahas, piprayas, bubodhas, raranas;

not occur).

This

is

3d

the largest class of cases.

b. with primary endings, active: here seem to belong only dadharsati and vavartati: compare the formation with different accent below,

81 la.
c. of middle forms occur only the 3d sing, tatapate, ^a^amate,
yuyojate, jujosate (SV.; RV. has jujof ate) ; and the 3d pi. cakananta,
tatananta (and perhaps two or three others: below, 81 Ib, end).

811. But not a few subjunctives

a.

With strengthened

of other formation occur;

root-syllable,

thus:

as above, but with accent on the

reduplication (as in the majority of present-forms of the reduplicating class:

above, 645). Here the forms with primary endings, active, preponderate,

and are not very

rare:

for

example,

jujosasi, jujo^ati, jujosathas,

(other persons do not occur). With secondary endings, jujosas,

jujosat, and jujosan are the forms that belong most distinctly here (since

jujoaatha

dadagas and suefudas etc. are perhaps rather aorists).

middle form but jujogate (RV. see above, 810 o).

And

there

is

no

b. With nnstrengthened root-syllable occur a small body of forms,

which are apparently also accented on the reduplication (accented examples
are found only in 3d pi. mid.): thus, active, for example, mumucas;

vavjtat, vividat, 911911 vat; the only middle forms are dadhr^ate,
vfivrdhate, 3d sing.; and cakramanta, dadhjrsanta, rurucanta (with
dadabhanta, paprathanta, mamahanta, juhuranta, which might
also belong elsewhere:

81 Oc).

Accented on the ending are v&v?dhanta and cakrpanta (which

are rather to be called augmentless
pluperfects).
c.

d.

As

see below,

to forms with double mode-sign, or transfers to

an a- conjugation,

815.

812. Examples of the regular optative formation are

a. In active: 1st sing.,

ana9yam, jagamyam, paprcy&m, riricyam; 2d sing., vavytyfts, vivi^yas, ^u^ruyas, babhuyas; 3d sing.,
jagamyat, vavr-tyat, tutujyat, babhuyat; 2d du., jagmyatam, 9U9ruyatam; 1st pi., Basahyama, vavrtyama, 9U9uyama; 3d pi., tatanyus,
vavyjyus, vavptyus.

The forms

are quite numerous.

X. PERFECT-SYSTEM.

812]

294

namely, 1st sing., vavytlya; 2d

vavydhithas, cakf amithas ; 3d sing., jagrasita, vavytita,
mamrjlta, dudhuvita, 9U9\icita; 1st pi., vavrtimahi. And sasab. In middle, the forms are few:

sing.,

histhas and ririsis^a appear

to

furnish examples

of preoative optative

forms.

Indic. There is no irregular mode of formation of perfect optatives.

vidual irregularities are shown by certain forms: thus, cakriyaa, papiyat,
9U<jriiya8 and 9U<jruyatam, with treatment of the final as before the
passive-sign
is

jakeiyat

ya (770); anajyat
anomalous

r irises

is

with short initial; Qi^rita from |/$ri;

the only form that shows a union- vowel

(unless also siset, from >/sa).

813. Of regular imperative forms, only a very small number are to

namely, active, cakandhi, rarandhi, cikiddhi, titigdhi,
mumugdhi, 9U9iigdhi, and piprlhi; cakantu, rarantu, mumoktu,
be quoted:

mumuktam and vavrktam; jujustana and vavrttana

we are to add mamaddhi, mamattu, mamattana) ;
middle,
vavrtsva and vavrddhvanu AY. has once dadr^ram.

and babhutu;
(unless

814. As irregular imperatives may be reckoned several which show

a union-vowel a, or have been transferred to an a-conjugation.
Such are,
in the active, mumocatam and jujosatam (2d du.), and mumocata
(2d pi.); in

the middle,

piprayasva

(only one found with accent), and

mamahantam

vavr/dliasva, vavrsasva (2d sing.), and

probably to be accented -asva and -antam).

mamahasva,
(3d

pi.:

815. Such imperatives as these, taken in connection with some of

the subjunctives given above (and a few of the "pluperfect" forms: below,
820), suggest as plausible the assumption of a double present-stem, with
reduplication and added

comparable: below,

1026

(with which the desiderative stems

ff.):

for example,

jujosa from

would be

]/jus, from which

would come jujosasi etc. and jujosate (8 11 a) as indicative, jujosas

etc. as subjunctively used augmentless imperfect, and
jujofatam as imMost of the forms given above as subjunctives with primary
perative.
ending lack a marked and constant subjunctive character, and would pass
as indicatives.
And it appears tolerably certain that from one

fairly well

root at least,

come

readily

vpdh, such a double stem is to be recognized from vavrdha

vavrdhate, vavrdhanta, and from it alone can come regu;

vavrdhasva, vavrdhete and vavydhSti (once, RV.)

and, yet
more, the participle vavydliant (RV.; AV. vavydhant : an isolated case)
To assume
yet even here we have also vavrdhithas, not vavrdhethas.

larly

double present-stems, however, in all the cases would be highly implauit is better to
recognize the formation as one begun, but not car-

sible;

ried out.

Only one other subjunctive with double mode-sign

namely,
is found to set beside
vSvydhati.
816. Forms of different model are not very seldom made from the
a.

paprcasi
same

root

for

example, from ]/muc, the subjunctives

mumocas, mumo-

[821

PLUPERFECT.

295

mumucas;

cati, and

}/pri, the imperatives

from

j/dhrs, dadharsati and dadhrsate;

from

piprlhi and piprayasva.

Pluperfect.
817. Of an augment-preterit from the perfect-stem, to which the
name of pluperfect is given on the ground of its formation (though
not of its meaning), the Veda presents a few examples; and one or
two forms of the later language (mentioned above, 788 b) have also
been referred to it.

much of the same difficulty in distinguishing the pluperthe perfect modes from kindred reduplicated formations. Between
and the aorist, however, a difference of meaning helps to make a separation.
a. There is

fect
it

as

818. The normal pluperfect should show a

and a weak one elsewhere
thus,

lar active,

strong stem in the singu-

mumoc

mumuc

and

with augment prefixed and secondary endings added (us in

ata in 3d pi. mid.).
a. Of forms

made

according to this model,

ajagrabham and acacakfam

we

3d

in

have,

pi.

act.,

the active:

by its form, might be

aorist: 860); 2d sing, ajagan; 3d sing., ajagan and aciket; 2d du.,
amumuktam; 2d pi. ajaganta, and ajagantana and ajabhartana (a
strong form, as often in this person: 556 a); 3d pi. (perhaps), amamandus and amarnadus. To these may be added the augmentless cakan
and raran, ciketam and cakaram. In the middle, the 3d pi. acakriran
and ajagmiran (with Iran instead of ata), and the augmentless 2d sing,
1st

sing.,

jugurthas and susupthas,

819.

(which,

are the most regular forms to be found.

Several forms from roots ending in consonants save the endings

2d and 3d

sing. act. by inserting an I (555 b): thus, abubhojis,

aviveqis; arireclt, ajagrabhit (avavarit and avavacjtfim are rather
intensives); and the augmentless jihinsis (accent?) and dadharait belong

in

with them.

A few forms show a stem ending in a : they are, in the active

asasvajat, acikitat, acakrat; in the middle: 3d sing., apiprata; 2d du., apasprdhetham ; 3d pi., atitvisanta (which by its form
might be aorist), adadfhanta ; and cakradat, cakrpanta, vavrdhanta,
820.

3d

sing.,

juhuranta, would perhaps be best

(compare 811, above).

classified

here as augmentless forms

Uses of the Perfect.

821. Perfects are quotable as made from more than half the
roots of the language, and they abound in use at every period and
in almost all branches of the literature, though not always with the

same value.
a. According

to

the

Hindu grammarians, the

perfect

is

used in the

821]

X. PERFECT-SYSTEM.

296

narration of facts not witnessed by the narrator; but there is no evidence

of its being either exclusively or distinctively so employed at any period.

b. In the later language, it is simply a preterit or past tense,

equivalent with the imperfect, and freely interchangeable or coordinated with it. It is on the whole less common than the imperfect,
although the preferences of different authors are diverse, and it some-

times exceeds the imperfect in frequency (compare (927).

o.

The

perfects

veda and aha

are everywhere used with presespecially dadhara, also

In the Brahmanas, also others,

didftya, bibhaya, etc.

ent value.

822. In the Brahmanas, the distinction of tense-value between perand imperfect is almost altogether lost, as in the later language. But
in most of the texts the imperfect is the ordinary tense of narration, the
Thus in PB., the imperfects are to
perfect being only exceptionally used.
fect

the perfects as more than a hundred to one in the Brahmana parts of TS.
and TB., as over thirty-four to one; and in those of MS. in about the
same proportion; in AB., as more than four to one, the perfect appearing
mostly in certain passages, where it takes the place of imperfect. It is
only in QB. that the perfect is much more commonly used, and even, to
;

a considerable extent, in coordination with the imperfect. Throughout the

Brahmanas, however, the perfect participles have in general the true "perfect" value, indicating a completed or proximate past.

823. In the Yeda,

the

as past tense in narration,

case is

very different.

The

perfect is

but only rarely; sometimes also

it

used

has a true

"perfect" sense, or signifies a completed or proximate past (like the aorist

of the older language: 928); but oftenest it has a value hardly or not
It is thus the
at all distinguishable in point of time from the present
equivalent of imperfect, aorist, and present ; and

them

a.

Examples are:

muncanty
like,

birds;

ete
se 'd

babhuva

ta

it

occurs coordinated with

all.

of perfect with

vayo na paptuh

raja ksayati

present,

na sramyanti na vi

(RV.) they weary not nor

stop, they fly

carsamnam aran na nemih par!

(RV.) he in truth rules king of men ; he embraces them all,

of perfect with aorist, upo ruruoe yuvatfr
;

as the wheel the spokes

na yotja... abhud agnfh samidhe manusanam akar

amana tam&nsi (RV.) she is come beaming like a young
hath appeared for the kindling of mortals
the darkness

tarda (RV.)
g.

her

she hath

made

maiden; Agni

light,

driving

of perfect with imperfect, ahann ahim anv

he slew the dragon, he penetrated to the waters.

coordination as this last

e.

jyotir badh-

is

away

apaa taSuch

occurrence in the later language:

honor to
(R.) he was glad, and paid

of constant

muxnude 'pujayac cai 'nam

vaatrante jagr&ha ekandhadecje *srjat tasya srajaxn (MBh.)

took hold of the end of his garment, and dropped a garland on

she

his shoulders.

VARIETIES OP AORIST.

297

CHAPTER

[824

XI.

THE AORIST SYSTEMS.

UNDER

824.

the

name

of aorist are included

(as

was

pointed out above, 532) three quite distinct formations, each

of which has

I.

its

sub- varieties

SIMPLE AORIST

namely

(equivalent to the

aorist"), analogous in all respects as to form

Greek "second
and

inflection

with the imperfect.

It has two varieties:
1. the rootwith
a
tense-stem
identical
with
the
root (corresaorist,

ponding to an imperfect of the

with a tense-stem ending in 5f
before the endings

root-class)

2.

the a-aorist,

a, or with union-vowel

5f

(corresponding to an imperfect of the

a-class).

n.

REDUPLICATING AORIST, perhaps in origin idenwith an imperfect of. the reduplicating class, but

tical

3.

having come to be separated from it by marked peculiarities

of form. It usually has a union-vowel 5f a before the end-

an imperfect of one of the a-classes

but a few forms occur in the Veda without such vowel.
ings, or is inflected like

III.

SIGMATIC or SIBILANT AORIST (corresponding to

the Greek

added

"first

aorist"),

having for

its

tense-sign a

H^s

to the root, either directly or with a preceding auxil-

endings are usually added immediately to the

in a small number of roots with a unionbut
tense-sign,
vowel 51 a ; a very few roots also are increased by H s for
its

iary ^ i;

its

formation;

into four

and according

varieties:

before endings:

4.

to

these differences

it

falls

namely, A. without union-vowel 5f a

alone added to the
s-aorist, with

H^s

the same

with interposed ^ i; 6. si$aorist, the same as the preceding with H^s added at the
end of the root; B. with union- vowel 5T a, 7. sa- aorist.
root;

5.

is-aorist,

825]

XI. AORIST-SYSTEMS.

826. All these varieties are

298

bound together and made

into a single complex system by certain correspondences of

form and meaning. Thus, in regard to form, they are all

in the indicative,

alike,

augment-preterits to which there

not exist any corresponding present; in regard to

meaning, although in the later or classical language they
are simply preterits, exchangeable with imperfects and perdoes

they

fects,

all alike

have in the older language the general

value of a completed past or "perfect", translatable by have

done and the

like.

is a formation of infrequent occurrence in

Sanskrit (its forms are found, for example, only
twenty-one times in the Nala, eight in the Hitopadega, seven in Manu, six
each in the Bhagavad-Gita and Qakuntala, and sixty-six times, from four-

820. The

much

of the

aorist-systein

classical

teen roots, in the first book, of about 2600 lines, of the Ramayana: compare 927 b), and it possesses no participle, nor any modes (excepting in
the prohibitive use of its augmentless forms : see 579 ; and the so-called
precative : see 921 ff.) ; in the older language, on the other hand, it is
quite common, and has the whole variety of modes belonging to the present,

and sometimes participles. Its description, accordingly, must be given

mainly as that of a part of the older language, with due notice of its restriction in later use.

show aorist forms,

in the AY., rather less than one third and in the
other texts of the older language comparatively few aorists occur which are
a. In the BY., nearly half the roots occurring

827.

of one or another class

not found in these two.

b. More than fifty roots, in RV. and AV. together, make aorist forms
more than one class (not taking into account the reduplicated or "causative" aorist)
but no law appears to underlie this variety ; of any relation
such as is taught by the grammarians, between active of one class and
middle of another as correlative, there is no trace discoverable.
of

C.

Examples

are

of classes

and

4,

adham

and dhasus from

agrabham and

j/dha, ayuji and ayuksata from >'yuj ;

agrabhisma from j/grabh, mrathas and

mar sisthas

of 1 and 2, arta and arat from j/y;

2 and

of

of 1 and 5,

4,

from y'mr'S ;
avitsi

avidam and

from |/vid find, anijam and anaiksit fromynij;

of 2 and 5, saneand asanisam from j/san;
of 2 and 7, aruham and aruksat
from yruh;
of 4 and 5, amatsus and amadisus from >/mad;

ma

of 1 and 2 and 4,
4 and 6, hasmahi and hasisus from yha;
atnata and atanat and atan from y tan ;
of 1 and 4 and 5, abudhran and abhutsi and bodhisat from ybudh, astar and strsiya and
of

299

1.

ROOT-AORIST.

[-831

astaris from ]/str. Often the second, or second and third, class is represented by only an isolated form or two.

Simple

I.

828. This
least
like

is,

Aorist.

of the three principal divisions of aorist, the one

removed from the analogy of forms already explained; it is

an imperfect, of the root-class or of the a-class, without a corres-

ponding present indicative, but with (more or less fragmentarily)

the other parts which go to make up a complete present-system.

all

1. Root-aorist.

829.

few roots in

to a
to

This formation

a.

ETF

is

in the later language limited

5 and the root H bhu, and

ex

allowed

is

be made in the ^active only, the middle using instead

the s- aorist
b.

The

(4),

or the is-aorist

roots in

as usual, lose their

793 a) retains
after it

ej^v

and 3d

sing,
8.

5fT

5TT

(5).

a take 3SM1S as 3d

5 before

it;

pi.

ending, and,

in the perfect:
*Tj3hfi (as

vowel unchanged throughout, inserting

before the endings CPT am and 5R an of 1st
its

pi.

Thus:

d.

p.

s.

d.

p.

r\

adam

adava

adas

adatam adata

adat

adatam adus

abhuvjun

abhuvk

abhuma

abh1%

abhutam

abh

abhut

abhutam

adama

For the

classical Sanskrit, this is the

abhuvan

whole

story.

830. In the Veda, these same roots are decidedly the most

fre-

quent and conspicuous representatives of the formation: especially

the roots ga, da, dha, pa drink, stha, bhu; while sporadic forms
are made from jna, pra, sa, ha. As to their middle forms, see below,

834 a.
a. Instead of

3d

pi.,

abhuvam, BY.

has twice

abhuvam.

BhP. has agan,

instead of agus.

831. But aorists of the same class are also made from a numy, and a few in i- and u-vowels (short or long)

ber of roots in

XL

831]

AORIST-SYSTEMS.

300

with, as required by the analogy of the tense with an imperfect of

the root-class, guna-strengthening in the three persons of the singular.
(in the active), from y^ru, a^ravam and aqrot; from
and
a<jret; from >/kr make, akaram and akar (for akars
]/9ri, agree
and akart); from vr enclose, avar (585 a); and so astar, aspar. Dual
and plnral forms are much less frequent than singular; but for the most
thus
part they also show an irregular strengthening of the root-vowel
a.

Thus

(including augmentless forms), akarma and karma and akarta, vartam,

spartam, ahema and ahetana, bhema, acjravan; regular are only

avran, akran, ahyan, and a<jriyan.

832. Further, from a few roots with medial

(or

vowel

initial)

capable of guna-strengthening and having in general that strengthening only in the singular.

abhedam and abhet from ]/bhid; amok from j/muc;

from /yuj ; rok (VS.) from j/ruj ; arodham and arudhma from
l/rudh ; avart from yVrt ; vark from j/vrj (AY. has once avrk) ; adara. Thus,

yojam

9am

from ydf$',

ardhma

from j/rdh; and adrcjan, avrjan, a^vitan.

adarqma (TS.) from )/dr<j.

But chedma, with guna, from >/chid, and

833* Again, from a larger number of roots with a as radical

vowel

212 a)
variety

m:

143 a,
gam (with n for when final or followed by
decidedly most frequent occurrence, and shows the greatest
of forms: thus, agamam, agan (2d and 3d sing.), aganma,

a. Of these,
is of

aganta (strong form), agman. The other cases are akran from /kram ;
atan from ]/tan; abhrat from )/bhraj; aakan from |/skand; aarat
from )/sran8

(?

VS.);

dhak and daghma

from >/dagh; ana$

(585 a)

anas^am from /nag; aghas or aghat, aghastam, aghasta, and

aksan (for aghsan, like agman) from }/ghas; and the 3d pll. in us,
akramus, ayamus, dabhiis, nrtus (pf.v). mandus.
834. So far only active forms have been considered. In the
and

middle, a considerable part of the forms are such as are held by the
grammarians (881) to belong to the s-aorist, with omission of the

they doubtless belong, however, mostly or altogether, here. Thus

a. From roots ending in vowels, we have adhithas, adhita (also
ahita), and adhlmahi; adithas, adita, and adimahi (and adlmahi
from >/d& cut); aglta (?); simahi; asthithas and asthita and asthiran,
8

of r-roots, akri, akrthas, akrta, akratam, akrata

(and the anomalous kranta); avri, avrthas, avrta; arta, grata; mrthas,

forms of a-roots

of i and u
amrta; dhrthas; adythaa; astrta; ahrthas; gurta;
the only examples are ahvi (? AY., once), ahumahi, and acidhvam. The absence of any analogies- whatever for the omission of a 8 in

roots,

such forms, and the occurrence of avri and akri and akrata, show that
their reference to the s-aorist is probably without sufficient reason.
b. As regards roots ending in consonants, the case is more questionof 8 after a final consonant before thas and ta (and, of

able, since loss

301
course,

dhvam) would

We

ff.).

aorist as

find,

however,

[836

ROOT-AORIST.

1-

be in many cases required by euphonic rale (233 c

such unmistakable middle inflection of the root-

ayuji, ayukthas, ayukta, ayujmahi,

ayugdhvam, ayujran ;

as^a and acjata; nancji; apadi (1st sing.) and apadmahi and apadran;
amanmahi; ganvahi and aganmahi and agmata; atnata; ajani
(1st sing.) and ajnata (3d pi.); from ]/gam are made agathas and agata,
from ytan, atathas and atata, and from
of the final like that of
is

han
3d

especially frequent in

yman, amata,

in present inflection (637).

pi.,

with treatment

The ending ran

being taken by a number of verbs which

have no other middle person of

this aorist: thus, agrbhran, asrgran,

adrgran, abudhran, avrtran, ajusran, akrpran, asprdhran, avasran, avigran; and ram is found beside ran in adrgram, abudhram,

asrgram.
c. From

roots of which the final would combine with s to ks, it

seems more probable that aorist-forms showing k (instead of ) before the
ending belong to the root-aorist such are amukthas (and amugdhvam),
:

aprkthas and aprkta, abhakta, avrkta, asakthas and asakta, rikthas, vikthas and vikta, arukta ; aprasta, ayasta, aspas^a, asrsthas
and asrsta, and mrsthas would be the same in either case.
to

d. There remain, as cases of more doubtful belonging, and probably

be ranked in part with the one formation and in part with the other,

according to their period and to the occurrence of other persons : chitthas,

and anutta and anuddhvam, patthas, bhitthas, amatta,

atapthas, alipta, asrpta; and finally, arabdha, alabdha, aruddha,
abuddha, ayuddha, and drogdhas (MBh.: read drugdhas): see 883.

nutthas

Modes

of the Boot-aorist.

835. Subjunctive. In subjunctive use, forms identical with the

augmentless indicative of this aorist are much more frequent than the more
proper subjunctives. Those to which no corresponding form with augment
occurs have been given

above; the others

it is

unnecessary to report in

detail.

a. Of true subjunctives the forms with primary endings are

In the active, karani, gani, gamani (for bhuvani, see below, c); karasi; sthati, dati and dhati (which are almost indicative in
value), karati, josati, padati, bhedati, radhati, varjati; sthathas,

836.

quite few.

karathas and karatas, da^athas, Qravathas and ^ravatas; and

In the middle, josase; idhate (?),
(apparently) karanti, gamanti.
karate, bhojate, yojate, varjate; dhethe and dhaithe; karamahe,

dhamahe, gamamaliai.
b. Forms with secondary endings are, in the active, dar9am, bhojam, yojam; karas, tardas, parcas, yamas, radhas, varas; karat,
^amat, gar at, jo sat, daghat, padat, yamat, yodhat, radhat, varat,
vartat, qravat, saghat, sparat ; karama, gamama, radhama ; gaman,

836]

XI. AORIST-SYSTEMS.

No middle forms

garan, dar<jan, yaman.

302

are classifiable

with confi-

dence here.
c.

(compare

series bhuvam, bhuvas, bhuvat, bhiivan, and bhuvani

abhuvam: 830 a), and the isolated 9nivat, are of doubtful

The

with a different accent, they would seem to be of the next

would be more regular (but note the ab-

belongings;
class

here, a guna-strengthening

sence of

in the aorist indicative and the perfect of

guna

The

837. Optative.

ybhu).

optative active of this aorist constitutes, with

a a interposed between mode-sign and personal endings (567), the precative active of the Hindu grammarians, and is allowed by them to be made

from every verb, they recognizing no connection between it and the aorist.
But in the 2d sing, the interposed 8 is not distinguishable from the personending; and, after the earliest period (see 838), the ending crowds
out the sibilant in the 3d sing., which thus comes to end In yat instead
of yfis (compare 555 a).
al

a. In the
8, are

older language, however, pure optative forms, without the

this tense.
From roots in & occur (with change of ft to

made from

before the

y: 250 d) deyam,

in u- vowels,

a<jyama and a<jyus,

ma, and

and dheyus, and stheyama;

kriyama; in consonants, a9yam and
vrjyam, $akyftni, yujyava and yujyatam, sahya-

bhuyama;

in

dheyam

r,

tj-dyus.

b. The optative middle of the root-aorist is not recognized by the

Hindu grammarians as making a part of the precative formation. The RV.
has,

however, two precative forms of it, namely padista and mueista.

in the older language are pure optative forms : namely,

Much more common

a(jiya and

common), indhiya, gmianta, uhita, vurlta; idhimahi, na^imahi,

nasimalii, prciniahi, mudimalii, yamimahi and probably, from ftroots, slmahi and dhimahi (which might also be augmentless indicative,

a^imahi

(this optative is especially

ya, muriya, ruclya;

since

adhimahi and adhitam

also

occur).

All these forms except the

the general understand-

three in 3d sing, might be precative according to

ing of that mode, as being of persons which even

by the native

authorities

are not claimed ever to exhibit the inserted sibilant

838.

Precative active forms of this aorist are

made from

the earliest

period of the language. In RV., they do not occur from any root which
has not also other aorist forms of the same class to show. The RV. forms
are: 1st sing.,

sahyas; 3d

bhuyasam; 2d

sing, (in

sing.,

avyas, jneyas, bhuyas, mrdhyas,

-ySs, for -yftst; RV. has no 3d sing, in yat, which

the universal ending), avyas, a9yas, rdhyas, gamyas, daghyas,

peyas, bhuyas, yamyas, yuyas, vrjyas, ^ruyas, sahyas; 1st pi.,

is later

kriyasma

(beside

kriyama

837 a).

AY.

has six 1st persons sing, in

-yat (and one in -yfts, in a RV.

passage), three 1st pi. in -yasma (beside one in yama, in a RV. passage),
and the 2d bhuyas tha (doubtless a false reading: TB. has -sta in the

-yasam, one 2d in -yas, one 3d

corresponding passage).

From

this

in

time on, the pure optative forms nearly

303

1.

disappear (the exceptions are given in

nowhere common, excepting

[840

ROOT-AORIST.

837 a). But

the precative forms are

other root

made from }/bhu; and from no

as

anything like a complete series of persons quotable (only bhuyaava

bhuyastam being wanting ; and these two persons have no representative from any root).
All together, active optative or precative forms are

is

and

made in the
cal texts

older language from over fifty roots; and the

epic and
add them from hardly a dozen more: see further 025.

classi-

839. Imperative. Imperative forms of the root-aorist are not rare

in the early language. In the middle, indeed, almost only the 2d
sing.
occurs: it is accented either regularly, on the ending, as krava, dhisva,

yuksva, or on the
disva and masva
by krdhvam,

root,

as

xnatava, yaksva, vansva, rasva, saksva;

are not found with accent; the 2d pi. is represented

vodhvam. In the active, all the persons (2d and 3d) are

found in use;

examples are: 2d sing., krdhi, vrdhi, qagdhf, (jrudhf,

gadhi, yamdhf, gahi, mahi, sahi, mogdhi; 3d sing., gamtu, datu,
a$$u, $rotu, sotu; 2d du., datam, jitam, $aktam, (jrotam, bhutam,
sprtam, gatam, riktaxn, vodham, sitam, sutam; 3d du., only gaifatam, dfttsm, vodham; 2d pi., gata, bhuta, 9ruta,kyta, gata, data,
dhatana; 3d pi., only dhantu, qruvantu. These are the most regular
forms; but irregularities as to both accent and strengthening are not infreThus, strong forms in 2d du. and pi. are yaxhtam, varktam,

quent.

vartam; karta, gamta

(once gamta), yamta, vartta, beta, Qrota, sota;

kartana, gamtana, yamtana, aotana, and the irregular
dhetana (/dha); in 3d du., gamtam. Much more irregular are yodhi
and, with tana,

(instead

of

yuddhi) from i/yudh, and bodhi from both ybudh and

buddhf and bhudhi).

ybhu

(instead of

tat

found, namely $astat.

is

As

We

2d persons singular
imperative sense, see above, 624.
a.

to

find

kfdhi

single

form (3d sing.) in

also later

(MBh. BhP.).

in si from the simple root used in

an

Participles of the Root-aorist.

840. In the oldest language, of the RV., are found a number
of participles which must be reckoned as belonging to this formation.
a. In the active, they are extremely few

namely, krant, citant

(?),

gmant, sthant, bhidant, vrdhant, dyutant- (only in composition),

and probably ydhant. And BhP. has mrsant (but probably by error, for
mysyant).
is

b. In the middle, they are in RY. much more numerous. The accent
usually on the final of the stem: thus, arana, idhana, krana, jus-

ana, trana, nidana, pi9ana, prcana, prathana, budhana, bhiyana,

manana, mandana, yujana, rucana, vipana, vrana, urana, Qubhbut
ana, sac ana, suvana or svana, srjana, sprdhana, hiyana;
sometimes on the root-syllable: thus, citana, cyavana, riihana, uhana
(pres.?),

vasana, ^umbhana;

while a few show both accentuations

840]

XI. AORIST-SYSTEMS.

3Q4

(compare 61 9 d): thus, dr^ana and dftana, dyutana and dyutana,

yatana and yatana ; and cetana and hrayana occur only in composition.

very few of these are found once

or twice

in other texts, namely ci-

tana, dyutana, ruhana, vasana, suvana; and

-kupana

occurs

once

in Apast. (xiv. 28. 4).

841. All together, the roots exhibiting in the older language

forms which are with fair probability to be reckoned to the rootaorist-system are about a hundred and thirty; over eighty of them

make such forms

in the

RV.

Passive Aorist third person singular.

842.

middle third person singular, of peculiar formation and

made from many verbs in the older
language, and has become a regular part of the passive conjugation,
being, according to the grammarians, to be substituted always for the
proper third person of any aorist middle that is used in a passive
prevailingly passive meaning, is

843. This person

which takes

also the

The ending

a.

formed by adding ^ i to the root,

augment, and is usually strengthened.
is

i belongs

elsewhere only to the

third person apparently stands in the

same

first

relation to

person;
first

in i

and this
as

do,

the regular 3d sing, perfect, and also the frequent

Vedic 3d sing, present of the root-class (613), which are identical in form

in the middle

voice,

That a fuller ending has been lost off

first persons.
extremely improbable ; and hence, as an aorist formation from the simple
root, this is most properly treated here, in connection with the ordinary

with their respective

is

root-aorist.

844. Before the ending ^ i, a final vowel, and usually

$f a before a single consonant, have the vrddhi-

also a medial

strengthening; other medial vowels have the guna-strengthif

ening
a.

capable of

Examples

(all

from roots ending in a,

(240); after final 5TT a is added ET^y.

of them quotable from the older language) are:
ajnayi, adhayi, apayi; in other vowels, a<jrayi,
it

from roots with medial i, u, r, aceti,

astavi, ahavi, akari, astari;
acchedi, ages!, abodhi, amoci, ayoji, adarc,i, asarji, varhi; from
roots with medial a strengthened, agami, apadi, ayami, avaci, vapi,
asadi (these are all the earlier cases); with a unchanged, only ajani
(and RV. has once jani), and, in heavy syllables, amyaksi, vandi,

Qansi, syandi;
initial

vowel,

from roots with

with medial a, abhraji, aradhi;

ardhi

(only case).

am, and yVaclh,

agami (or agami),

b. According to the grammarians, certain roots in

retain the

a unchanged:

quotable are ajani (or ajani),

SIMPLE AORIST

305
asvani, avadhi,
sometimes

abhafiji or

c.

ada&c.i,

nasal,

alambhi

abhfiji,

astambhi; CB.

araci; and there are noted besides, from

also

showing

[846

a-AORiST.

2.

arambhi, arandhi,

(always,

with prepositions)

roots

ajambhi,
or

alabhi,

has asanji.
as in all other like cases, are

Angmentless forms,

either indicative or subjunctive valne

met

with, with

examples (besides the two or three

already given) are
dhayi, gravi, bhari, reel, v6di, pool, jani, padi,
The accent, when present, is always on the root-syllable
sadi, ardhi.
:

dhayi

(SV.

doubtless a false reading).

is

845. These forms are made in RV. from forty roots, and all the other
earlier texts combined add only about twenty to the
number; from the
or forty more; in the epics they are
they come from roots of neuter meaning, as gam,
pad, sad, bhraj, radh, rue, sanj, they have (like the so-called passive
participle in ta: 952) a value equivalent to that of other middle forms;

language are quotable thirty

later

When

nearly unknown.

in a case or two (RV.

appear even

The

2.

846.

be made
It is

This aorist

a.

xxviii. 15;

TB.

ii.

6.

1Q2) they

is

a-aorist.

in the later language allowed to

number of

from a large

made

VS.

73. 3 [?];

vii.

be used transitively.

to

in both voices, but

is

roots

(near a hundred).

rare in the middle, most

of the roots forming their middle according to the s-class

(878

or the i^-class (898

ff.)

b. Its
a-class

closest

(751

particulars

ff.)

and

analogy

inflection

its

with the imperfect of the

the same with that in all

is

weak form of

takes in general a

it

save the roots in

ff.).

is

r (three or four only),

root

which have the

guna-strengthening.
c.

As example of

inflection

may be taken
middle.

active.
d.

asicam

the root

Thus:

sic pour.

asicava

s.

p.

asic&W

d.

p.

asice

asicavahi

asicamahi

2
^

asicas

asicatam asicata

asicathas

asicetham

asicadhvam

asicat

asicatam

asicata

asicetam

asicanta

asicaja
*

Whitney, Grammar.

2. ed.

20

XL

847]
847. The

a-aorist

makes

AORIST-SYSTEMS.

306

RY. a small

in the

figure beside

the loot-

being represented by less than half the latter's number of roots. It

becomes, however, more common later (it is the only form of aorist which
aorist,

is

made from more verbs

in

AV. than

in RV.)

and in Veda and Brahmana

together about eighty roots exhibit the formation more or less fully. Of
these a large number (fully half) are of the type of the roots which make
their present-system according to the a-class, having a vowel capable of

guna- strengthening

(754): thus, with

before a final consonant

chid,
sridh;
with u, krudh, ksudh, guh, dus, dyut, druh, pus, budh, bhuj,
with r, rdh,
muc, mruc, yuj, rue, rud, rudh, muh, ruh, 9110;
krt, grdh, grh, trp, trs., trh, drp, dr9, dhrs,, nrt, mrdh, mrs., vrt,
vrdh, VTS, srp, hrf. A small number end in vowels: thus, r, kr, sr
(which have the guna-strengthening throughout), hi (? ahyati once in
AY.), and several in a, apparent transfers from the root-class by 'the weakening of their ft to a: thus, khyft, hva, vyfi, 9va, and da and dha;

bhi'd, nij, ric,

ris.,

lip, vid, !<}if (988),

i,

9!?, 9ris, 9119, sic,

and asthat, regarded by the grammarians as aorist to >/as throw, is doubtfrom |/sth&. A few have a penultimate nasal in the

less a like formation

present and elsewhere, which in this aorist

dhvans, srans, krand, randh.

kram, gam, ghas,

Of

is lost:

less

thus, bhrancj, tails,

classifiable

character

are

89,

<jram, tan, Ban, sad, ftp, das, yas,

9ak, dagh. The roots pat, na9, vac form the tense-stems papta, ne<ja,
voca, of which the first is palpably and the other two are probably the
tarn,

result of reduplication

such, and

9am,

but the language has lost the sense of their being

aorists from the same roots (see be-

makes other reduplicated

low, 854).
a.

Many

a-inflection.

of these aorists are simply transfers of the root-aorist to an

Conspicuous examples are akarat etc. and agamat etc. (in

the earliest period only

akar and agan).

'

848. The

inflection of this aorist is in general so regular that it will

examples of its Yedic forms. We may take as

model avidam, from j/vid /md, of which the various persons and modes
are more frequent and in fuller variety than those of any other verb. Only

be sufficient

the

forms

to give only

actually

quotable are instanced; those of which the examples

vid are bracketed. Thus:

found are from other verbs than

middle.

active.
d.

s.

p.

avidam avidftva avidfima

avidas

avidat
a.

[avidata]

avidan

The middle forms

s.

avide

d.

p.

[avidfivahi] avidftmahi

[avidathfis]

[avidata]

[avidetam] avidanta

are rare in the earlier language, as in the later

we have ahve etc., akhye etc., avide (?) and avidanta, avocathas
and avocavahi (and avidamahe OB. and asicamahe KB. are doubtless to be amended to -mahi).

SIMPLE AORIST:

307

[853

a-AORiST.

2.

b. Angmentless forms, with indicative or subjunctive value, are not

Examples, showing accent on the tense-sign, according to the

infrequent.

are: ruham, srpas, bhujat, vidat,

aratam, vocata, (jakan; vidata and vyata (3d sing.), aramahi,
(ji^amahi, vidanta, budhanta, mr^anta (for exceptions as regards

general analogies of the formation,

accent, see below,

853).

Modes

of the a-aorist.

840. The subjunctive forms of this aorist are few those which occur
method which was followed for the indicative:
;

are instanced below, in the

vidama

[vidava]

[vidftxnahe]

vidathas vldatha
vidat

[vidatftiP]

The ending thana is found once, in rieathana. Of middle forms

but doubtless misreading for qfsyatSi) and
occur only 9(5 fitfti (AY.
$if&mahe (AY., for RY. (jisamahi). The form sadathas seems an indica.

made from a secondary present-stem.

ative,

850. The

optatives are few in the oldest language, but

and in the Brahmanas are not

rare.

bhideyam, videyam, saneyam (TB.

once

frequent,

Examples

become more

are:

in active,

sanem); vides, games;

garnet, vocet; game tarn; gamema, <jakema, sanema; vareta; in
middle, (only) videya; gamemahi, vanemahi: ruhethas etc. in the
epics

must be viewed

a.
it

once);

rather as present forms of the a-class.

single middle

is

so

isolated

precative form occurs,

that

how much may be

namely vides^a (AY.,

inferred from it is

very

questionable.

851.
7

>

complete series

of

sad (including sadatana, 2d

active imperative forms are

pi.),

made from

and the middle sadantam.

Other

namely, sana, sara, ruha, vida ; ruhataxn,

TS. has once vrdhatu (compare 740).

imperatives are very rare

vidatam; khyata.

Participles of the a-aorist.

a. The active participles trpant, risant or rlf ant, vydhant,
9ucant, sadant, and (in participial compounds, 1309) krtant-,
guhant-, vidant- (all RV.), are to be assigned with plausibility to this

852.

(jiljant,

aorist.

b. Likewise the middle participles

mana

(?),

nrtamana, Qucamftna, and

guhamana, dhrsamana, dasaperhaps

vydhana, sridhana.

Irregularities of the a-aorist.

853. A few
The roots in

and peculiarities may be noticed here.

which (847) show a strengthening like that of the
20*

irregularities
r,

853]

XI. AORIST-SYSTEMS.

the unaccented

of

present

have

a-class,

likewise

the

accent

upon the

aranta (augmentless 3d
The root sad follows the same rule: thus, sadapi.), sarat and sara.
tam; and from j/san are found sanas and sanat and sanema and
like that class:

radical syllable,

sana, beside

thus,

from

and sanema.

saneyam

It

]/y,

questionable whether these

is

are not true analogues of the bhu-class (unaccented

a-class) present-system.

On

the

other hand,

and 9(satai
of such as
are perhaps

ruhat

ruham, ruhava, ruhatam),

(beside

and rfsant

to

or

From }/vac,

be referred hither.

voceyam, voces, vocema, voceyus;

syllable: thus,

854.

a.

far

the optative is accented

elsewhere the accent

The stem voc has

in Yedic

we

use well-nigh assumed the

in RV.

all

forms

other

find vocfi, (1st sing, impv.)

vocavahai; voces, voceya, vocemahi; vocatat (2d

vocatam, vocata.
b. Of the stem

to (jis,

The

on the root-

and of frequent use,

very various

outnumbering in occurrences

Besides those already given,

c.

is

voce, vocat, vocati, vocanta.

value of a root; its forms are

especially

c.{sat

risant are more isolated cases. In view

these, the forms from the stem bhiiva and 9ruva (836 c)
(?),

ne$a from ynaq

some of

root C.&8 (as in

from

j/vac.

and vocati,

sing.),

vocatu,

is

weakened

only ne<jat occurs.

present forms

its

639)

and makes a9isam.

855. Isolated forms which have more or less completely the

aspect of indicative presents are made in the oldest language from
some roots beside the aorist-systems of the first two classes. It must
be left for maturer research to determine how far they may be relics
of original presents, and how far recent productions, made in the
of conversion of the aorist-stem to a root in value.

way

a.

Such forms

are the

following:

from j/kf make, karsi, krthas,

gather, ceti; from ]/da

krtha, kr^e; from j/gam, gatha; from

give,

dati,

data; from ^dhS

put,

yd

dhftti;

from

j/pS drink, pftthas,

panti; from }/bhy, bharti; from ]/muc, mucanti; from y'rudh, rudh-

mas

(?);

from ]/vyt, vartti.

II.

856.

The

(3)

reduplicated aorist

forms of aorist in that

all

Reduplicated Aorist.

it

is

different

cases to the derivative

(causative etc.) conjugation in

^71 aya, as the aorist of that conjugation,

liable to

be made from

from the other

has come to be attached in almost

all roots

and

is

therefore

which have such a conju-

gation, beside the aorist or aorists which belong to their

primary

conjugation.

Since,

however,

the connection of

309
the two

from the

REDUPLICATED AORIST.

[859

not a formal one (the aorist being made directly

root, and not from the causative stem), but rather

is

a matter of established association,

owing

to

kinship

of

meaning, the formation and inflection of this kind of aorbest treated here, along with the others.

ist is

857. Its characteristic

syllable,

by which

it

is

a reduplication of the radical

is

on the one hand, to

on the
if.), and,

assimilated,

the imperfect of the reduplicating class (656

other hand, to the so-called pluperfect (817

But the

ff.).

taken on a quite peculiar character,

even in the Veda of a different con-

aorist reduplication has

with few traces

dition

858.

As

a.

it

duplication,

And

left

which may have preceded

the consonant of the re-

indeed,

regards,

this.

follows the general rules already given (590).

the quality of the reduplicated vowel

in the formations already treated

that an a-vowel

and y

it

is

in general as

needs only to be noted

are usually (for exceptions,

(or ar)

see below, 860) repeated by

an i-vowel

as they are, to a

considerable extent, in the reduplicated present also (660).

b.

But

in regard to quantity, this aorist aims always at

establishing a diversity between the reduplicating

cal syllables,

And

the preference

cation

and a

and

radi-

making the one heavy and the other light.

is

very markedly for a heavy redupli-

light root-syllable

which

about wherever the conditions allow.

859. If the root

is

a light

relation is brought

Thus:

syllable

(having

short

vowel followed by a single consonant), the reduplication

is

made heavy.
a. And this,
with
el):

usually by lengthening the reduplicating vowel,

a or ? or
(in the single root containing that vowaririsam, adudusam, ajljanam, avlvj-dham, aclklpam.

I for radical

thus,

J.

The great majority of reduplicated

aorists are of this form.

however, the root begins with two consonants, so that the

reduplicating syllable will be heavy whatever the quantity of its vowb.

If,

859]

XI. AORIST-SYSTEMS.

the vowel remains short: thus,

el,

310

actksipam, acukrudham,

ati-

trasam, apisprqam.
If the root

860.

is

reduplication

(if it

a.

and in

short:

is

this

occurs), are reduplicated

Thus, adidikfam,

(having a long

a heavy syllable

the vowel of the

vowel, or a short before two consonants),

case

51

a or

5TT 5,

and

51 a.

by

(not quotable), adadaksam,

in the cases in which a root should

abubhugam

adadhfivam, atata&sam. And,

both begin and end with two consonants, both syllabled would be
necessarily heavy, notwithstanding the short vowel in the former:
thus, apapraccham, acaskandam (but no such forms are found in use).
b.

medial y

is

allowed by the grammarians to retain the strengthof coarse, reduplication by a:

ening of the causative stem, together with,

thus,

acakargat, avavartat (beside aclkrsat, avivr/tat); but no such

forms have been met with in use.

These

o.

aorists

not distinguishable in form

are

from the so-called

pluperfects (817ff.).

861. a. In order, however, to bring about the favored relation

of heavy reduplication and light radical syllable, a heavy root is
sometimes made light: either by shortening its vowel, as in ariradham
from yradh, avlvac,am from i/va?, asigadham from ysadh, ajijivam
from yjiv, adldipam (E. and later: BY. has didipas) from ydip,

abibhifam from ybhis, asusucam from ysuc; or by dropping a

penultimate nasal, as in aoikradam from ykrand, asifyadaxn from
ysyand.
b. In those cases in which (1047) an aorist is formed directly
is abbreviated to i: thus, atis^hip-

from a causal stem in ap, the &

am

etc.,

ajijnipat

(but

ESS. ajijnapat), jihipas, ajijipata

VS. ajijapata); but from crap comes a9igrapama

862. Examples
rare;

the

of this aorist

older language

has

from roots

only

amamat

with, initial

vowel are very

amamat) from yam,

yap, and arpipam (augmentless)
(or

apipan (QB. BAU. apipipat) from

from the causative stem arp of y^
in which
:

(but

(QB.).

latter the root

is

excess-

The grammarians give other similar formations, as arcicam from yarc, aubjijam from yubj, arjiham from yarh, aiciksam
from yike, ardidham from y^dh. Compare the similar reduplication in

ively abbreviated.

desiderative stems:

1029b.

863. Of special irregularities

From ydynt

may be mentioned

made

(Y.B.) the stem didyuta, taking its reduFrom ygup, instead of juguplicating vowel from the radical semivowel.
pa (B.8.), JR. has jugupa, and some texts (B.S.) have jugupa; and
a.

jihvara

(B.)

is

is

met with beside the regular jihvara

(V.B.).

In caccha-

311

da

3.

and the more

(Nir.),

[867

REDUPLICATED AORIST.
or

less

papratha and Qa^vaca and

doubtful

sasvaja (RV.) we have a instead of

i in

the reduplication.

b. In support of their false view of this aorist as made from the

instead of directly from the root, the native grammarians

causative stem

teach that roots ending in an u-vowel

&

senting the

may

reduplicate with

of the strengthened stem: thus,

bubhuva from bhu. No example

met with except apiplavam (B., once) ;
bubhuva, ruruva, c.u<jruva, and others.
as well as

is

As

0.

The

864.

against

we

it

find

see above,

dudruva,

847.

of the reduplicated aorist

inflection

has

El

a as final stem-vowel, with

all

like

is

that of an imperfect of the second general conjugation

is to say, it

repre-

of such a formation, however,

apaptam, avocam, and anec.am,

to

as

i,

bibhava from bhav-aya,

that

the pe-

which the presence of that vowel conditions

Thus, from
give birth (stem j^jana):

culiarities

(738 a).

j/spljan

middle.

active.
d.

s.

B*

p.

d.

p.

*|sflsM

ajijanam ajijanava

ajljanama

ajijane

ajijanavahi

ajijanamahi

ajljanas

ajijanatam ajljanata

ajijanathas ajijanetham ajijanadhvam

ajljanat

ajijanatam djijanan

ajljanata

ajijanetam

ajijananta

865. The middle forms are rare in the older language (the 3d
pi. is decidedly the most common of them, being made from eleven
roots the 3d s. from seven)
but all, both active and middle, are
quotable except 1st and 2d du. middle and 1st du. active.
;

a.

Atitape appears

to

be once used (RV.) as 3d sing., with pass-

ive sense.

866.

final

r has the guna-strengthening before the endings

thus, acikarat, apiparaxn, atitaras, didaras, adidharat, amixnarat,

avivaran, jihvaras. Of similar strengthened forms from I and u-roots

are found apiprayan (TS.), abibhayanta (RV.), apiplavam (QB.),

acuoyavat (K.), a9U9ravat (MS.), atuf^avam (RV.). Not many

roots ending in other vowels than y make this aorist see below, 868.
:

867. Forms

of

the

inflection

without union-vowel are occasionally

met with: namely, from roots ending in consonants, sievap (2d sing.,
augmentless) from ysvap, and aQi^nat from y'c.nath; from roots in y
or ar,

dldhar (2d

sing.),

and u-vowels, see 868.

and ajigar (2d and 3d sing.); for roots in iOf 3d pi. in us are found almost only a form

867]

XI. AORIST-SYSTEMS.

or two from i-

and u-roots, with

guna

312

before the ending

thus,

acucyavus, aQUQravus, asusavus; bat also ablbhajus (B.), and

ninaQUB (MBh.).
868. In the later language, a few roots are said by the grammarians to
they are

make

<jri

this aorist as a part of their primary conjugation:

and $vi, dru and era, kam, and dha suck (qvi and dha

optionally).
a. In the older

language are found from Yqri aQicjret and a$i$and ac^riyat (QB.); from

rayus

(noticed in the preceding paragraph")

j/dru,

adudrot and adudruvat (TB.

not nsed as aorist) ;

from j/Bru,

aausrot and (augmentless) susros and susrot; from j/kam, aclkametam and -manta (B.8.). Of forms analogous with these occur a number
from roots in u or u: thus, anunot and nunot irom |/nu; yuyot from
yyu separate; dudhot from >/dliu; apupot from j/pu; tutos and
and one or two from roots in i
tutot from ytu; asusot from y^u;
or i: thus, siset from /si (or sa) bind; amlxnet from ym& bellow;

apiprea (with apiprayan, noticed above) from >/pn (and the "imperdidhi etc., 676, are of corresponding form). And from }/eyu
are made, with union-vowel I, acucyavit and acucyavitana. Few of

fects" from

these forms possess a necessarily causative or a decidedly aoristic value,

and it is very doubtful whether they should not be assigned to the perfectsystem.
b.

-yan

or

From

the later language are quotable only ac,i(jriyat

-yus) and adudruvat.

Modes of the Reduplicated

etc.

(3d

pi.,

Aorist.

869. a* As in other preterit formations, the augmentless indicative persons of this aorist are used snbjunctively, and they are
very much more frequent than true subjunctives.
b. Of the latter are found only riradha (1st sing.); titapasi;
ciklpati and sisadhati, and pispr^ati (as if corresponding to an indicative apispr-k, like aqignat); and perhaps the 1st sing. mid. c,ac,vacai.
c. The augmentless indicative forms are accented In general on the
thus, didharas, nina^as; jijanat, piparat; jijanan;
sffvap; but, on the other hand, we have also piparat, 9i9ratha8
and 9i9nathat, and dudravat and tU8$avat (which may perhaps belong

reduplication:
also

to the perfect:

compare 810).

According

to

the native grammarians,

accent rests either on the radical syllable or on the one that follows

the

it.

870. Optative forms are even rarer. The least questionable case is
the middle "precative" rlriBis^a (ririsis^a has been ranked above with
sasahis^a, as a perfect: 812 b). Cucyuvimahi and cucyavirata belong either here or to the perfect-system.

871. Of
9i<?rathantu.

we have
And jigrtam and

imperatives,

pupurantu and
didhrtam and didhrta,

the indubitable forms

jigrta, and

SIBILANT AORIST.

313
and jajastam
referred hither,

RV.

(all

ajigar and adidhar:

to

short

their

suudata

them

872.

No

are

(AV.),

be

with which

found belonging to the reduplicated

participle is

to

the indicatives (without

union-vowel)
reduplicating vowel and their accent

closely to the reduplicated imperfects (666ff.)

are probably to regard this aorist as ultimately related.

assimilate

we

and perhaps

only),

as corresponding

[876

aorist.

873. The number of roots from which this aorist is met with
in the earlier language is about a hundred and twenty.
In the later
Sanskrit it is unusual; in the series of later texts mentioned above
(826) it occurs only twice and it has been found quotable from hardly
fifty roots in the whole epic and classical literature.
;

III.

874.

Sigmatic or Sibilant Aorist.

The common

a.

this aorist is a

tense-sign of

all

s (convertible to ET 9 : 180)

the varieties of

which

is

added

to

the root in forming the tense-stem.

b. This sibilant has no analogues among the class-signs of the presentsystem; but it is to be compared with that which appears (and likewise
with or without the same union-vowel i) in the stems of the future tense-

system (932 ff.) and of the desideratire conjugation (1027

c.

To

the root thus increased the

ff.).

augment

is

prefixed

and the secondary endings are added.

875. In the case of a

stem (always ending in

and the

few

roots,

the sibilant

tense-

by an 5f a,
an imperfect of the

k$) is further increased

5T

inflection is nearly like that of

second or a- conjugation.
876.
the final

In the vast majority of cases, the sibilant is

of the tense-stem, and the inflection is like that
a.

of an imperfect of the
b.

And

strongly

these,

marked

first

two nearly equal and

according as the sibilant is added
of the root, or with an auxiliary

again,

classes,

to the final

or non-a-conjugation.

fall

into

immediately
vowel ^ i, making the tense-sign 5*M$- Finally, before this
the root is in a very small number of cases increased

^i?

by a H^s, making the whole addition

877]

XI. AORIST-SYSTEMS.

877.

We

314

have, then, the following classification for the

varieties of sibilant-aorist

A. With endings added directly to the sibilant:

4. with H a simply after the root: s-aorist;

with ^

5.

before the

H^s: is-aorist;
at end of root: sis-aorist.
the same, with
ft^s
B. With ^ a added to the sibilant before the endings:
6.

with sibilant and

7.

may

a: sa-aorist.

regards the distinction between the fourth and fifth forms, it

be said in a general way that those roots incline to take the auxil-

iary i in the aorist

sible to lay

which take

down any

878.

in other formations; bnt

it also

strict rules as to this accordance.

The

4.

H^s

5f

As

a.

The tense-stem

it is

s-aorist.

of this aorist

is

made by adding

augmented root, of which also the vowel

to the

impos-

Compare 903.

is

usu-

ally strengthened.

879.

The

general rules as to the strengthening of the

root-vowel are these:

a.

final

vowel (including

in the active, and (excepting

y^ lead,

from

stem

active

v^j^rudh

from

yTjs^syj

880. a.

3?Mis
in 3d

M^lrH^

pour

out,

3^T

middle stem

araik

and
and

^n^asrak? and

STfRT

3d

W(\rH^

V^f ohand

from

arSuts

The endings

mid.

thus,

aochfints,

leave,

obstruct,

(not 5R^an) in
pi.

middle: thus,

medial vowel has the vrddhi- change in the active,

acchants ; from VTj*( ric

from

&e

and 5RTO akrs.

and remains unaltered in the middle:

seem,

in

Ef^an&is, middle stem 3^anes;

aETsffa acr&us. and M^TlN aoros; from

yOR ky make,
SfeflT^akars

guna

active stem

from y?T 9ru hear,

b.

has the vrddhi-change

ft r)

ft f)

*te$H^

^f^

ariks ;

are the usual secondary ones, with

pi. act.,

and 3rT ata

(not

^n

anta)

SIBILANT AORIST:

315
b.

But before H

and

4.

B-AORIST.

of 2d

rT t

and 3d

the later language always inserted an 3 *

sing. act. is in

making the end-

and

3ft is

ings

0. This insertion is

unknown

in the earliest language (of the

BY.)

see below,

881. a. Before endings beginning with t or th, the tense-sign

B is (283 o e) omitted after the final consonant of a root
unless
this be r, or n or
(converted to anuav&ra).

b. The same omission

sonant

and

after a

equivalence of

dhv

is

of coarse

vowel the sibilant

and

ddhv

made

before

dhvam

after a con-

omitted or assimilated (the

in the theories of the grammarians and the
is either

makes it impossible to say which: 232); and

then the ending becomes dhvam, provided the sibilant, if retained, would
have been 9 (226 o): thus, astodhvam and avrdhvam (beside astospractice of the manuscripts

ata and avpjata); drdhvam (}/dr> regard:

B., once), which is to
drthas (2d sing.) as avrdhvain and avpsata to avri and avj-thas; and

kydhvam
o.

(M.)-

According

the grammarians, the omission of B before t and th

to

takes place also after a short vowel (the case can occur only in the 2d and
3d sing, mid.); but we have seen above (834 a) that this is to be view-

ed rather as a substitution in those persons of the forms of the root-aorist.

Neither in the earlier nor in the later language, however, does any example
occur of an aorist-fonn with B retained after a short vowel before these
endings.
d. After the final sonant aspirate of a root, the sibilant before the
is said by the Hindu grammarians to disappear altogether, the

same endings

combination of the aspirate with the th or t of the ending being then

made according to the ordinary rule for such cases (160): thus, from the

stem arauts, for araudh-s, is made arauddha, as if from araudh-fta

No example of such a form is quotable from the literature; but
directly.
the

combination

established

is

by the occurrence

of other similar

cases

In the middle, in like manner, aruts-j-ta becomes aruddha,

from arudh+ta; but all such forms admit also of being understood

(233 f).
as if

as of the root-aorist.

above

Those that have been found to occur were given

(834 d); probably

e.

From

they belong at least in part to this

the three nasal roots

gam, tan,

man

are

aorist.

made the 2d and

agathas and agata, atathas and atata, and amata (amathas not quotable), reckoned by the native grammarians as s-

3d

sing. mid. persons

aorist forms,

made,

after loss of their final root-nasal,

sibilant after a short vowel.

aorist.

They

But JB. has a corresponding

882.

with loss also of the

are doubtless better referred to the root-

1st sing, atasi from >/tan.

As examples of the

inflection of this variety of

XL

882-1
sibilant aorist

we may

chid cut

Thus:

off.

AORIST-SYSTEMS.

take the roots

316

=ft

middle,

active.
d.

s.

nl lead, and

d.

s.

p.

anaiama aneai

anaiaam

anaiava

anaiaia

anaistam anaiata

anaiait

anaiatam anaisus

p.

anesvahi

aneamahi

aneathaa aneaatham anedhvam

aneaatam

anea^a

aneaata

active,
d.

fi.

p.

acchaitsam

acchaitsva

acchaitama

acchaitalB

acchaittam

acchaitta

acchaitalt

acchaittam

acchaitsua

middle.

f%
acchitamahi

acchitavahi

acchitsi

-\

acchitthaa

acchitaatham

acchiddhvaxn

acchitta

acchitaatam

acchitaata

From yrudh

2d and 3d du. and 2d pi. act. and

the 2d and 3d sing. mid. would be arauddham, arauddham,
arauddha, aruddhas, aruddha; from ]/srj pour out, asrSf^am,
aaraa^am, aaraa^a, aarathaa, aaya^a; from j/dr^ see, adraa^am etc.
(as from srj). But from ]/kr do the same persons in the active are
akaratam, akaratam, akarata; from |/tan stretch they are dtanatam,
atanatam, atanata.
a.

obstruct, the

883. The omission

tam, acchaitta)

is

of 8 in the active persons

a case of very rare occurrence

ples were given above (233 e).

see 881.
The GhU. has twice

As

(acchaittam, acchaitall the quotable exam-

to the like omission in

avastam

for

middle persons,

avata-tam (]/vaa

dwell}:

disappearance of the sibilant,

and consequent restoration of the final radical to its original form.

this

may be viewed

as another case of total

SIBILANT AORIST:

317

884. Certain roots

in

6,

4.

[888

B-AORIST.

weaken the

in middle inflection to i

3.

the root-aorist: above, 834 a): these are said to be stha,

da, and dh&; in the older language have been noted adisi and adisata
from yds, give (and adisi perhaps once from >/da bind], adhisi and
(as also in

adhisata (with the optative dhislya) from >/dha put,

also agia^has and agisata from ]/ga go (with adhi .
a.

The middle

according to

inflection of the aorist

and asthisata;

of ]/da would be, then,

the

grammarians: adisi, adithas, adita;

adisatham, adisatam; adismahi, adidhvam, adisata.

885. Roots ending in changeable y

(so-called roots in

atlisvahi,

242)

f:

are

vowel to ir in middle forms : thus,

astirsi, astirs^has etc. (from >/str); of such forms, however, has been
found in the older language only akirsata, PB.

by the grammarians

said

to convert this

886. The s-aorist is made in the older language from about a

hundred and forty roots (in RV., from about seventy; in AV., from
about fifty, of which fifteen are additional to those in RV.) and the
epic and classical literature adds but a very small number. It has in
the Veda certain peculiarities of stem-formation and inflection, and
of which the optative middle is realso the full series of modes
tained also later as a part of the "precative" (but see 926 b).
;

887. Irregularities of stem-formation are as follows

a. The strengthening of the root-syllable is now and then
:

made

or

omitted:

thus,

ayokfit (AB.), cheteis

(B.S.

irregularly

occurs

also

in

MBh., which has further yotsls), rotsis (KU.); amatsus (RY.) ayfixhsi and arautsi (AB.), asaksi etc. (V.B.: j/sah), mansta (AY.) and
manstam (TA.); lopsiya (U.); and MBh. has drogdhas. From /saj
is made sanksit (U. etc.), and from j/majj, amankslt (not quotable).
;

The form ayunksmahi (BhP.)

b.

radical final

is

doubtless a false reading.

nasal is lost in

agasmahi (RV.) and gasatham

masiya and vasimahi (RV.)

(TA.) from >/gam, and in the optatives

from j/i/man and van.

The roots hu, dhu, and nil have u instead of o in the middle
ahusata, adhugata, anusi and anusatam and anusata; /dhur
dhurv) makes adhuraata.
c.

thus,
(or

d.

(,!B.

has once

atrasatam

for

atrastam

(|/trS).

888. The principal peculiarity of the older language in regard

to inflection is the frequent absence of I in the endings of 2d and
3d sing, act., and the consequent loss of the consonant-ending, and
sometimes of root-finals (150). The forms without I are the only ones
found in RV. and K., and they outnumber the others in AV. and
TS. in the Brahmanas they grow rarer (only one, adrak, occurs in
GB. one, aya$, in KB. and two, adrak and aya$, in B. PB. has
;

none).

XI. AORIST-SYSTBMS.

318

If the root ends in a vowel, only the consonant of the ending

889.

thus, aprfis (for both aprfis-s and apras-t) from

and in like manner ahfta from }/h&;
aj&is (for aj&if-t) from
yji; and in like manner acaia from yd, and n&is (augmentless) from
and yftus (for ayfiua-t) from yyu.
tfDl;

is

necessarily lost:

|/prft;

But

555 a)

the ending is sometimes preserand we have in 3d sing, ajftit (beside ajais and ajaisit) from j/ji; and in llke manner acSit, a<jrSit,
ahfiit, nait (no examples have been noted except from roots in 1 and I):
compare ay as and eras, 2d sing., 890 a.
a.

ved

(as in other like cases

expense of the tense-sign;

at the

890. a. If the root (in either its simple or strengthened form) ends
in a consonant, the tense-sign is lost with the ending.
Thus, abhar (for
abhars-t: beside abharfam, abharstam) from ybhr; other like cases
ahar. and (from roots in ar) aksSr, ats&r, asvar, hvar. Further,
arftik (585 a: for arfiikf-t) from >/ric; like cases are aqvait from
Yqvitt and (from roots with medial u) adyaut from j/dyut, araut from
}/rudh, and mauk from ymuo. Farther, from roots ending in the palatals and h, aprak from j/pfc, asrfik from ]/srj, abhak from j/bhaj,
are

from j/dr<j, adhak from )/dah; but, with a different change of

ay&t from }/yaj, apra$ from j/pych, ava^ from >/vah, and
asrat from yayj; and (above, 146 a) eras appears to stand twice in AY.

adrak

the final,

for

sra-s from

i/spj;

RY. has

also

twice

ay&s from

from roots ending in a nasal, atftn from ]/tan,

and anfin from ]/]/yam and nam (143 a).
b.

two

If,

is lost

again,

khan

acohan

aeohantta and acchantsus) from ychand; and

akrfin, ask&n, and asyan.
891.

relic

Farther,

the roots end in a doable consonant, the latter of the

along with tense-sign and ending: thus,

beside
are

|/yaj.

from >/khan, ayfin

of this peculiarity

of the

(for

acchants-t

other like cases

older inflection

has been

preserved to the later language in the 2d Sing, bhais, from }/bhi.

Modes

of the s-aorist.

892. The indicative forms without augment are used in a sub-

ma

prohibitive, and are not uncomjunctive sense, especially after

mon. Examples with accent, however, are extremely rare; there has
been noted only vansi, middle judging from this, the tone would be
;

found on the radical syllable. According to the Hindu grammarians,

it may be laid on either root or ending.

893. Proper subjunctive forms are not rare in BY., but are
less common in the later Vedic texts, and very seldom met
with in the Brahmanas. They are regularly made with guna-strengthening of the radical vowel, in both active and middle, and with accent on the root.

markedly

SIBILANT AORIST:

319
a.

sasi;

4.

B-AORIST.

The forms with primary endings are: In active, stoEjani; darneaati, parsati, paaati, mataati, yoa.ati, vakijati, aaksati;

dasathaa, dhasathas, parsathas, vakaathaa, varsathas; paaataa,

yamsataa, yakaataa, vakaataa ; dhaaatha, neaatha, paraatha, matin middle, namaai, manaai manaaae; kraihsate, traaate,
satha;
daraate, mansate, yakaate, rasate, vanaate, aakaate, haaate; traaathe (not traaftithe, as we should rather expect); namsante, minsante: and, with the fuller ending in 3d sing., maaatai.
;

b. The forms with secondary endings are (active only): jesaa,

vak-

aaa; daraat, neaat, pakfat, par^at, pregat, yakaat, yo?at, vansat,

vakaat, vesat, aataat, chantaat, etc. (some twenty others); yakaatam;

vafisama, aak^axna, stoaama; paraan, yaihaan, yo^an, raaan, vakf an, <;ef an, <jr6^an. Of these, yakaat and vakfat are found not rarely
in the Brahmanaa; any others, hardly more than sporadically.

804. Of

irregularities are to

be noted the following

The forms dfkaaae and pyk^aae (2d

sing, mid.) lack the

guna-

b. Jefam, atoaam, and yooam (AY. yusam, with u for o

anusata etc.) appear to be first persons formed under government

of the

a.

strengthening.
as

in

unless they are relics of a state of

analogy of the second and third
in which case je?ma is to
things anterior to the v^ddhi-strengthening
:

be compared with them (we should expect

From

C.

namely,

roots

yeaam

in

ft

are

optative.

made a few forms

or

jesama).

of problematic character:

khyeaam, jiiejam, gesam and geaathefam and athefus. Their value is

jefam and jefma suggests the possibility of

(only case in RV.),

ma, deama, se^am and

The analogy

their derivation

jaiama

aet,

of

from i-forms of the a-roots

a precative character (thus,

yfi-i-a-am).

or the sibilant might be of

That they really belong to the
;

ia-aorist appears highly improbable.

d. The RY. has a few difficult

perhaps best noted here.

They are:

first

1.

persons middle in se, which are

from the simple

root, kpje, hife

from present-stems, arcase, j-njase, yajaae,
gayise, grrilae and puniae. They have the value of indicative present.
Compare below, 897 b.

(and ohife?), atuae;

2.

895. Optative forms of this aorist are made in the middle only, and
they have in 2d and 3d sing, always the precative 8 before the endings.
Those found to occur in the older language are: diaiya, dhiaiya, bhak-

maaiya (for manaiya), muk^iya, rftaiya, lopaiya, aakaiya,

manal^has; daraif^a, bhakaia^a, mansls^a, mrkaifVa;
bhaksimahi, dhukaimahi, mansimahi, vanaimahi, vasimahi,
slya,

str^iya;

aakfimahi; manalrata. PB. has bhTlka.i8.iya, which should belong to

a aia-aorist. The RY. form traaitham (for trfislyftth&m or trasatbam)
is

an isolated anomaly.
a. This optative

makes a part of the accepted "precative"

923, 925 b.

later language: see below,

of

the

XI. AORIST-SYSTEMS.

the

32Q

896. Imperative persons from this aorist are extremely rare: we find
2d sing, act nesa and parea and the 2d pi. yaihsata (from a-stems,

and showing
and the 3d

may be

rather, therefore, a

mid.

sing.

treatment of the aorist-stem

rasatam and

pi.

rasantam

(of

a root),

as

which the same

said).

Participles of the s-aorist.

897.

a.

Active participles are

daksat

or

dhaksat, and saksat

(both RV.).

b. If rnjase (above, 894 d) is to be reckoned as an s-aorist form,

is an s-aorist participle; and of a kindred character,
apparently,

rnjasana

ar^asfina, ohasana, jrayasana, dhiyasana, mandasana, yamasana, rabhasana, vrdhasana, sahasana, ^avasana, all in RV. with
namasana, bhiyasana, in AY. In RV. occurs also once dhlsamana,
are

apparently an a-form of an s-aorist of y'dhi.

5.

898.

The

The tense-stem

is-aorist.

of this aorist adds

the

general

tense-sign H^s hy help of a prefixed auxiliary vowel ^ i,

making ^M?, to the root, which is usually strengthened,

and which has the augment.

The

899.

rules as to the strengthening of the root are

as follows:
a.

final

the middle:
>/q

pu

vowel has vyddhi in the

thus,

tlMlfcJM

apavis and

cleanse; *IHl(^N ataris,

act.,

a9ayis, mid., from y$ft 91 lie.

b. A medial vowel has guna,
voices:

thus,

MtfRi<^ale9is,

act.

active,

MM&M

and guna in
apavis from

from yfT tp pass; y^liUM

if

capable of

it,

in both

and mid., from 1/^^119

avarsis
from yjft rue shine;
^|ifo<^arocis,
ERftfa^
from
live.
from
rain; but
tear;

v^^vrs

c.

but

it

d.

Medial

Msflf^M^ajivis

i/sfts^jiv

sometimes lengthened in the active

more usually remains unchanged in both voices.
The

roots

5J

is

in the older language which show the lengthening are

kan, tan, ran, stan, svan, nan, vraj, sad, mad, car, tsar, svar,
jval, das, tras. From ran, san, kram, vad, raks, and sah occur forms
of both kinds. From |/math or manth are made the two stems mathis
and manthis.

SIBILANT AORIST:

321

5.

[903

IJ-AORIST.

Of exceptions may be noted: ]/mrj has (as elsewhere:

instead of guna: thus, amarjisam; j/st? has astaris,
and i/9f has a^arit (also a$arait in AV.), with guna in active.

900.

a.

627) vjddhi

b. The root

grabh

or

grah

has (as in future

I instead of i before the sibilant:

956) long

The

etc.,

below,

936 e,

agrabhlsma, agra-

thus,

in changeable r (so-called roots in r:

the grammarians to do the same optionally;
but no forms with long I from such roots have been found quotable.

hista, agrabhisata.

242), and

yVy

roots

are said by

Sutra (PGS.) has once a^nayista from }/ni (doubtless a false

reading).

The endings are as in the preceding formation

us and 5RT ata in 3d pi.). But in 2d and 3d sing.,

901.

(3^

the combinations is-s and

is-t are

from the

of the language contracted into

^T is

and

^fT

earliest period
It.

The 2d pi. mid. should end always in idhvam (or iddhvam,

from is-dhvam: 226); and this is in fact the form in the only exama.

ples quotable, namely ajanidhvam, artidhvam, aindhidhvam, vepidhvam ; as to the rules of the native grammarians respecting the

226 c.

matter, see

As examples

902.

be taken the roots

of the inflection of the is-aorist

qpu

cleanse,

and

d.

d.

s.

p.

apavisma apavisi

apavisvahi

apavisxnahi

wfo WIH^ ^I^^I^IH^ ^^(0*7

apavis

^Vdft^H^ %milef^
apavistam apavista

apavit

apavistam apavisus

apavista

^HleJlH^

apavisthas apavisatham apavidhvam

abodhisam abodhiava abodhisma dbodhisi

etc.

etc.

middle.

active.

apavisam apavisva

may

budh wake. Thus

etc.

etc.

apavisatam

apavisata

abodhiavahi abodhismahi
etc.

etc.

903. The number of roots from which forms of this aorist have
been noted in the older language is nearly a hundred and fifty (in
RV., about eighty; in AV., more than thirty, of which a dozen are
the later texts add less than twenty.
additional to those in BY.)
Among these are no roots in a; but otherwise they are of every variety of form (rarest in final i and I). Active and middle persons are
only about fifteen
freely made, but sparingly from the same root
;

Whitney

Grammar.

2. ed.

21

XL

903]

AOMST-SYSTEMS.

322

roots have both active and middle forms in the older language, and
of these a part only exceptionally in the one voice or the other.
a. No rale appears to govern the choice of usage between the
and the s-aorist; and in no small number of cases the same root
shows forms of both classes.

is-

904.
a.

Irregularities are to

be noticed as follows:

The contracted forms akramfm, agrabhim, and avadhim (with

angmentless

vadhim)

are

found in 1st

b. For aqarit occurs in AY.

agrahaiaam

(jaraia for Claris;

ajagrabhaiaam

see 8011).

sing.

a<j arait

act.

also (in a part of the manuscripts)

found in AB. (also the monstrous form

is

Ajayit, with short i in the ending, occurs

in TS.

AY. has once nudisthas, without guna.

c.

The forms atftrima (RY.), avadiran (AY.), and bftdhithas

they lack the sibilant, are perhaps to be referred to this
though
(TA.),
A few similar cases occur in the epics, and
aorist: compare avita, 908.
d.

of like doubtful character: thus, janithas, madithas, vartithas,

c.ankithaa, and (the causative: 1048) aghatayithaa. Agyhitam and
grhithaa and grhita, if not false readings for gfhnl-, are probably
are

irregular present-formations.

Modes

of the is-aorist.

905. As usual, augmentless

common than proper subjunctives.

indicative

forms of this aorist are more

all the persons found to

occur (and including all the accented words), are, in the active c/a&Bigam,

Examples, of

vadhim; mathls, vadhis, yavis, savls; avit, jurvit, mathit, vadhit, veqit; mardhiftam, doais^am, hinsiatain; avia^am, janiafcam,
badhistam; <jramisma, vadisma; vadhis^a and vadhi^^ana, mathin the middle: radhis,!;
hvari^us, grahiaus;
vyathisthas ; kramif^a, jani^, pavif^a,
The accent is on the root-sylprathis^a, mandista; vyathismalii.

istana, hinsis^a;

janisthas, marsisthas,

AY.

lable (tarisus,

906.
1st sing.

a.

act.

once, is doubtless an error).

Of subjunctive forms with primary endings occur only the

davifftni,

and the

1st

pi.

mid.

(with unstrengthened e)

yaciaamahe and sanis.amahe.

b. Forms with secondary endings are almost limited to 2d and 3d
There are found: avi^aa, kanisas, tariaas, rakfiaas, vadh-

sing. act.

iaas ;

vadiaaa, veaiaaa, jjanaiaaa; kariaat, jambhiaat, joaiaat,

takaiaat, tariaat, mndiaat, pariaat, bodhi'aat, mardhiaat, yaciaat,
yodhiaat, rakai^at, vaniaat, vyathiaat, 9anaiaat, aaniaat, aaviaat.

They

are made, it will be noticed, with entire regularity, by adding

tense-stem in
are the

3d

iff

pi. act.

to the

The only other persons found to occur

aanisan and mid. aaniaanta (and T8. has vanisanta,

before the endings.

SIBILANT AORIST:

323
for the problematic

vanufanta

of RV.),

5.

[011

I^-AORIST.

which are

also regular.

Bhavif at

a solitary example of a form with double

mode-sign ; canis$hat (RV.; SV. instead jini^hat) seems hopelessly corrupt The radical
syllable always has the accent, and its vowel usually accords with that of

(AB. once)

la

but we have Ban- in the subjunctive against asanisam

cay- and ran-, see below, 908).
907. The middle optative of this aorist also forms a part of the ac-

the indicative:
(as to

cepted "precative" of the later language (923, 925 b). It is very rare at
all periods, being made in RV. from only five
roots, and in AV. from two
of the same and from three additional ones (six of the eight have other
if-forms); and the remaining texts add, so far as noticed, only four other
roots.
All the forms found to occur are as follows: janisiya, indhisiya,

edhialya, rucisiya and rocifiya, gmisiya; modi?!?{has ; janifi^a;

vanisista; aahisivahi; idhislmahi, edhisimahi, janislmahi, tarisi-

mahi, mandisimahi, vandislmahi, vardhiijimahi, sahifimahi and

sahiijunahi. The accent is on the ending, and this would lead us to expect a weak form of root throughout; but the usage in this respect appears
to be various, and the cases are too few to allow of setting up any rule.

The forms janiseyam and -ya, from a secondary a-stem, occur in K.

908. Of imperative forms, we have from }/av a series: namely,
aviddhf, avis$u, avistam, avita (if this, as seems probable, stands
anomalously for avis^a) and avis,tana ; two of these are of unmistakably
Other forms occur only in 2d du. and 2d pi., and are
imperative form.
accordingly such
is

further

as

be subjunctives used imperatively (which

two of them by their accentuation on the

also

might

made probable

for

they are kramis^am, gamistam, caniftam, cayiatam

acayisam), tfbistam, yodhis$am, vadMs$am, c.nathiB$am;
ranistana (against aranisus), gnathis^ana.
909. No words baying a participial ending after 19 are found

root-syllable):

(against

anywhere to occur.
910. This is the only aorist of which forms are made in the
secondary and denominative conjugations: see below, 1035, 1048,
1068.

The

6.

sig-aorist.

911. According to the grammarians, this aorist is made

from roots in CTT 5 (including ft ml fix, fa mi (or ml) damage

and
R?T

crft

nam

II

cling,

bow,

which substitute forms in

R yam

reach,

and ^T ram

S),

and from

be content,

and

is

used only in the active the corresponding middle being of

the s-form (878 ff.). Its inflection is precisely like that of
;

the

is. -aorist;

it

is

unnecessary, then,

to

give more than

21*

911]

XI. AORIST-SYSTEMS.

its first

324

which we may form from the

nam low. Thus:

persons,

go and R*T

d.

s.

d.

s.

p.

roots

ETT

ya

p.

ayasisam ayaaiava ayaaiama anamaiaam anamaiava anamaiama

etc.

etc.

912. The

etc.

etc.

etc.

etc.

only a sub-form of the ia-aorist,

having the tense-sign and endings of the latter added to a form of root
increased by an added 8* It is of extreme rarity in the older language,
being made in BY. only from the roots ga sing and ya go, and in AY.
only from

ha

sis-aorist

leave,

is

properly

and doubtless also from

pya

fill

up and van

tern

91 4 b); the remaining

older texts add jnfi know (B.), jyg overbe conpower, dhya think (13. once: the edition reads -dha-), and
tent (SV.: a bad variant for BY. raalya); other Brahmana forms which
(see below,

ram

might be

also of the s-aorist are adrasit, avasit, and ahvasit; and bhukaiaiya (PB. S.) must be regarded as an anomalous formation from yTrtrnj,
unless we prefer to admit a secondary root bhuka, like bhaka from bhaj.

In the

language have been found quotable from other roots

later

only

adhmaait, anamsit, apasit, mlasis, and amnaaiaua.

a. The participle haaamana and causative hasayanti (BY.) show
has had assumed, even at a very early period, the value of a secon-

glasis,

that

dary root beside

ha

for other forms

than the

aorist.

913. The whole series of older indicative forms (omitting, as doubtful, the 2d and 3d sing.) is as follows: agaaiaam, ajnasiaam, ayasisam,
ajyasistam, ayasiatam; ajnasisma; ajnasista,
adhyasi^am;
ayasista; agasisus, ayasisus (aksisus is from j/aka attain).
a. Forms without augment are these: jnasiaam, ramsisam, hasi-

aam; haaiatam; haBistam; haaia^a; haaiaua, gaaiaua, jnaaiaua.

The accent would doubtless be upon the root-syllable.
914. a. Of proper subjunctives are found two, gaaiaat and yasisat (both BY.).
b. Optatives are not less rare: namely, yaaiaiathaa and pyasiai(for which the AY. manuscripts read pya^iaimahi, altered in the
edition to py&yis.-); and doubtless vaA9i9iya (AY.,
twice) is to be correct-

znahi

ed to vanaiBiya, and belongs here.

c.

The accent

of

yaaiatam

true imperative form;

with anomalous I

As

(like

to

bhukfislya, see

above,

912.

it to

be a

the

same,

avis^am, 908) shows

and yaaiata (BY., once)

is

doubtless

for i.

915. Middle forms

of this aorist,

it

will be noticed, occur from the

but, considering the great rarity of the whole formation, we

are hardly justified in concluding that in the ancient language the middle

optative only

persons in -sifi, -Bi^has, etc., were not

and the others of the is-aorist.

allowable,

like those

in

-ia.!,

SIBILANT AORIST:

325

7.

The

7.

[919

sa-AORiST.

sa-aorist.

916. In the later language, the roots allowed to form

end in
h
or
all of them sounds
5^9, ^9,
in
combination
with
which
the tense-sign make 5T ks. ; and

this aorist

they have
a.

spp9;

*j

They

tvia,,

i,

3f?

? as radical vowel.
ru9, m?9,

119, vi9, kli9, kru<j,

19, ri$,

dvif, 9119, via., kys; dih, mih, lib, guh, duh, ruh, tph,
from about half of them sa-forms, earlier or later, are quotable.

vy h, sty h ;
Some of them may,

And

u, or

are as follows:

or with certain

meanings must, take

aorists of other forms.

drop both tense-sign and union-vowel a in certain persons of the middle

that is, they may make instead forms of the
a few are allowed to

root-aorist.

As the tense-stem ends

917.
in the

main

in

a,

the inflection

is

an imperfect of the second general

But (according to the grammarians: the forms

like that of

conjugation.

unfortunately have not been found quotable) the 1st sing,

i instead of
mid. ends in
^ e, and the 2d and 3d du.
^

mid. in

atham and

4J|feJIH

the other conjugation.

is

The

admitted.

918.

root

yiHIH^atSm,

Both
is

As example of

active

and middle

inflection

throughout unstrengthened.
inflection

we may

take the root

Thus:

point.

middle,

active,

d.

d.

adikeam adiks&va

adiksas

as in imperfects of

adiksama adiksi

adiksavahi

adiksamahi

adiksatam adiksata adiksathas adiksatham adiksadhvam

adiksat adiksatam adiksan

919. In the

earlier

adiksatam

adiksata

adiksanta

language, the forms of the sa-aorist

are hardly

more than sporadic. They are made in RV. from seven roots; in AV.,
from two of these and from two others and the remaining texts add ten
more, making nineteen in all (the later language makes no additions to
;

this

number).

As

later,

all

have i or

or

as root-vowel,

consonant which combines with s to ks; but there are in the

and a
list also

final

two

X!- AORIST-SYSTEMS.

919-]
ending in

namely mrj and vrj.

j,

326

All the examples noted are given

below.

would be

a. So far

as

the middle forms are

fully explained

as

a transfer of certain s-aorists to an a-inflection.

marked

difference in the strength

stands in the

way

concerned,

this aorist

The

of radical vowel in the active, however,

of the successful application

of such

an explanation

to

the active forms.

920. a. In the indicative, we find, in the active avrkfam; adrukadhuksas, arukaas, akruksas, asprksas (and MBh. adds amrks. as) ;
adiksat, amiksat, aliksat, avikat, akruksat, aghuksat, aduksat
and adhuksat, arukfat, avrksat, akyksat, amrk$at, aspyksat;
aghuksatam; aruks&ma, ampksama, avyksama; adhuksan, apikin the middle, only akjk^athas
san (j/pif), arukaan, asprkijan;
(l/kr/sl, adhuksata, and amrksanta (and MBh. adds amr-kaata ?).
:

sas,

b. Forms without augment (no true subjunctives occur) are, in the

drkaam, mrksaiu; duksas, ruksas, nrrksaa; dviksat;

in the middle, dviksata, dukmykeata; dhuk^an and duks&n;
sata and dhiiksata, dhuksanta.
active:

c.

There are no optative forms.

d. Imperative are: in the active,

m^ksatam;

in the middle,

dhuk-

aasva
e.

The few accented forms without augment which occur have the

tone on the tense-sign sa, in analogy with the a-aorist (2) and the imperfect of the a-class: a single exception is dhuksata, which probably needs

emendation to dhuksata.
f.

The

aspiration of initial

ity of the root-final

but not from

drub

(156),

is

and g,

after loss of the aspirated qual-

seen in forms from the roots

(only a single case,

AB.);

duh

and guh,

RV., however, has also

aduksat and dukgas, dukaan, duksata.

Precative.

921. As the so-called precative is allowed by the grammarians

made in the later language from every root, and in an independent way, without reference to the mode of formation of the
aorist from the same root, it is desirable to put together here a brief
to be

statement of the rules given for

922.

The

it.

precative active

is

made by adding

the active

But:
precative endings (above, 588) directly to the root.
a. Of final root-vowels (as before the passive-sign ya: 770), i and

are lengthened;

y is usually changed to ri, but to ir and flr in those

which elsewhere show ir- and ur- forms (so-called f.roots:
42), and
to ar in
p and am?; ft is changed to e in the roots da, dha, stha, pa
dr/nfe, ga
in?, and a few others, in part optionally.

roots

[924

PRECATIVB.

327
b. The root in
nasal is lost, as In

general

assumes

badhyftsaxn from

its

weakest form:

/bandh

a penultimate

the roots which are abbre-

weak persons of the perfect (794) have the same abbreviation

ucyfisam, ijy&sam, vidhyasam, supyasam, g^hyaaam;
l/Qis forms (jigyftsain (compare 639, 854 c): and so on.

viated in the
as

here,

in

0. It has

been pointed out above (837) that the active precative

is

an optative of the root-aorist, with a problematic insertion of a sibilant

between mode-sign and ending.

923. a. The precative middle is made by adding the

middle precative endings (above, 568) to the root increased
that is, to the tense-stem of an s-aorist
s or
by

^i?

an

or of

b.

i$-aorist (but

The

root

is

without augment).

strengthened according to the rules that

apply in forming the middle-stem of the s and of the isaorists

respectively:

in general,

namely,

a final vowel

is

gunated in both formations; but a medial vowel, only before

As was pointed

0.

out above (567) the middle precative

optative of certain aorists, with the

sign

insertion of a sibilant

is really

the

between mode-

and ending only

(so far as authenticated by use) in the 2d and 3d

In the older language, such forms are oftenest made from the
(895) and the if -aorist (907); but also from the root-aorist (837 b),

singular.
B-aoriit

a- aorist (850 a), the reduplicated aorist (870), and

(914 b); and even from the perfect (812 b).

the

924.
H^bhtt
it is

le,

As example of
which

is

inflection,

we may

the

sis-aorist

take the root

said (no middle aorist or precative

quotable) to form

its

middle on the is-stem.

active.
d.

8.

P.

ex.

bhuyasam

bhuyasva

bhuyasma

HUIHH^

HillH

bhuyas

bhuyastam bhuyasta

bhuyat

bhuyastftm

bhuyasus

from

Thus:

924

XI. AORIST-SYSTEMS.

328

middle,
d.

bhavislya

bhavisivahi

bhavisimahi

bhavisisthas

bhavisiyastham

bhavisicjLhvam

bhavislyastam
a.

very

The forms given by the grammarians

questionable

as

value,

Those persons, and the 2d

2d and 3d dual

as

are of

the

sibilant.

have never been met with in use.

For the

regards

pi.,

the

bhavisiran

place

assigned

question respecting the ending of the 2d pi., as

dhvam

to

or

dhvam,

see

226 c.
925. a. The precative active is a form of very rare occurrence in
the classical language. In each of the texts already more than once referred
to

(Manu, Nala, Bhagavad-GIta,

akuntala, Hitopadeca) it occurs once
and no more, and not half-a-dozen forms have been found quotable from
the epics.

As

to its value, see

573 c.

b. The precative middle is virtually unknown In the whole later

The
literature, not a single occurrence of it having been brought to light.
BhP. has once ririsis^a, which is also a RV. form, belonging probably to
the reduplicated aorist: see

870.

Uses of the Aorist.

926. The uses of the aorist mode-forms (as has been already
pointed out: 582) appear to accord with those of the mode-forms
of the present-system. The predilection of the earlier language, continued sparingly in the later, for the augmentless forms in prohibitive
expression after ma was sufficiently stated and illustrated above
(679).
a.

The tense-value

once referred

and

to,

of the aorist indicative has also been

calls

more than

only for somewhat more of detail and for illus-

tration here.

927.
erit,

The

aorist of the later

language

is

simply a pret-

equivalent to the imperfect and perfect, and frequently

coordinated with them.

a.

Thus,

tatah sa gardabham lagudena tacjayamasa

'sau paficatvam agamat (H.) thereupon he beat

and hereof the latter died; tatah sa vidarbhan

tena

donkey with a

stick;

agamat punah;

tarn

the

tu bandhujanah samapujayat (MBh.) thereupon she went back to

Vidarbha; and her kindred paid her reverence; pritiman abhut, uvaca

USES or THE AORIST.

329
cai

'nam (MBh.)

he

was

with affection,

filled

and

hat kasthaih so 'bhud divyavapus tada

[929
said to

(R.)

he

him; tarn adaburned him with

wood, and he became then a heavenly form.

928. The aorist of the older language has the value of a proper
that is, it signifies something past which is viewed as
completed with reference to the present; and it requires accordingly
to be rendered by our tense made with the auxiliary have. In general, it indicates what has just taken place; and oftenest something
which the speaker has experienced.
"perfect":

Examples from the Veda are:

a.

agnim ahrsata, devesv akrata

(RY.)

par! 'me

cjravah

gam

anesata pary

ka iman a dadharsati

have led about a coir, they have carried around the fire,
who shall venture anything against them?

these here

they have done honor to the gods

yam aichama manasa

so 'yam a 'gat (RY.) he whom we (formerly,

aor.) come; yene *ndro ha visa
krtvy abhavad dyumny uttamah, idam tad akri deva asapatnah
kila Trtmvam (RV.) that libation by which Indra, making it, became (impf.)
of highest glory, I have now made, ye gods; I have become free from enemies.
impf.) sought with our mind has (now,

b. Examples from the Brahmana language are: sa ha 'smin jyog

uvasa... tato ha gandharvah sam udire: jyog va iyam urvagi
Then the
manuB.yefV avatsit (gB.) she lived with him a long time.

Gandharvas said

to

one another, "this Vrvacl,

forsooth,

hath

dwelt a long

among mortals '; tasya ha dantah pedire: tarn ho 'vaca apatsata va asya dantah (AB.) his teeth fell out. He said to him "his teeth
truly have fallen out" ; fndrasya vrtram jaghnusa indriyam viryam
prthivim anu vy archat tad osadhayo virudho 'bhavan sa
prajapatim upfi 'dhavad vrtram me jaghnusa indriyam viryam
prthivim anu vy arat t&d osadhayo virudho *bhuvann ti (TS.)
of Jndra, when he had slain Vritra, the force and might went away into the
9

time

earth,

force

and became the

and might, after

and plants ; he ran

herbs

slaying Vritra, have

have become the herbs and plants";

vratya kva 'v&taih (AY.,

in

to

"my

gone away into the earth,

and

Prajapati,

saying

svayam enam abhyudetya bruyad

prose passage) going up to him

in person,

yad idanim dvaii vivadamanav eyatam aham adar^am aham agrausam iti ya eva bruyad
aham adar^am iti tasma eva Qraddadhyama (^B.) if now twq should
let

him say: "Vratya, where

hast thou

abode"?

come disputing with one another, [the one] saying "1 have seen^j [the
"1 have heard", we should believe the one who said "I have seen*.

929.
as tenses

ing, the

a. This distinction of the aorist from the imperfect

of narration

is

very

older Upanishads

lation of it is very rare,

common

other]

and perfect

in the Brahmanalanguage (includ-

and the Sutras), and is closely observed; viois to be regarded as either due to corruption

and

of text or indicative of a late origin.

b. In the Yedic hymns, the same distinction

less

clear

and

less

strictly

maintained;

many

is prevalent,

but

is

both

passages would admit

an

XII. FUTURE-SYSTEMS.

929]

330

interpretation implying either sense and evident aorist-forms are sometimes

used narratively, while imperfect-forms are also occasionally employed in
;

the aorist sense.

930. The boundary between what has

just been

and what

is

an

is

sometimes overstepped, so that an aorist appears

where a present might stand, or was even rather to be expected. Thus
svasasthe bhavatam indave na iti so mo vai raje 'nduh somaevanescent one,

and

is

yai Vai 'ne etad rajna asade 'clklpat (AB. i. 29. 7) "be ye comfortable seats for our Indu", he says; Indu is king 8oma; by this means he
has made them (instead of makes them) suitable for Icing Soma to sit upon;

varunir apo yad adbhir abhisincati varunam evai 'nam akar

(MS.

10) the waters are Varuna's; in that he bepours him with waters,

iv. 3.

made him Varuna; pancabhir vyagharayati pankto yajno

yavan eva yajnas tarn alabdha 'tho yavan eva yajnas tasmad
raksansy apahanti (MS. iii. 2. 6) he smears with five; fivefold is the offer-

he has

ing; as great as
great as

is

is

the offering,

the offering,

met with in

all

from

it

of

he

it

he smites

the Brahmanas; but

then,

as

This idiom

is

has [thereby] taken hold;

away

the

demons.

it is especially

CHAPTER

frequent in the

MS.

XII.

THE FUTURE-SYSTEMS.

THE

931.

and

verb has two futures, of very different age

character.

ed by

fl"

The one has

ya> and

European

unity.

is

for tense-sign a sibilant follow-

an inheritance from the time of Indo-

The

other

is

a periphrastic formation,

made

by appending an auxiliary verb to a derivative noun of

agency, and it is a recent addition to the verb-system; its
beginnings only are met with in the earliest language.

former

may be

The

called the s- future (or the old future, or

simply the future); the latter

periphrastic future.

may be

distinguished as the

THE B-FUTURE.

331

The

I.

The

932.

(in

s-future.

<3>

gjfr

tense-sign of this future

is

HT

the syllable

the root either directly or by an auxiliary

sya, added to

vowel ^

[984

the latter case becoming

^j

i$ya).

The

root

has the guna-strengthening.

Thus, from y^J da give is
formed the future tense-stem 3JHT dasya; from y\ i go, the
stem ^SET esya; from V^J duh milk, the stem rfir?J dhok?ya;

from

i/H bhti be,

cv

the stem HJc^U bhavijya; from

b. There are hardly any Vedic cases of resolution

sya

into sia;

BY. has ksegiantas

933. This tense-stem

present-stem ending in

We may

733 a).

is

1%

of

?dh

sprinkle

it

the tense-sign

once.

then inflected precisely like a

(second

]/Sf?

ky make.

general conjugation:

Thus

middle.

active.
d.

d.

s.

p.

p.

<1 HI

(^It-tuft

^THT(H

^it-u^H^

dasyasi

dasyathas dasyatha

dasyaee dasyethe

<lfllfd

O^UHH^ <l^(r*

^l^ilH

dasyati

dasyatas dasyanti

dasyate dasyete

^*

take as models of inflection the future of

V^T da give, and that of

s.

J/3RIJ

thrive, the stem 3TM&U ardhi^ya; and so on.

a. But from j/jlv Jtv the stem is jivisya, from yukB
is uksisya, and so on (240).

^IHIiei^ ^JttllHH^ 3TF&

dasyami dasyavas dasyamas dasye

^IFOT

^TFTO

N't <IUIIHtl
dasyavahe dasyamahe

^POT

^IT?T&

dasyadhve

^THI%

<IUIH

dasyante

karisy ami kari^y avas karisy amas karisye karifyavahe karisy amahe
etc.

a.

etc.

ma: e. g. rameyava
esyama (MBh.), vatsyama

and

etc.

etc.

etc.

etc.

In the epics are found occasional cases of 1st dn. and pi. in
(R.),

bhaksayiijyava

(causative:

va

MBh.);

(R.).

934. With regard to the use or non-use of the auxiliary vowel

i before the sibilant, there is a
degree of general accordance between
this tense and the other future and the desiderative but it is
by no
means absolute, nor are any definite rules to be laid down with regard to it (and so much the less, because of the infrequency of the
two latter formations in actual use): between this and the aorist (s;

XII. FUTURE-SYSTEMS.

934]

aorist on the one side, or is.-aorist

how

on the

other), any correspondence

necessary to learn, as a matany given root makes these various parts of its

is still less traceable. Practically,

ter of usage,

332

it is

conjugational system.

935. Below is added a statement of the usage, as regards the auxilfor the most part, in the
vowel, of all the roots found quotable
form of a specification of those which add the tense-sign directly to the
mentioned the other roots which according to
root; in brackets are further
iary

the grammarians also refuse the auxiliary vowel.

a.

Of

r) take no

ending in vowels, the great majority (excepting those in

all in a (numerous, and unnecessary to specify: but

roots
i.

Thus,

compare c below)

those in

i, as

ksi

possess, ci gather, ci note,

mi,

si

and ji occur forms of both classthose in I, as kri, bhl, mi, vli; but 91
es; gri [and gvi] has i;
those in u, as cyu, dru,
1 takes i];
lie and ni have both forms [and
plu, cru, hu; but su press out and stu have both forms [and ksu,

or

sa bind (sisya), hi ; from

i,

ksi

ksmi, nu, yu, ru, snu take

But

destroy,

i];

of those in u,

dhu

bhQ

and

take

r (numerous, and nnnecessary to specify)

take i [those in changeable r, for so-called r-roots (242), are said by the
grammarians to take either i or I; no i-forms, however, are quotable].
b. Of roots ending in mutes, about half add the tense-sign directly.
i;

su

has both forms.

all

in

in palatals: in c, pac, muc,

Thus, of roots ending in gutturals, gak;
ric, vac, vie, vragc, sic (but yac takes i); in ch, prach; in j, bhanj,

mrj (marksya and mraksya),

yaj, bhuj, yuj, vrj, srj [also bhrajj,

bhaj, and majj (mankfya and

majjifya) have both forms, and vij (vijifya and vejisya) and vraj
in dentals: in t, krt cut and vrt [also crt and nrt] make
take i;

rafij, saftj, svafij, nij, ruj], while tyaj,

ad, pad, gad fall, skand, syand, chid, bhid, vid

had, khid, svid, ksud, tad]; while sad (satsya and
sldisya) and vid fcnotr make both forms [also chrd and trd], and vad
has i; in dh, vyadh (vetsya), radh, sidh succeed, budh, yudh, rudh,
vrdh. [also sadh, krudh, ksudh, (judh], and bandh and sidh repel

both forms;
find,

nud

in d,

[also

man

han

in
have both forms;
and
sarpsya)
[also
gup, trp, srp (srapsya
gap, lip, lap], while tap* vap, svap, drp, and kip have both forms ;
in bh, yabh and rabh, labh having both forms; in m, ram, while kram,

have both forms; in n, tan, while

labials:

ksam, nam, and

c.

(761 d
or

hu

thus,

and

in p, ap, ksip,

yam

make both

forms.

Of the roots reckoned by the grammarians as ending in semivowels

g) all take i. And va or vi weave, vy& or vi envelop, and hva

call take a

y-form, as in their present-system, to which then

i is

vayisya, vyayisya, hvayisya (but also hvasya).

d. Of roots ending in spirants, the minority (about a third)

out the auxiliary vowel.

are: roots in g, dig, vig,

added

are with-

They
dyg (draksya),
dang, rig, lie., krug, mrg], while nag be lost
has both forms (nankfya and nagifya);
in s, pif, vi, gif [also
spr<j

(spraksya)

[also

THE

333

[938

B-PUTURE.

tvia, dvis, Qlis, tus, dus, pus, QUS], while krs has both forms (krakin a, vas shine, vas clothe [also ghas], while
a.ya and kara.iaya);

vas

in h, mih, duh, druh

dah, vah, aah, and ruh have both forms.

dwell has both forms;

lih], while
e.

In the older language, a majority (about

add the sya withont auxiliary i;

of the

language only, nearly three quarters have the

by any

root of late origin

five

futures
i, this

and derivative character

[also

nah, dih,

ninths) of simple roots

occurring in the later

being generally taken

as it is also uni-

formly taken in secondary conjugation (1019, 1036, 1050, 1068).

936. As the root is strengthened to form the stem of this future, so,
of a root that has a stronger and a weaker form, the stronger form is used
thus, from ]/bandh or badh bind, bhantsya or bandhiaya.
:

a.

By an

irregular strengthening,

nanksya

(beside

naQifya)

is

made

from i/nag be lost, and manksya (beside majjiaya) from >/majj sink.
b. But a few roots make future-stems in the later language without
strengthening

miliaya (also TS.), vijiaya (also vejiaya),

au|ya (939 b), Bphu$ia.ya; and yVyadh makes

thus, likhisya,

aifya (j/aa or

ai),

vetaya from the weaker form vidh.

c. The QB. has once the monstrous form
aqnuvif ySmahe, made
upon the present-stem a9nu (697) of )/a<} attain. And the later language
makes aldiaya and jahisya from the present-stems of )/sad and yha.
Compare further hvayifya
(beside

khyasya)

etc.,

935

c.

Also

khyayisya from >/khya

appears to be of similar character.

d. A number of roots with medial f strengthen it to ra (241) thus,

krakaya, trapaya, drapaya, draksya, mraksya (beside marksya),
spraksya, sraksya, srapsya (beside aarpaya), and mradisya (beside
mardisya); and ^klp forms klapaya (beside kalpiaya).
e. The root grah (also its doublet glah) takes I instead of i, as it
:

does also in the aorist and elsewhere.

part,

937. Thia future is comparatively rare in the oldest language

in
apparently, because the uses of a future are to a large extent an-

swered by subjunctive forms

but becomes more and more common

later.

Thus, the RV. has only seventeen occurrences of personal forms, from nine
different roots (with participles from six additional roots); the AV. has
fifty occurrences, from twenty-five roots (with participles from seven more)
but the TS. has occurrences (personal forms and participles together) from
over sixty roots; and forms from more than a hundred and fifty roots are
quotable from the older texts.

Modes
938. Mode-forms

of the s-future.

of the future

example in the older language

is

are of the utmost rarity.

karisyas, 2d

sing.

subj.

act.,

The only
occurring

once (or twice) in RV. (AB. has once notayavahai, and GB. has eayamahai, tansyamahai, athaayaxnahai, but they are doubtless false read-

XII. FUTUBE-SYSTEMS.

938]

334

Two or three optative forms are found in the epics thus,

dhakayet and mansyeran (MBh.), and draksyeta (R.); also an imperative patsyantu (Bar.). And several 2d pi. mid. in dhvam are quotable
from the epics thus, vetsyadhvam, Bavisyadhvam, and (the causative)
kalayisyadhvam (PB.) and jivayisyadhvam (MBh.: and one text has
ings for -he.

moksyadhvam

at

i.

where the other reads

133. 13,

and bhavisyadhvam (MBh. R.)

are

to

it

is

moksayadhvain\

a matter of question

be accounted a real imperative formation,

whether these

an epic substitution

or

542 a).

of secondary for primary endings (compare

Participles of the s -future.

939. Participles are

cisely as

made from

from a present-stem in

5[

the

future-stem pre-

a: namely, by adding

in the middle the ending *TR

in the active the ending
rT^nt,
mSna; the accent remains upon the stem. Thus, from the

verbs instanced above, $jH4tl dasyant and ^IHIHM dSsya-

mana,

is

c
sfTP[ ?TrT

karisyant and ehf^lHIUI karisyamana.

a. According to the grammarians, the feminine of the active participle

either in anti or in atl; but only the former has been noted as

made

occurring

in the older language,

rare: see above,

and the

latter

is

everywhere extremely

449 e,f.

b. In BY. occurs once susyanti, from ysu, with anomalous accentuation.

Preterit of the s-future: Conditional.

940.

From

the future-stem

is

made an

augment-preterit,

augment and adding the secondary endings,

in precisely the same manner as an imperfect from a present-stem in 5T a. This preterit is called the conditional.

by prefixing the

a. It stands related to the future, in

conditional nurais
will have

to

the future aurai,

nearly as the

b. Thus,

German

form and meaning, as the French

the English would have to

or as

wiirde habcn to werde haben.

from the roots already instanced:

middle.

active.
s.

d.

p.

s.

d.

p.

adasyam adasyava adasyama adasye ddasyavahi adasyamahi

THE CONDITIONAL.

335

[043

adasyas adasyatam adasyata

adasyathas adasyetham adaeyadhvam

^iKir^M^it-urliH^ M^IH-II^
adasyat adasyatam adasyan

I4IHI<1

ti^iHirti*^

4|<l HI rl

adasyata

adasyetam

ad&syanta

^ctif^tiH

^sftij

^w

%i e

ni(Q'tiiH

34=^1^^ ^cfji^^tii^i*^ ^nit^iHi*^

akarisy am akarisyava akarisyama akarisye akarisyavahi akarisyfimahi

etc.

etc.

etc.

etc.

etc.

etc.

941. The conditional is the rarest of all the forms of the Sanskrit
verb.
The RV. has bnt a single example, abharisyat was going to carry
In the Brahmanas it
off, and none of the Vedic texts furnishes another.
is

hardly more
times.

fifty

common

Nor does

it is met with more than

become more frequent later: not

except in QB., where

like the fa tare,

it,

an example occurs in Nala, Bhagavad-GIta, 01 Hitopadeca; only one in

Mann; and two in akuntala. In the whole MBh. (Holtzmann) it is found
about twenty-five times, from thirteen roots.
The middle forms are extremely few.

The Periphrastic

II.

942.

a.

This formation

ative active tense (or also

Future.

contains only a single indic-

middle

see 947), without modes,

or participle, or preterit.
b. It consists in a derivative

nomen

having the

agentis,

value of a future active participle, and used, either with

or without an accompanying auxiliary,

in the office of a

verbal tense with future meaning.

943.
tar)
is

and

added

The noun
this (as

to

formed hy the suffix rT

in its other than verbal uses
is

ty
:

(or

H^f

see 1182)

the root either directly or with a preceding

auxiliary vowel ^ i, the root itself being strengthened by

guna, but the accent resting on the suffix: thus, SJrF dStf

from

j/3T

dft

give;

bhavitf from ys\ bhft

a.

As

regards

kartf from

V3J k?

make;

>rf5FT

be.

the presence or absence of the vowel i, the usage is

same as in the s-future from

said by the grammarians to be generally the

the same root (above, 935).

The most important exception is that the
roots in p take no i: thus, kartr (against karigya); roots han and

gam

show the same difference

while vyt, vrdh, and

syand have

i here,

though

XII. FUTURE-SYSTEMS.

943]

The few forms which occur in the

the s-future.

not in

336
older language

agree with these statements.

944. In the third persons, the nom. masc. of the noun,

in

three

the

numbers respectively

thus,

auxiliary:

H^WI bhavitS

he

(373),

or

is

she

used without

or

it

mil be;

H&HI|t bhavitSrau both will be; H^ci (H^ bhavitSras they

mil be. In the other persons, the first and second persons
present of i/TO as be (636) are used as auxiliary and they
I

are combined, in all numbers, with the singular

nom. masc.

of the noun.

Thus, from y^J d5 give:

a.

active,
d.

s.

p.

datasmi

datasvas

datasmas

datasi

datasthas

datastha

data

datarau

dataras

b. Occasionally, in the epics and later (almost never in the older

language), the norm of the tense as given above is in various respects departed from: thus, by use of the auxiliary in the 3d person also; by its
omission in the 1st or 2d person ; by inversion of the order of noun and
auxiliary;
or plural

by interposition of other words between them; by use of a dual

nom. with the auxiliary; and by use of a feminine form of the

Examples are: vakta

noun.

I shall or thou wilt

ta (MBh.) I

shall

strike
see,

'sti

(MBh.) he

will apeak;

nihanta (MBh.)

yoddha 'ham (R.) 1 shall fight, aham draskarta *ham te (BhP.) / will do for thee, tvam
down,

bhavita (MBh. Megh.)

thou wilt le;

pratigrahita tarn asmi (MBh.) /

asmi ganta (MBh.) 1 atoll

receive her, hanta tvam

will

go;
asi

(MBh.) thou wilt slay; kartarau svah (MBh.) we two shall do; dras^ry
I (f.) shall see, udbhavitrl (Nais.) she will increase,

asmi (MBh.)

AB. has once sota as 2d sing., thou wilt

gantri (Y.) she will go.
press ; JUB. makes the combination 9ma9anani bhavitaras the cemeteries
will be.
c.

syam

An

optative of the auxiliary appears to be once used, in

I would

yoddhum

fight

(R.

i.

22. 25 Peterson

yoddha

but the Bombay edition reads

yasyami).
945. The accent in these combinations, as in all the ordinary
cases of collocation of a verb with a preceding predicate noun or

PERIPHRASTIC FUTURE.

337

[948

adjective (502), is on the noun itself; and, unlike all the true verbal
forms, the combination retains its accent everywhere even in an in-

dependent clause: thus, tarhi va atinastro bhavitasmi (QB.) then I

shall be out of danger (where bhavisyami, if used, would be accentless). Whether in a dependent clause the auxiliary verb would take
an accent (595), and whether, if so, at the expense of the accent of

noun

the

a preposition compounded with a verbare without the means of determining.

(as in the case of

form: 1083b),

we

940. In the Veda, the nomina

agentis in tp or tar, like various other

derivative nouns (271), but with especial frequency, are used in participial
construction, governing the accusative if they come from roots whose verbal
Often, also, they are used predicatively, with or without

forms do so (1182).

accompanying copula; yet without any implication of time; they are not the
beginnings, but only the forerunners, of a new tense-formation. Generally,

when they have

it)

has the

a participial value, the root-syllable (or a prefix preceding

The tense-use

accent.

begins,

but rather sparingly, in the

Brahmanas (from which about thirty forms are quotable) and it grows more
common later, though the periphrastic future is nowhere nearly so frequent
as the s-future (it is quotable later from about thirty additional roots).
;

947.

a.

few isolated attempts are made in the Brahmanas to form

to this future, with endings corresponding after

by analogy middle persons

the usual fashion to those of the active persons. Thus, TS. has once pra1 will apply (standing related to prayoktasmi as, for example,

yoktase

B. has sayitase thou shall lie (similarly related to

and
TB.
has
yastasmahe we will make offering. But in TA.
Qayitasi);
is found (ill) yastahe as 1st sing., showing a phonetic correspondence of
a problematic character, not elsewhere met with in the language.

9ase

to

b.

gasmi);

On

of such tentative formations

the basis

grammarians set up a complete middle inflection

as follows

the native

d.

s.

c.

as these,

for the periphrastic future,

p.

datahe

datasvahe

datase

datasathe

dStasmahe
datadhve

data

datarau

dataras

Only a single example of such a middle has been brought

in the later language, namely (the causative)

dar^ayitahe

to light

(Nais.).

Uses of the Futures and Conditional.

948. As the s-future

is

the commoner,

so also

it is

the one

indefinitely used. It expresses in general what is going to take

but often, as in other languages, addplace at some time to come
on
an
the
one
hand
implication of will or intention, or on the
ing

more

other hand that of promise or threatening.

Whitney, Grammar.

2. ed.

22

XII. FUTURE-SYSTEMS.

338

a. A few examples are varsis yaty aisamah parjanyo vf s^iman

bhavisyati (B.) tt is going to rain; Parjanya is going to be rich in rain
this year; yas tan na veda kirn pea karisyati (RV.) whoever does not
know that, what will he do with verse? a vai vayam agni dhasyamahe
*tha yuyarh kirn karisyatha (^B.) we are going to build the two fires;
then what will you do? tain indro 'bhyadudrava hanisyan (^B.) him
:

Indra ran at, intending to slay,- yady eva karisyatha sakam devair
yajnfyaao bhavigyatha (RV.) if ye will do thus, ye shall be worthy of
the sacrifice along with the gods ; dantas te 9atsyanti (AY.) thy teeth will
fall out,- na marisyasi ma bibheh (AY.) thou shalt not die,- be not
afraid; bruhi kva yasyasi (MBh.) tell us; where are you going to go?
yadi mam praty akhyasyasi viaam asthasye (MBh.) if you shall reject
me, I will resort to poison. As in other languages, the tense is also sometimes used for the expression of a conjecture or presumption

thus

ko

'yaih devo gandharvo va bhavisyati (MBh.) who is this? he is doubtless

a god, or a Gandharva; adya svapsyanti (MBh.) they must be sleeping now.
b. The

spheres

of future

and desiderative border upon

one an-

sometimes met with where the other might be expected. Examples of the future taken in a quasi-desiderative sense are
as follows
yad da^use bhadram karisyasi tave 't tat satyam (RY.)
other,

and the one

is

what favor thou

actual

(is

(9B.) as

wiliest

if,

on thy worshiper, that of

to bestow

surely brought about);

thee becometh

yatha *nyad vadisyant so *nyad vadet

intending to say one thing, one were to say another.

049. The periphrastic future is defined by the grammarians as

expressing something to be done at a definite time to come. And
this, though but faintly traceable in later use, is a distinct characteristic of the formation in the language where it first makes its appearance. It is especially often used along with c,vas tomorrow.

A few examples are adya varsisyati

... $vo vrasta (MS.) it is

tomorrow; yataran va ime (jvah kamitaras te jetaras (K.) whichever of the two parties these shall choose tomorrow,
they will conquer; pratar yas$asmahe (IB.) we shall sacrifice tomorrow

a.

going to rain today;

morning; ityahe

it

will rain

vah paktasmi

(^B.)

on such and such a day I

will

tan ma ekam ratrim ante <?ayitase jata u te 'yam

tarhi putr6 bhavita (^B.) then you shatt lie with me one night, and at

cook for you;

that time this

son of yours will be born.

In other cases, this definiteness

of time is wanting, but an emphasis, as of special certainty, seems perhaps

to belong to the form:
thus, bibhybi
parayisyami tv6 'ti: kasmfin

ma

mfi pfirayisyasi 'ty Sugha

parayitasml

'ti

imah sarvah praj^ nlrvo^ha,

(gB.) support

me and I

what will you save me? said he.

A flood
creatures; from that I will save you, said

mahac chokabhayam praptasmah

wtue

will
is

save you, said

going

it;

to

tatas tvft
it.

From

carry off all these

paridevaySih cakrire

(GB.) they

set

up a lamentation:

are going to meet with great pain and dread"; yaje 'yaksi yastahe ca
(TA.) I sacrifice, I have sacrificed, and I shall sacrifice. In yet other cases,

USES OP THE FUTURES AND CONDITIONAL.

339

[950

in the older language even, and yet more in the later, this future appears
to be equivalent to the other: thus, prajayam enarh vijnatasmo yadi

vidvan va juhoty avidvfin va

whether he

one that

is

(AB.) in

his children

we

shall

know him,
vak-

with knowledge or without knowledge;

sacrifices

tasmo va idam devebhyah

(AB.) we shall tell this to the gods; yadi

bhavita tata evam sv&rtham karis.yami (MBh.)
if later my own affair shall come up, then I will attend to my own affair;
katham tu bhavitasy eka iti tvam nrpa cocimi (MBh.) but how will

mama 'pi

svartho

you

get along

alone?

king,

that,

is

the cause

of

my

grief about you.

950. The conditional would seem to be most originally and

properly used to signify that something teas going to be done. And
this value it has in its only Vedic occurrence, and occasionally elsewhere. But usually it has the sense ordinarily called "conditional";
and in the great majority of its occurrences it is found (like the subjunctive and the optative, when used with the same value) in both
clauses of a conditional sentence.
a. Thus, yo vrtraya sinam atra *bhariyat pra tarn janitrl
vidusa uvaca (RV.) him, who was going here to carry off Vritra's wealth,
his mother proclaimed to the knowing one;
tjatayum gam akarisyam

(AB.) 1 was going

to make (should have made) the cow live a hundred years

(in other versions of the same story is added the other clause, in which the
conditional has a value more removed from its original: thus, in GB., if

my mouth); tata eva 'sya

kasmad dhy abhesyad dvitiyad vfti bhayam

had not stopped [pragrahifyah]

you, villain,

bhayam

vl 'yaya

thereupon his fear departed; for of whom was he to be afraid?

occasion of fear arises from a second person ; utpapata ciram tan mene

bhavati (QB.)

yad vasah paryadhasyata

he should put

Tiosyat (MS.) Prajapati,

sacrifice;

(QB.) he leaped up; he thought

on a garment; sa tad eva

verily,

it

long that

na Vindat prajapatir yatra

did not then find where he was to (should)

evam cen na Vaksyo murdha

te vyapatifyat (GB.)

if

you

sa yad dhai 'tavad eva

'bhavisyad yavatyo hai 'va 'gre prajah B?$\sia tavatyo hSi Va
'bhavisyan na pra 'janisyanta (^)B.) if he had been only so much, there
would have been only so many living creatures as were created at first; they

should not speak thus, your head would

fly off;

would have had no progeny; kim va 'bhavisyad arunas tamasaih

vibhetta tarn cet sahasrakirano dhuri na *kariyat (^.) would
the

Dawn,

one did not

forsooth,
set her

be

on

the
the

scatterer

of

the darkness,

if the thousand -rayed

front of his chariot?

22*

951]

VERBAL ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS.

XIII.

CHAPTER

340

XIII.

VERBAL ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS PARTICIPLES,

:

INFINITIVES, GERUNDS.

951 a. THOSE verbal adjectives, or participles, which are made

from tense-stems, and so constitute a part of the various tensesystems, have been already treated. It remains to describe certain
others, which, being made directly from the root itself, belong to the
verbal system as a whole, and not to any particular part of it.
b. The infinitive (with a few sporadic exceptions in the older
language) also comes in all cases from the root directly, and not from
any of the derived tense-stems.

The same

c.

is

true of the so-called gerunds, or indeclinable

^^

participles.

Passive Participle in ta or na.

*A<!\'?Vx
r

952

accented suffix

"^y

atively small

number of

adjective which,

verbs,

fT

ta

when coming from

in a comparformed a verbal

or,

na

*{

is

transitive verbs, quali-

having endured the action expressed by

anything
ukta spoken. Hence
the verb: thus, ^ff datta given;
as

fies

3W

usually called the passive participle

it is
it

from the participle belonging

tem

or, to distinguish

to the passive present-sys-

(771), the past passive participle.

a.

same

When made

participle,

from an intransitive or neuter verb, the

as in other languages, has no passive but

only an indefinite past sense: thus,

JlrT

gata gone;

*TcT

bhuta

been; ufar! patita fallen.

953. In general, this participle

is

made by adding

ft

ta to the bare verbal root, with observation of the ordinary

rules of euphonic combination.
a.

vowel

Some

roots, however, require the prefixion of the auxiliary

to the suffix. For these, and for the verbs that add n& in-

stead of ta, see below, 956, 957.

PASSIVE PAKTICIPLE IN ta OR na.

341

As

b.

to the accent

the root is preceded

by a

preposition,

1085 a.

see

The

954.
there

if

when

[956

is

anywhere

weak and

a.

root before

cT

ta has

its

usually

weakest form,

in the verbal system a distinction of

Thus:

strong forms.
penultimate nasal

is

not seldom dropped:

akta 0/anj), baddha (>/bandh), qrabdha

examples are

(j/<jrambh), das$a

(yda&$,

srasta (/Brans;, badha ;j/banh).

Roots which are abbreviated in the weak forms of the perthe same abbreviation here: examples are ukta

b.

(794) suffer

fect

upta (j/vap: also vapta), udha (j/vah),

viddha (]/vyadh);
and, by a similar
procedure, j/prach (or pra$) makes pysta, >/bhran9 makes bhr>8$a
(beside the regular bhrasta), and y^ra boil makes Qrta (beside
uf$a (j/vas

(}/vac),

supta

shine],

(}/svap), is$a (v'yaj),

9rata).

a is weakened to I in gita (/ga sing), dhlta (}/dha

pita (j/pa drink), sphita; and jita, vita, $ita are made from
the roots jyS, vya, $ya, (or ji etc.);
and farther to i in chita (beside
chata), dita (yds, divide andjia bind}, drita (? >/drS sleep), hita (>^dha
put: with h for dh; but dhita also occurs in V.), mita ()/ma measure),
c. Final

ucfc),

\J

<?ita (also (jata), sita, sthita.

d.

in

final

and a

etc.);

am

and

e.

iq

final

an

More

is Ipgt after

taking ta, see

isolated cases are

9is^a (also $asta: >/9as),

and jagdha, see 233 f.
f.

On

in gata, nata, yata,

in ksata, tata,

955

mata, hata.

rata (from ]/gam

to

the other roots

a, b.

-uta (RV.

murta

As

>/av),

(referred to

uta

or

uta (/va tceai'),

As to -gdha

/murch).

the other hand, ]/svad makes svatta.

955. Of more irregular 'character are the following

a.

number of

en the radical vowel

am

retain the nasal, and lengthroots ending in

(as also in some others of their verbal forms)
:

kamta, kramta, klamta, ksamta, camta, tarhta, damta,

bhramta, vamta, ^amta (yqam be quiet], Qraihta (from i/kam etc.)
and one in an, dhvan sound, makes dhvanta.
thus,

b.

an make their
khata, jata, -vat a, sata;

few roots in

in S: thus,

participle

dham

from another root-form

has both

dhamita and

dhmata.
c. Certain roots in iv take their yu-form (765 a):
(>/<Kv play), f^hyuta, syuta; but |/miv makes -muta.

d.

made
and

<$Irta

dyuta

roots in. changeable y (generally taking na: 957 b) are

purta (i/py fill: beside pyta), qlrta and Qurta (y<ft cruaA);
is further made from y'ijri mix.

From

also

thns,

xi
-

065]

XIII.

VERBAL ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS.

e. Doable forms are mugdha and

and dhruta, hvrta and hruta.
f.

The

root

da

give

mudha, sadha

342

and sodha,

dhurta

makes datta (from the secondary root-form dad;

in V.).
But the anomalously contracted form -tta (as if
for data, with the radical vowel lost) is also frequent in composition, es-

bat data

also

thus, atta, anutta, parltta, pratta,

pecially with prepositions
rarely with other elements, as devatta, punartta, marutta (? )
:

same abbreviated form comes from j/da divide in avatta.

g. The roots making participles in both ta and ita,
in all three, will be noted in the next two paragraphs.

066.

The

with ^

suffix

or ta

pratitta

And

the

and na, or

or in the form

i,

used especially with roots having finals that are only with
difficulty, if at all, combinable with rf t according to the
usual analogies of the language, and often with roots of a
secondary, derivative, or late character

with original

but also not seldom

roots.

a. Thus, of roots presenting difficulties of combination

1. all that

end in two consonants (save those of which one consonant is lost by a weakening process: 964 a, b): e. g. c.ank, valg, vanch, lajj, ubj, ceg$
gburn, katth, nind, jalp, cumb, umbh, khall, pinv, 9ans (also
9asta), raks, bins, garh (in all, over fifty); but take makes tas^a;
2. all that

end in linguals (including s

lu$h, Id, vrud, bhan, ka, bhas;

e. g. likb, grath, nath, kuth, riph,
cal,

mil, lul, khel:

gil,

after

or &): e. g. a\, trut,

3. all

gupb;

6. all that

path,
end in surd spirants:
all that end in 1: e. g.

that
4.

end in other persistent semi-

carv (also curna), jiv (for the other roots in Iv, see
6. ujh.
This class includes
run, eev, day, vyay, puy ;
more than half of the whole number that take only ita.

vowels

namely,

955 c), dhav

1. in \guttural8,'\ cak,
b. Of other roots ending in consonants:
dliauk (safe has both ta and ita); Qlagh;
2.
in[pa!^ ac (also
akna), uc, kuc, khac, yac, rue; ajP, kuj, vraj, also tyaj and mrj in
late texts (usually tyakta and mr^a);
3. in dentals, at, pat,
$cut,
also yat in epos (elsewhere only yatta) ; krad, khad, gad, cud, nad,
mud, mrd, rad, rud, vad> vid know, hrad; also nud in epos (elsewhere
nutta and nunna); mad has both matta and madita (the majority
of roots in d take na: 957 d); edh, ksudh, gadh, dudh, nadh,

spardh; an, in, kvan, dhvan, pan, ran ring, van, stan,
4. in labials/ cup, yup, rup,
svan, and dhvan (also dhvanta);
and usually kup (kupta late) and lap (lapta epic), occasionally kfip,
gup, tap, drp, vap, ^ap, while jap has both ta and ita; grabh
(grbhlta), <$ubh, skabh, and occasionally lubh, while kfubh and
stabh have both forms tim, dham, 9am labor, stim, and kf am in

bfidh,

epos

(also

kfiihta);

5.

in

isjSantB,

a?

eat,

19, kftc,

kr^, vftc, $ac.

PASSIVE PRTICIPLE IN ta OR na.

343

[967

while pi(j has both forms, and mr<j takes ita only late ; if send, Is, kus,
trs, tvis, prus, mis, rus, hes, hres, also mus except late, while dhrs,

rus, and hrs. show both forms

as, bhas, bhas, ras, las, vas clothe,

while kas, gras, yas, vas shine, vas
dwell, 9&s (with qista and Qasta), (jvas, and hras make both forms;
ih, grab (grhita), jah (secondary form of ha), mah, rah, and occasionally

uh

as throw

also

has,

remove, while

Of

c.

roots

has both forms.

gah

lie,

which makes (jayita (with

full

form before ita; but there

ending in vowels, only 9!

of root, as elsewhere

guna

occasionally,

620).

d. In general, a root maintains its

grbhita and grhita (the root being reckoned

720), udita (also vadita in the later language),

are a few exceptions: thus,

as

grabh and grah:

see

usita (yVas shine; beside usta), usita (|/vas dwell: also sporadically
vasita and usta), uksita (yVakf increase'), (jrthita (y^rath). From
l/mrj are made both mrjita and marj ita (with strengthening as in present and elsewhere: 627), beside

mrs^a.

e. Instead of i, long i is taken in

957.

The

^ na

(always without auxiliary ^ i) is

ta by a number of roots (about seventy).

suffix

taken instead of

grbhita and grhita.

rT

Thus:
a: thus, ksa, gla, dra run, drS sleep, (also
mlata), va blow (also vSta)> ^yft (also ^Ina), styS,
hina and hata), ha go forth; and da divide makes dina

a. Certain roots in

drita?),

ha

mla

leave (also

(also

dita and -tta). Further, certain roots in

i-

and u-vowels

(ksma; also ksita), di, pi, II cling, vli, 91

Qyana and 9lta), hrl (beside hrlta); du bum

destroy

(beside
911;

(also

and dlv lament makes

b. Roots in

r,

dyuna

or

9ya

(also

thus, ks.i

coagulate

duta), lu,

(compare 765).

which before the

suffix

becomes ir

or

ur: the forma

beside rtd), kirna (ykr scatter), girna ( Vgr swallow),

jirna and jurna (>/jr waste away), tirna and turna (also turta), dirna
are,

arna

(late

purta and prta), murna

and 9iirt&?), stlrna (also
strta). Of like character with these are irna from |/ir, cirna (beside
carita) from /car, gurna (beside gurta) from Vgur, a secondary form
of gp, and curna (beside carvita) from ycarv, which is also plainly a

(]/dr pierce: also drta),

(l/mr

crush),

purna

(|/pr

9irna (y$f crush:

fill:

also

also <jirta

secondary root.
c.

few roots ending in

against the usual

(Vbhanj),

rule

bhugna

(beside vikta).

of

internal

(which becomes g before the suffix,

combination: 21 6 f): thus, bhagna

(i/bhuj bend), magna (]/majj), rugnA, vigna

two or three ending in c (similarly treated):

Further,

akna (y&c or anc: also acita and aficita), vrkna (]/vra9c),

and apparently -prgna (RV., once
with doubly irregular change of rootAnd one root in g, lagna.
final, from |/prc).

thus,

/\O

957]

XIII.

d.
in

VERBAL ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS.

some

considerable number,

of

them very common ones,

becomes

(which, against ordinary rnle,

The forms are: unna (also utta),

344

of roots

before the suffix:

157b).

arnna?, klinna, ksunna, kavirma,

khinna, channa, chinna, chynna, tunna, trnna, nunna (also nutta
and nudita), panna, bhinna, vinna (j/vipl find: also vitta), anna
(l/9ad

sanna

fait),

(also satta),

skanna (i/skand), syanna

svinna, hanna. And anna food, in

to be a like formation from j/ad eat.

(j/syand),

spite of its different accent, appears

958. The native grammarians reckon as participles of this formation a few miscellaneous derivative adjectives, coming from roots
which do not make a regular participle such are ksama burnt, kixja
:

emaciated,

pakva

ripe,

phulla expanded, <juska dry.

Past Active Participle in tavant

From

959.

is

formation,

the

made,

past

passive

(or navant).

of whatever

participle,

by adding the possessive

vant, a secondary derivative having the

suffix 3fT

meaning and con-

struction of a perfect active participle:

for example,

rTFT^

krtavSn having done that; tarn nigirnavan having

Its inflection is like that of other
swallowed him down.

ehcHM

tat

made with

derivatives

in ^rft vati;

its

this suffix (452

if.);

its

feminine ends

accent remains on the participle.

960. Derivative words

of this formation are found in KV., but without

anything like a participial value.

The AV. has a

single example, with par-

meaning: a<jitavaty atithau one's guest having eaten (loc. abs.).

In the later language,
In the Brahmanas also it is hardly met with.
however, it comes to be quite common. And there it is chiefly used preticipial

dicatively, and oftenest without copula expressed, or with the value of a

personal verb-form in a past tense: primarily, and not seldom, signifying
immediate past, or having a true "perfect" value; but also (like the old

perfect

and the old

definite time,

later use) coming to be freely used for inthe value of the imperfect (779). For example:

aorist in

or with

na ka^cid drftavan no one has seen (or saw) me; sa nakulam

vyapaditavan he destroyed the ichneumon; or, with copula, mahat
krcchram praptavaty asi thou hast fallen upon great misery. Although
originally and properly made only from transitive verbs (with an object, to
mfirh

which the
it is

(.)
g.

found

also

ta stands in the

relation of an objective predicate),

from intransitives

has become united with the mango-tree;

a.

e.

participle in

finally

The same

participle is

also

made

thus,

cutena samQritavati

gatavati

(ib.) she has

gone.

in the secondary conjugations:

darqitavant having shown, prabodhitavant having awakened.

[963

GERUNDIVES.

345

b. Possessives also in in made from passive participles are sometimes found used in an analogous manner, nearly as perfect active participles e. g. istin having sacrificed, vijitino manyamanah (AB.) thinking
:

themselves to have conquered.

Future Passive Participles: Gerundives.

961. Certain

more or

derivative

adjectives

(for

the most part

secondary derivatives) have acquired in

the language a value as qualifying something which is to,
less clearly

which ought to, suffer the action expressed hy the root

from which they come; and they are allowed to be made
or

from every verb. Hence they are, like more proper paras a part of the general verbal
ticiples, sometimes treated
future
called
and
passive participles, or gerundives
system,
the Latin forms in ndus, to which they correspond in

(like

meaning}

962.

The

suffixes

by which such gerundives are regu-

and ordinarily made are three

vya, and tcilu anlya.
larly

namely

IT

ya, ftSfJ ta-

a. Derivatives in ya having this value are made in all periods of

the language, from the earliest down; the other two are of more modern
origin, being entirely wanting in the oldest Veda (RV.), and hardly known

in the later.

Other derivatives of a similar character, which afterward dis-

appear from use, are found in the Veda (966).

963. The suffix ya in its gerundive use has nothing to disit from the same suffix as employed to make adjectives
and nouns of other character (see below, 1213). And it exhibits also
the same variety in the treatment of the root.
tinguish

a.

The

original value of the suffix

is ia,

and

as such it

read in the very great majority of its Vedic occurrences.

version of e and o to ay and av before it (see below).

has to be

Hence the con-

b. Thus: 1. Final a becomes e before the suffix deya, dhyeya,

khyeya, meya (perhaps da-ia etc with euphonic y interposed) but
:

2. The other vowels either remain unchanghas once -jnaya.

ed, or have the guna or the vrddhi strengthening; and e usually
and o always are treated before the ya as they would be before a
vowel thus, -kayya, jayya, bhayya, layya ; navya, bhavya, havya,
bhavya ; varya : and, in the later language, niya, jeya, dhuya (such
cases are wanting earlier). In a few instances, a short vowel adds t

RV.

963]

XIII.

before the suffix

VERBAL ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS.

34$

thus, itya, mitya, <;rutya, stutya, krtya (the only

3. Medial a remains unchanged or is lengthened
Vedic examples).
4. Medial i-, u-,
thus, dabhya, vandya, sadya; madya, vacya.
and r-vowels are unchanged or have the guna-strengthening thus,
:

i<Jya,

guhya, dhrfya; dvesya, yodhya, marjya.

c. The RV. hag about forty examples of this gerundive, and the
AY. adds half as many more. Except in bhavia (once), the accent in
RV. is always on the root; AY. has several cases of accent on the i of the
suffix

(hence written adya, &$ya, -vyadhya, -dharsya).

According to

the grammarians, the accent is on the root or else the ending is circumfiexed: always the former, if the ya follow a vowel.

964.

The

tavya is a secondary adjective derivative

noun in tu (below, 968), made by adding the
suffix ya (properly fa, whence the accent ya), before which the final
u, as usual (1203 a), has guna-strenthening, and is resolved into av.

from the

a.

suffix

infinitival

b. Hence, as regards both the form taken by the root and the
use or omission of an auxiliary vowel i before the tavya, the rules
are the same as for the formation of the infinitive (below, 968).
c.

No example of this formation is found in RV., and in AV. occur

janitavya and hinsitavya. In the Brahmana language it bebe not rare, and is made both from the simple root and from the

only two,
gins to

derived conjugational stems (next chapter); in the classical language it is

still more frequent.
According to the grammarians, the accent of the word
circumflex on the final or acute on the penult: thus, kartavya
kartavya; iu the accentuated texts, it Is always the former (the accent
tavya given to certain gerundives in the Petersburg lexicons is an error,
is either

or

growing out of the ambiguous accentuation of $B.

965.

The

is in like

88 c).

manner the product of sec-

aniya
ondary derivation, made by adding the adjective suffix lya (1215)
to a nomen actionis formed by the common suffix ana.
a.

suffix

b. It follows, then, as regards its

for the suffix

in

ana

mode of

formation, the rules

(below, 1150).

c. This derivative also is unknown in RV., and in AY. is found only

upajivaniya and amantr aniya (in both of which, moreover, its dis-

In the Brahmanas (where less

tinct gerundive value admits of question).
than a dozen examples of it have been noted), and in the later language,
it is less

common than

the gerundive in

tavya.

Its accent, as in all the

derivatives with the snfflx lya, is on the penult: thus,

966. Othei formations of kindred value

karaniya.

are found

in the

Veda

as

follows:

a. Gerundives in

tua

or tva, apparently

made from

the infinitival

They are kartua (in two

occurrences kartva), -gamtva, jantua, jetua, naxhtua, vaktua, sotua,

noun in tu with the added

suffix

a (1209).

INFINITIVES.

347

[-968

snatua, hantua, hetua, hotva ; and, with auxiliary i (or

sanitva, bhavitva.
b. Gerundives in enia or enya (compare 1217): they

I),

janitva,

are ikgenfa,
idenia, carenia, dr^enia, -dvisenia, bhusenya, yudhenia, varenia
(and bhajenya BhP.); with one example from an apparent aorist-stem,

yamsenya, and
1038, 1068 a).

three or four from secondary verb-stems (see below,

c. Gerundives in

sayia,

ayia (once ayya: compare 1218): they

d.

are

dak-

with a few from secon-

pan ayia, vidayia, 9ravayia, hnavayia;

dary conjugation-stems (below,

is of close kindred with them.

1019,

1019, 1038, 1051, 1068a); and stu^eyia

few adjectives in elixna, as pacelima, bhidelima (only these

by the grammarians.

quotable), are reckoned as gerundives

967. The division-line between

tives is less strictly

drawn

participial and ordinary adjecin Sanskrit than in the other Indo-Euro-

u, as will be seen later (1178),

from secondary conjugational stems, have participial value; and in
the Brahmanas (with an example or two in AY.) is found widely and
commonly used a participial adjective formed with the suffix uka

pean languages. Thus, adjectives in

(1180).
Infinitives.

968.

which

is

the suffix

The

later

language has only a single

?T

tu,

infinitive,

noun formed by

the accusative case of a verbal

added to the root usually directly, but often

vowel ^ i. The form

also with aid of the preceding auxiliary

of the infinitive ending, therefore,

The

is

root has the guna-strengthening,

for example,

ky;

^3*?

^yi

6 turn

from y^ii

return

and

is

ehriH

or
^rJJT

accented.

itum.

Thus,

kartnim from

y^f\

caritum from y^J[ oar; >|fefp bhavitum from

y^bhu.
a. As regards the use or omission of i, the infinitive (as also
the gerund in tvft: 991) follows in general the analogy of the passive participle (956). Examples are (with the gerund added) as fol-

dagdha, dagdhum, dagdhva from )/dah; bhinna, bhettum,

bhittva from >/bhid; mata, mantnun, xnatva from /man; udha,
vodhum, udhva from yvah; patita, patitum, patitva from /pat;
yaoita, yacitum, yacitva from Yy&c; <;ayita, 9ayitum, ^ayitva from
1/91. But certain exceptions and special cases require notice. Thus:

lows:

b. Of roots having no quotable participle, infinitive stems in tu are

made from ad, sagh; in itu from unch, uh consider, ksap, lunth,
lok, svar; and in both from yabh.

988]

VERBAL ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS.

XIII.

348

c. Of roots making participles of both forms, an infinitive stem in

tu only is quotable for ksip, ksubh, tap, tyaj, mrg, lubh, vas shine,
gak, stabh; only in itu for gah, carv, jap, mad, yat, van, gans,
9 vas; in both for as throw, uh remove, gup, car, znrj (marstu, marjitu), lap, vas dwell, 9ap, qfts.

number of other cases (besides those already noticed) an

made both with and without i. Thus, in addition to the
form, a stem in itu is occasionally met with from roots a$

d. Also in a

stem

infinitive

more regular

is

attain, is seek, bandh, bhaj, yaj (Ijituxn), rudh

sad (siditum), sah, han, hr; and one in tu from

Both forms occur also from certain

know.

&
ksamtu,

and, with

ram,

has only

before

tu

in

as

ruh, vrf,
bhas, vid
am-roots, namely narn, yam,

the pple,

kram

obstruct,

roots

and

as,

bhram (ksam

ksamta); further, from certain

(tartu, taritu), vr cover (vartu, varitu),

against the analogy of

namely tr
and sty (startu, staritu, staritu) (but from 97 crush occur only garitu,
garitu, and from vr choose only varitu; while gy swallow and pp fill

roots in variable r,

make

from other root-forms, namely giritum, puritum);

few vowel-roots, namely nl, cyu, su (sutu); and finally

their infinitive

further, from a

from krs, nrt, guc.

Against the analogy of the participle, infinitive-stems in itu after
made from the roots av, ksan, khan and jan (the
coming from kha and ja), guh, jabh, tarn, div play and div

e.

a final consonant are

pple 8
lament (both devitu), majj, vrt, vrdh, srp; and after a final vowel,
from roots in u, namely pu, bhu, su (also sutu), and from gri and gvi;
as to roots in variable r, see just above, d.

As the

f.

infinitive

a weaker or contracted

vaktu

made from the (accented and) strengthened

is

root, so it naturally has, as

rule, the

form

stronger or fuller root-form where

taken by the

is

participle

(and gerund in

ukta (and uktva), yas$u against ista (and

istva), banddhum against baddha (and baddhva), and so on. Deserving special notice are gatu (|/ga sing} against gita, and dhatu (]/dlia
suck) against dhita; and so from da give and ha leave are made only
datu and hfitu; but dha put, ma measure, and sthft add to the regular
dhatu, matu, sthatu the late forms -dhitu, -mitu, -sthitu; and sa
or si has satu, setu, and -situ; va weave (pple uta) has both vatu
e.

tva):

g.

and otu;

makes

hu

or

against

hva

has havitu,

hvayitu, and hvStu. The

root

vyadh

quotable infinitive, veddhum, from its vidh-form; from

sanj or saj occur both sanktu and saktu. The anomalous epic forms
its

only

ijitum (/yaj) and siditum

grab makes grahitum.
g. In

pounds with

kama

the

later language,

kama

and

The

root

the infinitive-stem forms possessive com(especially the former): e. g. svaptu-

manas

having the wish to sleep,

raanas minded

(|/sad), were mentioned above.

yastukama

desirous of sacrificing,

vaktu-

to speak.

h. In very rare instances, dative infinitives in

tave

or

tavai are

349

[970

INFINITIVES.

made from

the infinitive stem in the later language (as abundantly in the

970 b):

earlier:

And jivaee (9 73 a)

pratihartave (BhP.).

thus,

once found in MBh.

(i.

67

3.

732), in a quasi- Vedi

chymn

is

to the Acvins.

969. In the Veda and Brahmana, however, a number of verbal

nouns, nomina actionis, in various of their cases, are used in constructions which assimilate them to the infinitive of other languages
although, were it not for these other later and more developed
and pronounced infinitives, the constructions in question might pass
as ordinary case-constructions of a somewhat peculiar kind.

970. The nouns thus used

a.

The

b.

The verbal noun

infinitively are the following:

root-noun, without derivative suffix, is so used in its

accusative in am, its dative in e or (from S-roots) ai, its genitive
and ablative in as, and its locative in i.

its

tu

in

dative in tave or tavaf, and

used

is
its

so used in
ablative

its

accusative in turn,

and genitive

in tos.

Of other nouns only

single cases, generally datives, are reckoned

-with infinitive value

thus:

as

c. From the verbal noun in as, the dative in ase; and also, in
an extremely small number of instances, a dative in se (or se), from
a noun formed with s simply.

man

mane and

From nouns
From nouns

in ti, datives in taye, or (from one or

From nouns

in

From nouns

in dhi

d.
e.

in

and van, datives

in

vane.
two verbs)

in tyai.
f.

datives in aye.

h.

in

i,

and si, datives in dhyai and syai.

few infinitives in sani are perhaps locatives from nouns
an added to a root increased by 8.
g.

From a

i.

j.

ment

single root,

dhr, are

made

which the grammatical character

tari, of

Among

all these,

is

infinitively

used forms in

questionable.

the forms which hare best right to special treat-

on account of being of peculiar formation, or from

suffixes not found in other uses, or for both reasons, are those in se,
as infinitives,

sani, tari, dhyai, and tav&i.

k. Except the various cases of the derivative in tu, and of the rootnoun, these infinitives are almost wholly unknown outside the Rig- Veda.
1.

for

it

Other suffixes and forms than those noticed above might be added ;
impossible to draw any fixed line between the uses classed as

is

infinitive

thus, prajapatim prasnam aitam

vc.vam jivam prasuvanti carayai
to motion; apah sarmaya codayan

and the ordinary case-uses

(TS.) they went to ask Prajapati;

(RV.) quickening every living being

of the
(RV.) impelling the waters to flow; (jaknuyad grahanaya (instead
of
usual grahitum:
B.) may be able to apprehend; & tamanat (instead
And the so-called infinitives
the usual tamitoh: S.) until exhaustion.

970]

XIII.

VERBAL ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS.

are found coordinated in the

with compound nouns:

to

go

to

abroad,

e.

enjoy,

g.

same sentence with common nouns, and even

caritave... abhogaya is$aye raye (RV.)

to

seek

wealth;

artatranaya na prahartum

for the rescue of the distressed, not for hurling at the innocent.

anagasi (.)

More special rules

as to the various formations are as follows

971. The root-noun used

that it does not take an

simple and

350

as

added t

when combined

383 f),

the same

form (except
and the same accent, both when

infinitive

has

-with prepositions, as in

its

other uses.

In the

very great majority of instances, it is made from roots ending in a consonant; but also from a few in a (khya, da, dha, paP, ma, ya), from

two or three in

i-

and u-vowels (hi, ml, bhu), and from one or two in

which takes the ir-form

changeable f,

(tir, stir).

a form the accus. in am, the dat. in ai, the

as (understanding avasa before a as for avasas and not avasai
a.

The

roots in

972. The
The root

infinitive

noun

tu

in

RY.

is

per-

two examples, of which one

53. 20), and the locative in e (only

haps better understood as dative).
iii.

form.

abl. in

in

is

made

freely

from roots of every

of it, and often

takes the guna-strengthening, if capable

adds the auxiliary vowel i before the suffix (according to the rules already
968). The root is accented, unless the noun be combined with a

stated,

preposition, in

which case the

latter has the accent instead

thus,

kartum,

etave, hantos; but nikartum, nfretave, nirhantos.

a. The dative in tavai is in two respects anomalous: in having the
heavy feminine ending ai along with a strengthened u; and in taking a
double accent, one on the root or on the prefixed preposition, and the
other on the ending ai: thus, etavai, hantavaf, atyetavaf, apabhar-

tavai.

973.
five roots;
it.

a.

in

The infinitive
AV. and later

in

ase

is

made

in

RV. from about twenty-

there have been noted no other examples of

In near three quarters of the cases, the accent

j-njase, jivase, bhiyase, tujase

(with y inserted before the suffix:

is

on the suffix

e.

g.

caksase ; dhayase
258); and ayase, bharase, sparase,
the exceptions are

harase (with guna-strengthening of the root). Strengthening of the root

In pusyase is
is also shown by javase, dohase, bhojase, gobhase.
seen, apparently, the present-stem instead of the root.

b. The ending se is extremely rare, being found only in jise and

perhaps stage, and one or two still more doubtful cases.

974. Infinitives in mane are made from only five roots: thus, tramane, damane, darmane, bharmane, and (with different accent) vidmane. From yda, comes davane turvane may come directly from ytj*,
or through the secondary root turv; dhurvane is rather from j/dhurv
;

than from

drinfe),

j/dhvp

a. The infinitives in taye are istaye (^is), pitaye (>/pa

vltaye, sataye, and perhaps utaye (utaye nfn to help his men:

975.

[981

INFINITIVES.

351
(11V.).

In

the only examples noted are ityfti

tyfti,

(RV.) and eadhyfti

(MS. AB.).
b. With aye are formed i?aye, tujaye, drcjaye, mahaye, yudhayo,
sanaye; and citaye (VS.), gjhaye (K.).
976. The ending dhyai is, more than any other, irregular and various in its treatment. It has always an a before it; and in the majority
of cases it is accented upon this a, and added to a weak form of root:
thus,

9\icadhyai, prnadhyai, dhiyadhyai, huvadhyai. But the form

few cases namely, 9ayadhyai, etavadh-

of root is the strong one in a

yai, taradhyai, jaradhyai, mandadhyai, vandadhyai. In half-adozen forms, again, the root has the accent: namely, ksaradhyai, gamadh-

yajadhyai (but once or twice

sahadhyai, bharadhyai. In a single

also

yajadhyai), vahadhy&i,
pibadhyai, the suffix
is added distinctly to a present-stem; and in one, vfivrdhadhyfti, to a
Finally, in a number of instances (ten), this infinitive is
perfect stem.
made from a causative stem in ay thus, madayadhyai, rif ayadhyai, etc.

yai,

instance,

rare in RV., being made in thirtyforms (with seventy-two occurrences). But it is hardly known
the AY. has it but once (in a passage found also in
outside of the RV.
a. This infinitive is

by no means

five different

RV.) ; and elsewhere half-a-dozen examples have been noticed, in mantrapassages (one of them TS. falsely reads gamadhye); in the Brahmana
language proper

it

appears to be entirely wanting.

977. An example or two are met with of an infinitive in yai: thus,

rohiayai (TS.), avyathiayai (K. Kap.; MS. avyathise; VS. vyathiaat),
and perhaps -dhasyai (PGS.).
978. The infinitives in sani are: isani (?) from j/is tend, -bhusani from |/bhu; 9usani from j/<ju or 9va; neaani from /ni; sakBani from ysah; parsdni from >/pf, tarisani from >/tf and gri^i^ani
the last containing evident present
and -strnlfani from i/^gr and str
;

tense-signs (compare the 1st sing, g^nise,

979. The only

in tari is

infinitive

894 d).
dhartari (with

its

compound

vidhartari), from j/dhr.

Uses of the

Infinitives.

980. The uses of the so-called infinitives are for the most part
closely accordant with those of the corresponding cases from other
abstract nouns. Thus:
981. The accusative, which is made only from the root-noun
and the noun in tu, is used as object of a verb.
a. Especially, of forms from the root c,ak be able,

have the right or the power.

we accomplish

iky kindling;

not be able to

fit

the

Thus,

ma

arrow to

and arh

be worthy,

Qakexna tva samfdham (RV.) may

qakan pratidham {sum (AV.) may they

mano va imam sadyah pary-

the string

981]

XIII.

manah paribhavitum

arhati

aptum

VERBAL ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS.

who

can at

(TS.) the mind, forsooth,

ko hy etasya

once attain and surpass her;

352

guhyam nama

'rhati

gra-

worthy to take his secret name? In the Veda, the

construction with these verbs is only one among others; in the Brahmana,

hitum (B.)
it

for

is

becomes the greatly prevalent one (three quarters

b.

Further,

hotum

daksinani

take:

of him)
as,

verbs

of

the lengthening out

sa idarh jatah

how

hantum (B.)

more

of all the cases).

:

thus,

eti (TS.) he goes to sacrifice things pertaining to sacrifi-

this
as,

to loosen all

therefore

of

(RV.) / go
of

life;

to

j/dhr

Jndra for

persist

sarvam eva dagdhum dadhre

soon as born, began to burn

notice, know, and the like:
thou knowest

or

motion (next most frequent case)

fndram pratiram emy ayuh

cial gifts;

beseech

of

universe

of verbs

meaning

in,

(VB.)

(i.

e.

underhe,

as

desire, hope,

pa^an vicftam vettha sarvan (AV.)

tasmad agnim na " driyeta pari-

bonds

,-

one should not be careful

to

smother the

fire;

and of others.

982. Of the
that expressed

infinitive datives, the

for, in order

fundamental and usual sense

for the purpose of.

are
Examples
vi^vaih jivaxh carase bodhayanti (RV.) awakening
every living creature to motion; tan upa yata pibadhyai (RV.) come to
drink them; naf 'tarn te deva adadur attave (AV.) the gods did not
give her to thee for eating; praf "d yudhaye dasyum indrah (RV.)
Indra went forward to fight the demon; caksur no dhehi vikhyaf (RV.)
is

by

to,

give us sight for looking abroad.

Some peculiar
finitive dative.

constructions, however,

grow out of

this

use of the in-

Thus:

The noun which

subject or the object of the action

frequently put beside it in the dative (by a
construction which is in part a perfectly simple one, but which is stretched
beyond its natural boundaries by a kind of attraction): thus, cakara
a.

is logically 'the

expressed by the infinitive

is

Buryaya pantham anvetava u (RV.)

he

made a

track

follow (made for the sun a track for his following) ; 919110
vinikae (RV.) he whets his horns to pierce the demons ;

for the

sun

to

qfnge raksobhyo
rudraya dhanur

a tanomi brahmadvfse $arave hantava u (RV.) / stretch the bow

Rudra, that with his arrow he may slay the brahma-ftafer ; asmabhyam df9aye stiryaya punar dStftm asum (RV.) may they grant
life again, that we may see the sun.
for

b.

An

infinitive

causative verb
ye

make

with j/ky make

is

used nearly in the sense of a

pra 'ndharh 9ronam caksasa etave kythah (RV.)

and lame to see and go; agnim samidhe cakartha

thus,

the blind

(RV.) thou hast made the fire to be kindled. Of similar character is an occasional construction with another verb: as, yad Im ugmasi kartave

karat tat (RV.) what we wish

icchami samdi^e (RV.) / desire
c.

to

be

done,

may

he

do that;

kavinr

to see the sages.

dative infinitive is not seldom used

as

a predicate, sometimes

[984

USES OP THE INFINITIVES.

353

more usually without, a copul* expressed: thus, agnir iva na

pratidhrse bhavati (IS.) like fire, he it not to be resitted; mahima te
anyena na saxhnage (VS.) thy greatness is not to be attained by another;
nakim Indro nikartave na (jakrah pariQaktave (RV.) Indra it not
with, but

to be

the

put down,

mighty one

is

not to be overpowered.

d. Sometimes an infinitive so used without a copula has quite nearly

the value of an imperative: thus, tya
yas&sa... auqijo huva-

me

dhyai [asti] (RV.) these glorious ones shall the son of Vcij invoke for me
suktebhir vah... fndra nv agni avase huvadhyai [stah] (BY.) with
your hymns shall ye call now on Indra and Agni for aid; vandadhyS
agnim namobhih [asmi] (RV.) let me greet Agni with homage; asmakasa9 ca surayo vigva a<jas tansani (RV.) and let our sacrifices cross
all regions ; tan naf Vam kartavai (MS.) that must not be done so ;
brahmadvisah qarave hantava u (RV.) let the arrow slay the brahma;

The

haters.

infinitives in

dhyai and sani (which

distinctly to

latter is in all its uses

those in which the imperative value is most

accordant with datives) are

be recognized.

e. In the

Brahmanas and Sutras

(especially in

B.) the dative in

tavai

not seldom used with a verb signifying speak (bru, vac, ah), to express
the ordering of anything to be done thus, tasmad osadhinam eva miilany

is

ucchettavai bruyat (B.)

therefore

let

him

direct the roots

of

the plants

up (speak in order to their cutting up: cf. ye vac,ay& adanaya

vadanti who dissuade from giving the cow: AV.).

to be cut

983. The ablative infinitive

which, like the accusative, is
made only from the root-noun and that in tu
is found especially
with the prepositions a until and pura before.
a. Thus, a tamitoh (TS. etc.) until exhaustion; pura vacah pra-

vaditoh

(TS.) before utterance of the voice. In the Brahmana language,

of the ablative (it occurs also

this is the well-nigh exclusive construction

with prak, arvak, etc.) ; in the Veda, the latter is used also after rte
without, and after several verbs, as tr& and pft protect, yu separate, bhi, etc.
b. In a few instances, by an

above for the dative

the

ablative

(982 a),

beside it:

before the utterance together

lative)

common use

Iqvara

lord, master,
likely or exposed to.

a.

similar

to

that illustrated

this infinitive is

away.
the same form as the abBrahmana language as dependent on

infinitive (having

in the

employed

adj actively in the sense of capable or

are: ta [devatah] i(?vara enam pradahah (TS.)

burn him up; atha ha va i^varo 'gnim citva kiihgpattor vi vft hvalitoh (^B.) so in truth he it liable,

Examples

they are likely to

cid dauritam

put in

pura vagbnyah sampravaditoh (PB.)

of the voices; tradhvam kartad avapadah
down into the pit; pura dakeinabhyo net oh

the gifts are taken

984. The genitive

is in

attraction

noun dependent on

thus,

(RV.) save us from falling

(A past. J before

Whitney, Grammar.

2.

ed.

23

9841
piling

after

VERBAL ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS.

XIII.

the

to

fire,

meet with some mishap

or

other,

354
or to

stagger;

I9varam vai rathantaram udgatuQ caksuh pramathitoh (PB.)

rathantara
b.

is

knock out

liable to

The

dative

is

the eye

used in

<TB.

the

of the chanter.

instead

of the

genitive in

a single

phrase (icjvarau janayitaval); and, in the later language, sometimes the

In a case or two the masc. sing. nom. i^varah is
accusative in turn.

number of the word which it qualifies

tasye "9varah praja paplyasl bhavitoh (QB.) his progeny is
And in a very few instances the word i$vara is
liable to deteriorate.
omitted, and the genitive has the same value without it thus, dve madhyused, without regard to the gender or

thus,

amdinam abhi pratyetoh (AB.) (too may

tato dlksitah pamano bhavitoh ($B.)

be

added

then

the

to the

noon

consecrated

libation
is

liable

to get the itch.

c. This construction with

iqvara, which

is

the only one for the geni-

unknown in the Veda, where the genitive is found in a very small number of examples with madhya, and with
the root 19: thus, madhya kartoh (RV.) in the midst of action; i$e
rayo datoh (RV.) he is master of the giving of wealth; ic.e yotoh (RV.)
tive infinitive in the

is

Brahmana,

is

able to keep away.

985. Unless

sani and tari are

the infinitives in

locative

in form

(their uses are those of datives), the locative infinitive is so rare, and has
so little that is peculiar in its use, that it is hardly worth making any

account

of.

An example

is

usaso budhi (RV.)

at

the

awakening of

the

dawn.

986. In the Veda, the dative infinitive forms are very much
more numerous than the accusative (in RV., their occurrences are
twelve times as many; in AV., more than three times); and the accusative in turn is rare (only four forms in RV., only eight in AV.).
In the Brahmanas, the accusative has risen to much greater comparative frequency (its forms are nearly twice as many as those of the
dative); but the ablative-genitive, which is rare iu the Veda, has
also come to full equality with it. The disappearance in the classical
language of all excepting the accusative in turn (but see 968 h) is a

matter for no small surprise.

987. The later

infinitive in

turn

is

oftenest used in constructions

na vaspam
drastum arhasi
desire to obtain; sam-

corresponding to those of the earlier accusative: thus,

a^akat sodhurn he could not restrain

thou oughtest to see

it;

his tears

praptum icchanti

they

tarn

khyatum arabdham

having begun to count. But also, not infrequently,

in those of the other cases.
So, especially, of the dative: thus,
avasthatum sthanantaram cintaya devise another place to stay in;

tvam anvestum iha "gatah

but likewise of the genitive:

he has come hither to seek for thee ;

thus,

going; sarhdhatum ijvarah able

nominative is not unknown: thus,

to

samartho gantum capable of

Even a construction as

mend.

yuktam tasya maya sama<jva-

GERUNDS.

355

[990

sayitum bharyam (MBh.) it is proper for me to comfort his wife;

na naptaram svayam nyayyam qaptum evam (R.) it is not suitable
thus to curse ones own grandson; tad vaktum na paryate
(atr.) it
is

not possible to say that.

988. In the

later language, as

tain connections has

arabdhah begun
(for

to

This

hearing).

of j/qak: thus,

iha "netum

is

especially

tyaktum na

they two

yam avaptum

in the earlier, the infinitive in cer-

what we look upon as a passive value. Thus, kartuin

be made; (jrotum na yujyate it is not fit to be heard
frequent

(jakyate

if

can be brought hither;

urjitah nor

so-called

less instrumental)

junct

na ca vibhutayah qak-

are mighty successes

"^Gerunds.

The

989.

along with the passive forms

cannot be abandoned; gakyav

is

gerund

a thing capable of being

Sor^
a stereotyped case (doubt-

of a verbal noun, used generally

to the logical subject of a clause,

as ad-

denoting an accom-

panying or (more often) a preceding action to that signified

by the verb of the clause. It has thus the virtual value of

an indeclinable participle, present or

actor whose action it describes.

past,

qualifying the

Thus, for example: qrutvai 'va ca *bruvan and hearing (or

they spoke; tebhyah pratijnaya 'thai 'tan paripapraccha having given them his promise, he then questioned them.
a.

having heard)

The gerund

990.

of the two suffixes

is

^TT

made

in the later language

tvS and

by one

ya, the former being used

with a simple root, the latter with one that is compounded

with a prepositional prefix
or, rarely, with an element
of another kind, as adverb or noun.
a.

To

occasional

this

distribution

exceptions.

Thus,

of uses

between the two suffixes there are

in ya from simple roots are not

gerunds

very rare in the epic language (e. g. grhya, usya [yVas dwell], arcya,
iksya, cintya, tyajya, laksya; also from causatives and denominatives,
as vacya, yojya, plavya), and are not unknown elsewhere (e. g. arcya
And gerunds in tvfi
and Iksfya M., prothya AGS., sthSpya
vU.).
from compounded roots are met with in considerable numbers from AV.

pratyarpayitva) down: e. g. samirayitva MS., virocayitva

utkaiptva U., pratyuktva E., pratyasitva S., prahasitvS
MBh., samdarqayitva MBh., vimuktva R., nivedayitvS R., proktvS
the
Pane., anupitva VBS.: the great majority of them are made from

(only

TA.,

causative stem.

23*

VAA

990]

XIII.

VERBAL ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS.

356

b. The preflxion of the negative particle, a or an, does not cause

the gerund to take the form in ya: thus, akrtva, amrayitvS (but R.
has acintya). Of compounds -with other than verbal prefixes, RV. has

karnagrhya, pftdagfhya, haetagfhya, aramkftya,

akkhalikrtya, mithaspf dhya ; AY. has further namaskrtya.

punardaya,
991.

The

suffix

^T tva has the

accent.

It is usually

added directly to the root, hut often also with interposition

with regard to which, as well
of the auxiliary vowel ^ i
as to the

form of the root hefore

it,

agrees with that of the participle in

the formation nearly

fT ta

(952

ff.).

Examples of the general accordance of passive participle, infinitive, and gerund in regard to the use of i were given above,
968 a; farther specifications are called for, as follows:
a.

b. The quotable roots in variable y (242) change it to ir: thus,

tirtva, BtlrtvS* (also stytva); and car makes also clrtvft (like clrna);
roots in ft show in general the game weakening as in the participle;
but from dhft put is quotable only dhitva, from ma measure mitva and
- of roots in
mltvfi, from d& give only dattva, from cha chayitvS;
without i
and
with
both
make
forms
bhram
and
and
kram
am,
yam
and
(as in the infinitive), but ram has ratva and ramtva, and dam

vain make damitva and vamitva.

auxiliary vowel is taken by roots gras, mus, 9ap, and <jas
participles have both forms); also by cay, nyt (nar(whose
(Qftsitvft)
makes Qocitva.
titvft), lag, and flvaj (against analogy of pple); and $uc
c.

The

the other hand, from ruj (rugna) and vrac.c (vfkna) come ruktva
and VTB^va. And both forms are made (as also in infinitive or participle)
from car, vas dwell (usfrvft, ufitva),* ni (nitva, nayitvS), and mrg

On

(mrstva, m&rjitva).
d. While the formation
participle (e. g.
root,

there are some cases

ened root-form.

roots,

strong or

strength-

Thus (besides the instances already given: chftyitva,

ramtva, qasitva,
charditva

in general one requiring, like the passive

a weak or weakened

is

upta; uditva, like udita),

in which it is made from a

like

uptva,

(Apast.),

cayitvft,

mfirjitvft), we find
and, from a number of

$ocitva, nayitvft,

daAs^va, and spharitvft,

a second strong form beside the more regular

weak one: namely,

anktva, bhanktvft, bhunktvfi, syanttva (beside aktva etc.); cayitva,

smayitvfi, smaritva (beside citva etc.); roditva (beside ruditvS),
and sincitvS (beside siktva).
The last shows the influence of the
present-stem as do also mfirjitvS (above) and jighritvft (j/ghrft). The
;

form f^hutvft (Apast.)

992.

which

is

is doubtless a false reading,

The sufnx

IT

ya

is

accented, but has its

added

weak

for

fthyutva.

directly

form.

to

the

root,

root ending

GERUND

357

in a short vowel takes

a. Roots in

variable

rT tya
rT

c*T -stutya,

-jitya,

IN ya.

instead of

IT

ya: thus,

-kftya.

r (242) change that vowel

to ir

ur: thus,

or

kirya, girya, tirya (and tfirya), dlrya, purya, Qlrya, stirya (also
roots in & have for the most part -fiya; but dhft suck makes
atrtya);
dhiya, and double forms are found from ga sing (gaya, glya\ pa drink

dadya), dfi divide (daya, ditya), ma

(maya, mitya), sa bind (saya, sya); 11 cling has
if an a-verb
and khan and dham make khaya and

(paya, piya), dS give (daya,

exchange

measure,

laya

or liya, as

the roots in an and am making their

ata (954 d) make the gerund in atya, but also later in anya,
amya (e. g. gatya, gamya; hatya, hanya; but tan makes as second
form taya, and from ram only ramya is quotable);
the roots in Iv

dhmaya,

from their a- forms

participle in

add

ya

add

to their

Iv-form: thus, sthivya, sivya;

a few roots in i and

the lengthened vowel besides adding tya: thus, i go (iya,

tya; also ayya), ci gather (ciya, citya), and plu, yu unite, su, stu
(pliiya, plutya, etc.); while ksi destroy has only ksiya.

ya

to

b. This gerund, though accented

on the root-syllable,

is

generally

weakening formation thus are made, without a strengthening nasal found

in some other forms, acya, ajya, idhya, udya, ubhya, grathya, tacya,
a

badhya, bhajya, lipya, lupya, vlagya, qrabhya, sajya,

skabhya, atabhya, syadya, svajya; with weakening of other kinds,
gfhya and grbhya, prcchya, ucya, udya, upya, usya (vas dwelt),
but from a number
unya, vidhya, vlya, vp^cya, spfdhya, huya;
of roots are made both a stronger and a weaker form
thus, man thy a and
dacjya,

mathya, marjya and mfjya, rundhya and riidhya, <jansya and (jasya, 9&sya and 9isya, skandya and skadya, sransya and srasya;
and only strong forms are found from roots arc, av, cay, 91 ($ayya)y as
well as from certain roots with a constant nasal: e. g. unch, kamp,

nand, lamb, Qank;

pruthya).
c.

isolated cases are

Other special cases are

uhya

osya (]/us

and

burn),

uhya (Yuh

prothya

remove),

(also

gurya and

gurya, guhya and guhya, ruhya and ruhya, bhramya and bhramya,
ayya (beside {tya, Iya), ghraya and jighrya; and urnutya (beside
vftya).

993. The older language has the same two gerund formations,
haying the same distinction, and used in the same way.
a.

stances
ative

ya is in the great majority of ininstrumental ending of a derivthe

(as
In AV., long ft appears only once in a BV.

In BV., however, the

(fully two thirds) long

noun in

i or

ti).

of

final

if

passage.

b. Instead of

tva

alone, the

namely tva, tvaya, and tvl.

in

BV.

Veda has

(thirty-flTe occurrences,

three forms

of

the

suffix,

decidedly the commonest

against twenty-one of tvft); but it is un-

Of these

three,

tvl

is

993]

XIII.

VERBAL ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS.

358

in AV., and very rare elsewhere in the older language; tvaya is

found nine times in RV. (only once outside the tenth Book), twice in AV.,
and but half-a-dozen times elsewhere (in QB., once from a causative stem:

known

spa^ayitvaya).
c.

Two

The

historical relation of the three forms is obscure.

other gerund suffixes,

tvanam

and

tvmam.

mentioned

are

but they have nowhere been found

by the grammarians as of Vedic use,

to occur.

acter,

994. The use of this gerund, though not changing in its charbecomes much more frequent, and even excessive, in the later

language.
a.
as

Thus, in the Nala and Bhagavad-Gita, which have only one tenth
as RV., there are more than three times as many ex-

many verb-forms

amples of the gerund as in the

latter.

In general, the gerund is an adjunct to the subject of a sentence,

and expresses an act or condition belonging to the subject: thus, vajrena
b.

hatva nfr apah sasarja (RV.) smiting with his thunderbolt, he poured
drunk of the
forth the waters; pltvl somasya v&vrdhe (RV.) having
soma, he waxed strong; te yajnasya rasam dhitva viduhya yajnam
tiro bhavan (B.) having sucked out the sap of the
milked the offering dry, having blocked it with the sacrificial

yupena yopayitva
offering, having

post, they disappeared;

9rutvai

Va eft

*bruvan (MBh.) and having

heard,

tarn ca dure drstva gardabhi 'yam iti matva dhavitah

a she-ass", he ran.
(H.) and having seen him in the distance, thinking 'it is

they said;

c.

tion of

But

if

the

sentence in a dependent case,

the logical subject, the real agent,

it is

is

still

put by the construcqualified

by the ger-

striyam drstvaya kitavam tatapa (RV.) it distresses the

the gambler is distressed) at seeing a woman; tarn hai 'nam
e.
gambler (i.
dr-stva bhir viveda (B.) fear came upon him (i. e. he was afraid") when
he saw him,- vidhaya prosite vrttim (M.) when he stays away after
kind nu me syad idaih krtva (MBh.) what,
providing for her support
and especially, when a pass1 wonder, would happen to me if I did this ;
und:

thus,

form as given to the sentence, the gerund qualifies the agent in the
instrumental case (282 a): thus, tatah (jab dad abhijnaya sa vyaghive

rena hatah (H.) thereupon he was slain by the tiger, who recognized him
by his voice; tvaya sa raja ^akuntalam puraskrtya vaktavyah (g.)
presenting

C}akuntala,

^rutva yatha

me

must say

thou

me on
common

shadhan was chosen by

struction is extremely

d.

to

(gen. for instr.)

hearing
in

the

king;

hansanam vacanam

naisadho vrtah (MBh.)

much

the

words of

the

swans :

this

con-

of the later Sanskrit.

Occasionally, the gerund qualifies an agent, especially an indefinite

Va

paktva
unexpressed
thus, tada 'trfti
(H.) then he shall be eaten [by us] 'cooking him on the spot;

one,

as the Ni-

that is

khaditavyah
yad anyasya

parijnaya punar anyasya diyate (M.) that, after being promised (lit,
when one has promised her) to one, she is given again to another; sucintya
co *ktaxh suvicarya yat krtam (H.) what one says after mature thought,

USES OF THE GERUNDS.

359
and does

Hence, still more elliptically, after aJam

enough of hesitation; tad alam te vanam

after full deliberation.

alam vicarya

thus,

(y.)

(R.) so have done with going to

gatva

[995

the forest.

Other leas regular constr actions are met with, especially in the
older language thus, in the manner of a participle with man and the like
e.

(268 a), as taih hinsitve Va mene ($B.) he thought he had hurt him;
ta adbhir abhisicya nijasyai Va 'manyata (AB.) having sprinkled
them with water, he believed himself to have exhausted them
in the man;

ner of a participle forming a continuous tense with yi (1075 a), as indraxn

evai 'tair arabhya yanti (AB.) by means of them they keep taking hold

of Indra ;

as qualifying a subordinate

deujam eva

member

kurmam bhutva sarpantam

creeping about, having become a tortoise;

Bvanam bhutva jalormim iva

of the sentence, as

(^B.) to the

ayodhyam

puro-

sacrificial

saphenam

cake

sa-

(R.) into Ayodhya, like a surge that had

even absolutely, as atithyena val deva

been foamy and roaring,is^va tant samad avindat ($B.) when the gods had sacrificed with the
guest-offering, strife befel them.

As in the two examples before the last, a predicate word with

put in the same case with the subject: thus, further, tad
'tad bhutva yajati (B.) so having thus become this earth he
makes offering; yena vamanena 'pi bhutva (Vet.) by whom, even when
he had become a dwarf.
The construction is a rare one.
f.

bhutva is
iyam evai

g.

number

of gerunds have their

the semblance of a preposition

subject of,

i. e.

respecting,

diqya pointing toward,

i.

of;
e.

meaning attenuated sometimes to

such are adhikr/tya making a
adaya, upagrhya taking, i. e. with; udat; asadya, arriving at, i. e. along, by;
or adverb

sambhuya

being with, i. e.with; samhatya

prasahya using force, i. e. violently;
tyaktva, parityajya, muktva, vihaya, uddhrtya, varjayitva leaving

arabhya
striking

beginning, i.e. from;

together,

i.

e.

in

unison;

out etc., i. e. excepting, without,- and others. Examples are: <jakuntalam

adhikrtya bravimi (.) 1 am speaking of pakuntala,- tam uddi9ya
kfiptalagudah (H.) having thrown the cudgel at him; nimittam kimcid
asadya (H.) for some reason or other.
h. The gerund is in the later language sometimes found in composition, as if a noun-stem: e. g. prasahyaharana taking with violence;
pretyabhava existence after death; vibhajyapatha separate enunciation;
sambhuyagaxnana going together. It is also often repeated (1260), in a
distributive sense: e. g. sa val sammfjya-sammrjya pratapya-pratapya pra yaochati (VB.) in each case, after wiping and warming them,

he hands them over;

'nnamya

(Paoc.)

grhitva-grhitva (K^S.)

at each taking;

unnamyo-

'every time that they arise.

Adverbial Gerund in am.

995. The accusative of a derivative nomen actionis in a, used
adverbially, assumes sometimes a value and construction so accord-

995

XIV. SECONDABY CONJUGATION.

ant with that of the usual gerund that

a different name.

No example

a.

occurs either In

RV.

it

although a dozen adverbial accusatives are to

kam, pranodam, nilayam, abhiskandam,

it is

Brakmanas and

extremely infrequent;

b.

nayam,

where

Sutras,

later, also,

it

abhyakramam, pratanThis gerund

etc.
it is

(but

lambham).

occurs very sparingly.

guna

(if capable of it:

ikeam, puram);
The

240): thus, ksepam, krcxjam,

a before a single consonant is

medial

car-am, graham, avadam (but grantham,

on the radical syllable. No uncompounded ex-

kramam,
accent

is

amples are found in the older language, and extremely few in the

Examples

(QB.) he

found

vowel has vrddhi-strengthening before the suffix: thus,

Qravam, karam; final a adds y: thus, khyayam, yayam; a

lengthened: thus,

c.

is

not rare; in the epics

final

medial vowel has

vartam

cannot well be called by

of a peculiar gerundial construction with such a form

or AV.,

be classed as representing the formation: thus,

especially in the

360

lies

are:

kamam va imany

later.

angani vyatyasam gete

changing the position of these limbs at pleasure

uttaram-ut-

9Skham samalambham rohet

(QB.) he would climb, taking hold

of a higher and ever a higher limb; aparlsu mahanagam iva 'bhisarhsaram didrksitarah (8.) hereafter, running together as it were about a

tararh

great snake,

they will wish to see him,-

namany

asaxn etani namagra-

ham

(QB.) with separate naming of these their names; yo viparyasam

avagiihati (^B.) whoever buries it upside down; bahutksepam kranditum pravrtta (^.) she proceeded to cry, throwing up her arms (with arm-

navacutapallavani dar^aih-dar^am madhukaranam kva9ravam-<jravam paribabhrama (DEC.) he wandered about,

constantly seeing the young shoots of the mango, and hearing the humming of

tossing]

nitani
the

bees.

Repeated forms, like those in the last example, are approved in

they do not occur earlier (but instead of them the re-

the later language;

peated ordinary gerund:

994 h).

CHAPTER

XIV.

DERIVATIVE OE SECONDARY CONJUGATION.

996.

SECONDARY conjugations

are

those

in

which a

whole system of forms, like that already described as made

from the simple root, is made, with greater or less completeness,

from a derivative conjugation-stem; and

is

also

[998

PASSIVE.

361
usually connected

with a certain definite

modification of

the original radical sense.

We

a.
part

have seen, indeed, that the tense-systems are also for the most
derivative-stems and even that, in some cases, such stems

made from

assume the appearance and value of roots, and are made the basis of a
complete conjugational system. Nor is there any distinct division-line to
be drawn between tense-systems and derivative conjugations; the latter are
present-systems which have been expanded into conjugations by the addition
of other tenses, and of participles, infinitives, and so on.
In the earliest
their forms outside of the present-system are still quite
rare,
with the exception
hardly more than sporadic; and even later they are
of one or two formations which attain a comparative frequency
much
less common than the corresponding forms of primary conjugation.

language,

The secondary

997.

are:

conjugations

I.

Passive;

n. Intensive; HI. Desiderative; IV. Causative; V. Denominative.

a. The passive is classed here as a secondary conjugation because of
analogy with the others in respect to specific value, and freedom of
formation, although it does not, like them, make its forms outside the

its

present system from

its

present-stem.

I.

998.

main

The

Passive.

passive conjugation has been already in the

described.

Thus,

we have

seen that

has a special present-system, the stem of which

present only, and not made the basis of any of the rea. It

is

maining forms
sign IT ya, and
endings.

it

stem

takes

is

formed with the accented

(with exceptions: 774)

This present-system

above, 768

ending in ^

is

class-

the middle

treated with the others,

ff.

b. There

o.

this

i:

is
it

a special passive
is

3d

treated above, 842

sing,

of the aorist,

ff.

In the remaining tenses, the middle forms are used

also in a passive sense.

d. But the passive use of middle forms is not common; it is oftenest
met with in the perfect. The participle to a great extent takes the place
On the other
of a past passive tense, and the gerundive that of a future.

908

XIV. SECONDARY CONJUGATION.

362

hand, in the oldest language (RV.), middle forms of other present-systems

number

are in a considerable
e.

According

of cases employed with passive meaning.

the grammarians,

to

there

may be formed from some

passive use, a special stem for the aorist and the two future
systems, coinciding in form with the peculiar 3d sing, aorist
for

verbs,

Thus, from

f.

]/dft

(aor.

3d

sing,

ad&yi), beside adasi, dasye,

dfttahe, also adayisi, dayisye, dayitahe. The permission to make this

doable formation extends to all roots ending in vowels, and to grab, 1/9,

and han. No such passive forms occur in the older language, and not halfa-dozen are quotable from the later (we find adhayisi and asthayisi in
DEC., and anayisata in Ruval.).
g.

As

to the alleged passive inflection of the periphrastic perfect,

see

below, 1072.

from the present tense-stem

h. Besides the participle

(771. 5),

^ na

the passive has a past participle in

(957),

and future

formation (961

ff.),

ft

ta (952), or

participles, or gerundives, of various

made

directly

from the

root.

999. As already pointed out (282 a), the language, especially

later, has a decided predilection for the passive form of the sentence.
This is given in part by the use of finite passive forms, but oftener
by that of the passive participle and of the gerundive the participle
:

being taken in part in a present sense, but more usually in a past

(whether indefinite or proximate past), and sometimes with a copula
expressed, but much oftener without it; and the gerundive representing either a pure future or one with the sense of necessity or

further example is: tatrai *ko yuva brahmano

duty added.
dfftah: tarn dr>stva kamena pldita samjata: sakhya agre kathitam: sakhi puruso 'yam grhitva mama matuh samipam anetavyah (Vet.) there she saw a young Brahman ; at sight of him she felt
the pangs of love ; she said to her friend : 'friend, you must take and
In some styles of later Sanskrit, the
bring this man to my mother
1

prevailing expression of past time

ciple (thus, in Yet.,
a.

is

by means of the passive

an extreme case, more than nine

As in other languages,

3d

sing,

passive is

parti-

tenths).

freely

made from

iha "gamyataxn come hither;

tvayS tatrai Va sthiyatam do you stand just there; sarvair jalam
adayo 'ddiyatam (H.) let all fly up with the net.
intransitive as well as transitive verbs

II.

1000.

The

intensive

thus,

Intensive.

(sometimes also called frequent-

secondary conjugations which is

least removed from the analogy of formations already deative)

is

that one

of the

INTENSIVE.

It

scribed.

is,

the present-system of the second con-

like

jugation-class (642

but of one that

is

ff.),

the inflection of a reduplicated stem,

peculiar in having a strengthened redu-

It is decidedly less

plication.

[_1002

extended beyond the limits

of a present-system than any other of the derivative conjugations.

a.

The

intensive conjugation signifies the repetition or

the intensification of the action expressed by the primary

conjugation of a root.

According to the grammarians, the intensive

conjugation may be formed from nearly all the roots in the
1001.

the exceptions being roots of more than one

language

those conjugated only causatively (below,

syllable,

1056),

and in general those beginning with a vowel.

In

however, inten gives in the later language are very rare,

hard to tell precisely what value is to be given to the
rules of the native grammar respecting them.
Nor are they at all common
a.

fact,

rare that it

so

is

earlier, except (comparatively) in the RV., which contains about six sevenths
of the whole number (rather over a hundred) quotable from Veda and Brah-

mana and
of
of

Sutra-texts

AY. has

less than half as

many

as RV.,

and many

them in RV. passages from the later language are quotable about twenty
these, and about forty more, but for the most part only in an occurrence
;

or two.

the

b. Hence, in the description to be given below, the actual aspect of

as exhibited in the older language, will be had primarily

formation,

and especially in view; and the examples will be of forms found there
in use.

1002.

The strong

intensive

reduplication

is

made

in

three different ways:

a. The reduplicating syllable is, as elsewhere, composed of
I.
a single consonant with following vowel, and, so far as the consonant is concerned, follows the rules for present and perfect reduplication (590); but the vowel is a heavy one, radical a and ? (or ar)
e, and an u-vowel by o.
babadh, Qftcvas, rarandh; dftdy, dadhy;
cekit, tetij, nem, vevll; socuc, popruth, co?ku, johu.
II. b. The reduplicating syllable has a final consonant, taken
from the end of the root. With an exception or two, this consonant

being reduplicated with

Examples

is

a,

an i-vowel by

are: vftvad,

either r (or its substitute

1)

or a nasal.

XIV. SECONDARY CONJUGATION.

1002-]
are

Examples

364

car car, calcal, sarsr, marmrj, jarhrs

cankram,

janghan, tanstan, danda$ (j/danc or dac.), janjabb. (yjambh or jabh),

tantas (j/tans or tas), nannam (j/nam), yamyam (j/yam). The
nasal

is

assimilated to the initial consonant.

Only roots having a or r as vowel make this form of reduplication,

but with such roots it is more common than either of the other forma.
0.

d.
or

Irregular

formations

of this

class are:

reduplication, badbadh; with a

which is not found in the root, jangah

in the

cation

with a

final other

final nasal

(RV.),

in

than r

the redupli-

janjap ($B.

and

janguyat PB. is perhaps from >/gu; the later language has further
dandah); with an anomalous initial consonant in reduplication, jarbhur
from ybhur (compare the Vedic perfect jabhftra from v/bhr, 789 b),
galgal from y'gal; with various treatment of an r or ar-element, dardar
and dardir, carkar and carkir, tartar and tartur, carcar and carcur, jargur and jalgul.
e.

The

or air.

As

and r are the only ones with vowel

roots i

to

initial

forming an

makes iyay (? PU M once); r makes the irregular alar

the stem lya, see below, 1021b.

intensive stem:

III. f. The reduplication is dissyllabic, an i-vowel being added

after a final consonant of the reduplicating syllable. This i-vowel is
in the older language short before a double consonant, and long be-

fore a single.

Examples are: ganigam (but ganigmatam), vanvrt, vamvah,

caniskad, sanisvan; navinu, davidyut (and the participles davidhvat
but tavituat). A single exception as to the quantity of the i is davidhfiva.

method of reduplication

g. This

by about thirty roots.

is

followed in

Thus, of roots having

final or

the older language

penultimate

(once

m), and n in the reduplicating syllable, pan, phan, Ban, svan, ban;
gam; krand, c,oand, skand, syand; of roots having final or medial r,
and r in the, reduplicating syllable, kr make, tr, bhr, vr, mrj, mrg,
vrj, vrt, srp; also
the reduplication a

mluc (malimluc);

further, of roots

not found in the root, only

van

(QB.

assuming in
:

the

gram-

pad; and panipad is quotable later; and AS.

has canikhudat, for which TB. reads kanlkhunat); finally, of roots
having u or u as radical vowel, with av before the i-vowel, tu, dhu,
marians allow also kas, pat,

nu, dyut.
h. In this class, the general rules as to the form of the reduplicating

consonant (590) are violated in the case of

ghanighan and bharlbhr,

and of ganigam, karikr (but the regular carikr

krand, and kaniskand (but also canifkand occurs)
1.

The

reversion to

in cekit, and

more

occurs),

also in

kani-

kanTkhun.

original guttural form after the reduplication

janghan and ghanighan,

place elsewhere (2101).

also
;

is

in accordance with what takes

365

INTENSIVE.

1003. The same root

more than one way.

is

[-1006

allowed to form

its

intensive stem in

Thus, in the older language, dadr and dardr; dadhr and dardhr;
cScal and carcar (and carcur); tartar (and tartur) and tarltr;
jangam and ganigam; janghan and ghamghan; pamphan and
paniphan; marmrj and manmrj marmrg and marimn;; varvrt
;

and varivrt; jarbhy and bharibhr;

navinu; babadh and badbadh.

1004.

The model

dodhu

nonu

and davidhu;

of normal intensive

and

inflection is the

present-system of the reduplicating conjugation-class (642 ff.)

and

this

is

indeed to a

considerable

respect to endings, strengthening of stem,

model are not

deviations from the

in general of too infrequent

factory classification

extent followed, in

rare;

and accent.

But

and the forms are

occurrence to allow of

satis-

and explanation.

a. The most marked irregularity is the frequent insertion of an

between the stem and ending.
According to the grammarians,
this is allowed in all the strong forms before an ending beginning
with a consonant; and before the i a final vowel has guna-strengthening, but a medial one remains unchanged.

Present-System.
1005.

We

will

order, giving first

take up the parts of the present-system in their

is recognized as regular in the later language,

what

and then showing how the formation appears in the earlier texts. As
most grammarians do not allow a middle inflection, and middle forms
are few even in the Veda, no attempt will be made to set up a paradigm

for the middle voice.

1006. As example of inflection

may be taken

f^" vid know, of which the intensive stem

is

the root

5!^

vevid,

or, in strong forms, ifi^ veVed.

a. Neither from this nor from any other roofare

more than

a few scat-

tering forms actually quotable.

1.

Present Indicative.

s.

vevedmi, vevidimi

d.

vevidvas

p.

vevidmas

XIV. SECONDARY CONJUGATION.

1000]

vevetsi, vevidli

vevitthas

vevetti, veviditi

vevittas

From

b.

y^

the

hu,

singular

vowel would be sM^efift johavlmi,

366

vevittha

vevidati

forms with auxiliary

sj|c^cf)f^

johavlsi, sj)cjlfH

johavlti.
The forms found in the older language agree in general
Examples are: 1st sing., carkarmi, vevesmi; 2d
sing., alarsi, dardarsi; 3d sing., alarti, dadharti, veveti, nenekti,
janghanti, kanikrantti, ganigamti; 3d da., jarbhrtas; 1st pi., nonumas; 2d pi., jagratha; 3d pi., dadhrati, nanadati, bharibhrati,

1007.

a.

with the paradigm.

varv|tati, davidyutati, nenijati, and,

the auxiliary vowel,
riti,

jarbhuriti.

irregularly,

vevisanti; and, with

johavlmi, caka9ixni; cakaqiti, nonavlti, dardaNo stem with dissyllabic reduplication takes the auxil-

iary I in any of its forms.

b.

single dual form with I and strong stem occurs

namely, tar-

tarithas.

The middle forms found

c.

3d

sing.,

to occur are:

nenikte, sarsrte; and, with

1st sing.,

joguve, nenije;

irregular accent, tetikte,

dediste;

with irregular loss of final radical nasal, nannate; with ending e instead
of te, cekite, jangahe, j6guve, yoyuve, babadhe, and (with irregular
accent)

badbadhe; 3d

2.

1008.

sarsrate; 3d

du.,

pi.,

dedigate.

Present Subjunctive.

a. Subjunctire forms with primary endings are extremely rare:

there have been noticed only

janghanani, jagarasi (AY.);

middle, tantaaafte (3d du.).

b. Forms with secondary endings are more frequent

and,

in the

thus, 2d sing.,
janghanas, jalgulas; 3d sing., jagarat, cekitat, bobhavat, carkrsat,
janghanat, barbrhat, marmrjat, marmr^at, parpharat, dardirat,
caniskadat, davidyutat, sanisvanat; 1st du., janghanava; 1st pi.,
carkirama, vevidama; 3d pi., papatan, gogucan, carkiran; and,

with double mode-sign,

cakagan

(AV.).

Of the middle are found only

3d persons plural: thus, janghananta, jarhraanta, marmrjanta, nonuvanta, gogucanta.

3.

1009. This

Present Optative.

mode would show the unstrengthened

with the usual endings

(566), accented.

Thus:

stem,

[1012

INTENSIVE.

367

d.

vevidyam

vevidyava

etc.

a.

The optative

is

vevidyama

etc.

etc.

represented by only an example or two in the older

language: thus, active, vevigyat (AY.), jagryas (KB.), jagriyat (AB.),

jagfyama (VS. MS. but jagriyama TS.); ,RV. has only cakanyat (pft.?) ;
;

middle, nenijlta (K.).

Present Imperative.

4.

1010.

The

regular forms of the

the usual subjunctive

first

persons,

imperative, including

would be

d.

5f{ef<yPl

q{of<^|Qf

cftcf^lH

vevidani

vevid&va

vevid&ma

5l^fi

%f%rR^

^frr

veviddhi

vevittam

vevitta

p.

vevettu, vevidltu vevittam

1011.
first

as follows:

s.

vevidatu

a. Older imperative forms are less

rare than

optative.

The

been given above (janghanani, the only accented excorrespond with the model, but is in conformity with the

persons have

ample, does

Tiot

subjunctive of the reduplicating present); the proper imperatives are: 2d

sing., dadrhi, dardrhi, carkj-dhi, jagrhi, nenigdhi, raranddhi; the

ending tat

is

found in carkrtat and jagrtat;

and the

latter

(as

was

pointed out above, 57 Ib) is used in AY. as first person sing.; barbrhi
shows an elsewhere unparalleled loss of h before the ending hi ; 3d sing.,

dadhartu, vevefju, dardartu, marmarttu; 2d du., jagrtam; 3d du.,

jagrtam; 2d pi., jagrta; cankramata (RV., once) has an anomalous
union-vowel.

In the middle voice

is

found only

neniksva

(QB.).

b. Of imperative forms with auxiliary i, RV. has none; AV. has

vavaditu and johavitu, and such are sometimes found in the Brahmanas ;

AV. has

also, against rule,

tanstanlhi and janghanihi

5.

1012.

The

VS. has caka^Uii.

Present Participle.

intensive participles, both active

are comparatively

common

formed and inflected

and middle,

in the older language.

They

are

like those of the reduplicating present,

and have the kccent on the reduplicating

syllable.

XIV. SECONDARY CONJUGATION.

1012]
are

368

active, caka9at, nanadat, cekitat, raemyat, 96 9udardrat, marmrjat, janghanat, nannamat, paniphanat, kanikradat, davidyutat ;
middle, babadhana, memyana,
cekitana, yoyuvana, rorucana, jarbhurana, sarsrana, janjabhana,

Examples
roruvat,

cat,

No middle

nannamana, danda9&na.

participle

shows the dissyllabic

reduplication.

1013.

jahrsana

a.

On

(beside

rarahana, raraksSna, and

account of their accent,

are probably to.be regarded as perfect parti-

jarhrfSna)

although no other perfect forms with heavy reduplication from the

occur.
The inference is, however, rendered uncertain by the
unmistakably intensive badbadhana and marmrjana (beside marmrjciples,

same roots

As

ana).

to

9U9ucana

etc.,

806

see

a.

b. The

out;

RV. has once janghnatas, gen. sing., with root-vowel cast

kanikrat appears to be used once for kanikradat; if cakat is to

the only example of an intensive

anomalous. Marmi^antas (AB.) is
perhaps a false reading; but forms with the nasal irregularly retained are
found repeatedly in the epics and later: thus, lelihan, dedipyantim

be referred to ]/k& (Grassmann),

from a root in a, and its accent

it

is

is

(MBh.), jajvalant (MBh. R.), sarisrpantSu (BhP.), rarafcmtl (R.).

6.

Imperfect.

1014. The imperfect

is

regularly inflected as follows:

avevidam

avevidva

avevidma

avevet, avevidis

avevittam

avevitta

avevet, avevidit

avevittam

avevidus

ous.

1015. The imperfect forms found in the

They are, including those from which

follows:

in active, 1st sing.,

acaka9am,

earlier texts are not

the

augment
dedi9am; 2d

is

numer-

omitted,

sing.,

as

ajagar,

adardar, dardar; 3d sing., adardar, adardhar, avarivar, dardar,

kaniskan, davidyot, navinot ; 2d du., adardrtam; 1st pi., marmrjma;
3d pi., anannamus, adardirus, acarkrsus, ajohavus, anonavus;
and, with auxiliary i, in 3d sing., avavacit, avava9it, avavarlt,
ayoyavit, aroravit, ajohavlt; and, irregularly, in 3d du., avava9itam.
The middle forms are extremely few: namely, 3d sing., adedista, anan-

nata

(with

loss

of the

final

radical

marmrjata, and avavaqanta (which,

to an a-stera\

in

if it

weak form

of root);

3d

pi.

belongs here, shows a transfer

INTENSIVE.

369

[1017

Derivative Middle Inflection.

1016.

intensive stem, as above described,

present-system

From

may be formed

further derivative

every
in the

which

conjugation

is

made by the accented

formally identical with a passive, being

along with middle endings only. It has not,

however, a passive value, but is in meaning and use inya,

sign

distinguishable from the simpler conjugation.

a.

sign

in

final

ya

(770).

b.

The

in the

made

vowel before

this

ya

treated as before the passive-

is

inflection is precisely like that of any other stem ending

middle voice: thus, from ymfj, intensive stem xnarmrj,

the present indicative

marmrjye, marmrjyase, marmrjyate,

marmpjyeya, marmyjyethfts, marmrjyeta, etc.; imperative marmpjyasva, marmrjyatam, etc.; participle marmrjyamana; imperfect amarmrjye, amarmrjyathas, amarmrjyata, etc.;
is

optative

etc.;

subjunctive forms do not occur.

c.

In a very few sporadic cases,

these ya-fonns are given

a passive

janghanyamana in MdU. bambhramyate, dftdhmayamana, pepiyamana in the later language. And active participles
(529 a) are not unknown: thus, dedipyantlm (MBh.), dodhuyant
value:

thus,

(MRh. BhP.).

1017. This kind of intensive inflection

more common

is

than the other in the later language; in the

earlier,

it is

comparatively rare.
a. In RV.,
also forms

ya-forms are made from eight

of the simpler conjugation

the

roots,

five

which have

of

AV. adds one more

the other

twenty more, and half of them have

Thus from }/mrj, marmrjlikewise forms of the simpler conjugation.
yate etc., and marimyjyeta ; from j/t?, tarturyante ; from /car,
earlier texts (so far as observed) about

carcuryamana; from

>/ni,

nenlyeran,

etc.;

from )/vl, veviyate; from

etc.; from vij, vevijyate; from x'sku, coskuyase etc. ;

from >/di9, dediQyate; from i/ka^, caka9yate etc. ; from |/vad,
vavadyamana; from j/nam, nannamyadhvam ; from y'vah, vanlvah-

yrih, rerihyate

yeta

etc.

(with lengthened root- vowel, elsewhere unknown); from j/krand*

should be
from yVrt, varlvarty&maiia (?B.
;

kanikradyamana

varivrty-) from /m^, ainarimr9yanta(^B. ? the text reads amanmrtsyanta); from yyup, yoyiipyante etc.; from >/nud, anonudyanta;
;

from |/vli, avevliyanta; from >/jabh, jafijabhyate

jaiijapyamana; and so on.

Whitney, Orammar.

2. cd.

etc.;

from

24

1018]

XIV. SECONDARY CONJUGATION.

379

Perfect.

The grammarians

1018.

may be formed

a perfect

or whether
to

are at variance as to whether

directly

from the intensive stem,

only a periphrastic perfect (below, 1070

ff.)

is

be admitted.
a.

come

No example

to light (except

forms are

made from

an intensive

of

from jfigy:

the intensively

perfect has anywhere

few unmistakable perfect

periphrastic

1020 a).

reduplicated

root in

davidhava and nonava, 3d sing., and nonuvus,

occur further dodrava (TS.), yoyava and lei ay a

3d

RV.
pi.

namely,
and there

(MS.), and lelaya

used in the sense of presents.
To them may be added jagara 1st sing, and jagara 3d sing. but as to these, see below, 1020 a.

(?

B.),

all

Aorist, Future, etc.

1019. As to the remaining parts of a full verbal conjugation, also, the grammarians are not agreed (occurrences

of such forms,

them any

apparently, being too rare

basis for rules)

in general,

it is

to

afford

even

allowed to treat

the intensive stem further as a root in filling

of forms, using always the auxiliary

up the scheme
vowel ^ i where it is

ever used in the simple conjugation.

Thus, from j/vid, intensive stem vevid, would be made the
avevidifam with precative vevidyasam, the futures vevidisyami and veviditftsmi, the participles vevidlta, veviditavya, etc.,
the infinitive veviditum, and the gerunds veviditvS and -vevidya.
And, where the intensive conjugation is the derivative middle one,
the aorist and futures would take the corresponding middle form,
a.

aorist

b. Of all this, in the ancient language, there is hardly a trace. The

RV. has carkrtie, 3d sing, mid., of a formation like hise and stuse
(894 d), and the gerundives vitantasayya, and marmrjenya and vavr-

dhenya; and B. has the participle vanivahita, and the infinitive dediyiAs to jagarisyant and jagarita, see the next paragraph.
1020. There are systems of inflection of certain roots, the intensive character of which is questioned or questionable. Thus

tavfii.

The

gr (or gar) wake has from the first no present-system

save one with intensive reduplication; and its intensive stem, jagr, begins
a.

root

to assume the value of a root, and form a oompleter conjugation;

while by the grammarians this stem is reckoned as if simple and belongThose of
ing to the root-class, and is inflected throughout accordingly.
its forms which occur in the older language have been given along with

early

371

INTENSIVE.

the other intensives

above.

They

intensive

other

perfects

found

the present-system,

for

are,

with those acknowledged as regular

[1024

The older

later.

RV.

in

namely,

perfect

jagara

the same

is

etc.,

like

the

with

the

jagprans; and a future j&garisya-, a passive participle jagarita,

and a gerundive jagaritavya, are met with in the Brahmanas. The old aorist

participle

(RV.)is the usual reduplicated or so-called causative aorist: thus, ajigar. The
grammarians give it in the later language a perfect with additional reduplication, jajagara etc., an i$-aorist, ajagarisam, with precative jagaryftsam,

and everything

The

perf.

jagaram

phrastic

is needed to make up a
complete conjugation.
quotable from the epics and later, as also the periasa. And MBh. has the mutilated jagrmi, and also

else that

jajagara

is

a-forms, as jagarati and jagraxnana.

1021. a. The stem irajya (active only) regulate, from which a

number of forms are made in RV., has been viewed as an intensive from
}/raj or rj.

The same

It lacks,

is

true of

however, any analogy with the intensive formation.

iradh

propitiate

iradhanta and iradhyai,

(only

apparently for iradhadhyai).

b.

The middle stem iya, not infrequent in the

often called an intensive of

yi

$ro,

analogy of form whatever with an intensive.

common in RV., is of questionable character.

1022. The
is

oldest language,

but without any propriety, as

root II totter, with

The

isolated

1st

pi.

is

has no

it

imahe,

constant intensive reduplication, leli,

thus, pres., lelayati and lela-

quite irregular in inflection and accent

yate, pples lelayintl and lelayatas (gen. sing.) and lelayamana, impf.
alelayat and alelet and alellyata, perf. lelaya and lelaya (?).

1023. The RV. anomalous form dart

from

ydr

or

from dardar.
a

form from

dar,

(or

dard), 2d and 3d

sing,

doubtfully referred to the intensive, as if abbreviated

hafr once avarlvus (or -vur) where the sense requires

is

RV.
]/vrt,

as

The form raranata (RV., once)

avarivrtus.

seems corrupt.

1024. A marked intensive or frequentative meaning is not always easily to be traced in the forms classed as intensive; and in
some of them it is quite effaced. Thus, the roots cit, nij, vif use
their intensive present- system as if
class;

nor

is it

it

were an ordinary conjugationThe grammarians reckon

otherwise with gy (J*OT)

the inflection of nij and vi| as belonging to the reduplicating present-system, with irregularly strengthened reduplication; and they
treat in the same way vie and vij ; jSgy, as we have seen, they

account a simple root.

a. Also

a simple root,
as

daridra, intensive of j/drS run, is made by the grammarians

and furnished with a complete set of conjugational forms:

dadaridrau; adaridrasit,

etc.

language (unless daridrat TS.,

so-called root

vevl

flutter is a

for

etc.

It

does not

occur in

the

which VS. MS. read daridra

pure intensive.

24*

older

The

XTV. SECONDARY CONJUGATION.

1025]

372

1025. It is allowed by the grammarians to make from the intensive

stem also a passive, desiderative, causative, and so on: thus, from vevid,

vevidye; desid. vevidisami; caus. vevidayami; desid. of causavevidayigami. But such formations are excessively rare; quotable
are varlvarjayantl AV., jfigarayant TB.
dadharayati JB.,
etc.;
dandagayitva DKC.

pass,
tive,

Desiderative.

III.

1026.

By

the desiderative conjugation

sire for the action or condition

thus, ft<MliH
to

pibSmi / drink,

drink; sfeufH

/ desire

jivSmi /

signified a de-

denoted by the simple root:

desid. (MHIHUH

live,

desid.

Such a conjugation

to live.

is

is

pipSsSmi / wish

fslsfli^Mlft

jijivisami

allowed to be formed

from any simple root in the language, and

also

from any

causative stem.
a. The desiderative conjugation, although its forms outside the
present-system are extremely rare in the oldest language, is earlier
and more fully expanded into a whole verbal system than the intensive.
Its forms are also of increasing frequency: much fewer than

the intensives in RV., more numerous in the Brahmanas and later;

not one third of the whole number of roots (about a hundred) noted

having a desiderative conjugation in

such in RV.
as

1027.

The

desiderative stem

is

Veda and Brahmana have

formed from the simple

by the addition of two characteristics. 1. a reduplication, which always has the accent; 2. an appended H sa
which, however (like the tense-signs of aorist and future),

root

sometimes takes before

it

the auxiliary vowel ^

i,

becoming

isa.

cent

a.

is

otherwise

few instances in the concluding part of B. in which the aalaid

thus, tisthaset, yiyasantam, vividisanti,

must probably be regarded

ipsantas

1028.

The

root in

as errors.

general remains unchanged;

but

with the following exceptions:

a.

final i

or

is

lengthened before sa : thus, cikslsa, cikiaa,

jigisa; 9U9rusa, juhusa, cuksusa.

final p becomes ir or ur before sa: thus, cikirsa, titirsa

irregularly tuturaa RV.), didhlrsa, sisirsa, tistirsa (also tu-

b.
(also

stursa

jihirsa; bubhursa,

mumursa

(the

only examples quotable).

[1029

DBSIDERATIVE.

373

c. Before isa, a final i- or u- or y-vowel necessarily, and a

penultimate i or u or y optionally, have the guna-strengthening no
examples are quotable from the older texts; later occur 9i<jayisa,
9i<jarisa; cikartisa, ninartifa, mimardi^a, vivar^isa, 9U9obhisa;
but rurudisa.
;

More

special exceptions are

few roots in a weaken this vowel

d.
to I or even i: thus, jigisa
from ygS, go; pipifa (beside pipasa) from j/P& drink, jilrisa (AV.)
from yha remove (jihite: 664); didhisa (beside dhitsa) from |/dha.
e.

(beside

yman;

few

roots

an

in

jigamiga) from

or

am

lengthen the vowel: thus, jigansa

from ylian; mim&nsa from

ygam; jighansa

and titfinsa from ytan.

Reversion to guttural form of an initial after the reduplication is

seen in cikisa from yd, cikitsa from j/cit, jigifa from j/ji, jighansa
f.

yhan; and yhi is said to make jighisa

g. The roots van and aan make vivasa
forms va and sa.

from

h. The root jlv forms

roots in

have

guna
i.

root-

jujyu^a (B.: jijivis.a, VS.); and the other

to make the same change before sa, and to

before

iga: thus, susyufa or sisevisa from j/siv.

forms dudhursa.

Svap

Dhurv
8

Initial

is

usually left unchanged to f

the desiderative sign has f

(184e):

and susyu^a and sisanisa, according

is met with.
j.

and sisasa, from the

Iv (765) are required

forms su^upsa.

when

(no occurrence).

Further

may be mentioned

thus,

to the

as

after

the reduplication

siaanksa (B.

>/sanj),

grammarians; but tus^uea

prescribed by

the

grammarians:

na 9 be lost mimanksa from ]/majj

in
mimarjisa
(or mimpkea) from >/myj.
mimankfu);
(occurs
the reduplication follows the
of
The
consonant
1029.

ninankga

(or

nina9isa) from

general rules (590)

vowel, or

ft y,

u-vowel.

But

>/

>

the vowel

or an

i- vowel

is

it is

i if

3u

the root has an aif

the root has an

few roots have a long vowel in the reduplicating syllable thus,

blbhatsa from j/badh or badh ; mlmansa from /man ; and tutursa (RV.)
from ]/tur; dadhisu (AV.) and dadanksu (C.) are probably false forms.
a.

b. Fsom |/a9 is
edidhiaa (with a mode

made (B.) a9i9isa,

of reduplication

and

from

]/edh

(VS.)

like that followed sometimes in

862). In the older language, these are the only

vowel which form a desiderative stem, except ftp and
ydh, which have abbreviated stems: see the next paragraph. In the later
and the
language occur further esisisa (j/is seek} and Iciks.isa (^tkf);
grammarians add others, as arjihis.a (}/arh), undidiga (/und), ardithe reduplicating aorist:
roots

with

dhisa

initial

1029]

XIV. SECONDARY CONJUGATION.

374

c. RV. has the stems fnaksa and fyaksa, regarded as desideratives

from j//na9 attain and yaj, with mutilated reduplication.

1030.

number of

roots,

including some of very com-

mon

use, form an abbreviated stem apparently by a contraction of reduplication and root together into one syllable
:

thus,

^Cflf

ipsa from yETFT 5p; f^rtf ditsa from y^T d5.

Such abbreviated stems are found in the older language as follows

dhitaa (beside didhisa) from j/dlia; ditsa (beside didasa) from >/da;
a.

dipsa (dblpsa JB.) from j/dabh; (jiksa from ]/9ak; siksa from >/sah:
RV. in AV. are added ipsa from y&p (RV. has apsa

these are found in

and

Irtsa

from

}/fdh; the other texts furnish lipsa (B.) or

llpsa (TB.) from ylabh, ripsa (GB.) from j/rabh, pitsa (B.) from
>/pad, and dblkf a (B.) from yd&h. (not i/dih, since no roots with i aa
once),

medial vowel show the contracted form). In the later language are further
found pitsa from /pat also, jnipsa from the causative quasi-root jnap

1042J), and the anomalous mitsa from y'ma measure (allowed

mi and mi) ; and the grammarians give ritsa from }/radh.
Also moksa is (very questionably) viewed as a desiderative stem from
(below,

also from roots

/muc.

The use

1031.

of the auxiliary vowel

^

in the early language, but

more common

quite rare

is

and

later;

it is

allowed or prescribed by the grammarians in many stems

which have not been found in actual use.
a.

It

ceptions,

is

declared to follow in general, though not without exthe analogy of the futures (934,

necessary or optional,

943 a).
b. No example of the use of i is found in RV., and only one each in
AV. (pipatiga), VS. Qijiviaa), and TS. (jigamifa). The other examples
noted in the eariy texts are agiQisa, cikramisa, jigrahisa (with I for i,
as

elsewhere in

this

root),

eicarisa,

edidbisa,

bibadhia, rurucif a, vivadi?a, vividisa,

sisa: most of them are found only in
iary vowel are

made from

roots

1032. Inflection:
ative

stem

is

QR

gam, grab,

jijaniaa,

didiksisa,

gigasifja, tif tihia, jihiAStems also without the auxil-

car, jlv, pat, badh, vid.

Present -System.

The

desider-

conjugated in the present-system with per-

fect regularity, like other a-stems (733 a), in both voices, in

all

the modes (including,

junctive),

and with

in the- older language, the sub-

participles

and imperfect.

sufficient to give here the first persons only.

It

will

be

We may take

375

DESIDERATIVE.

as active

model

ipsa seek

SC^f

[1032
from v^TFT

to obtain,

*^

as middle, friicKt titik^a endure, from yiHsf

obtain '

ftp

be sharp

tij

(see

below, 1040).

Present Indicative.

1.
active.

middle.

d.

s.

d.

s.

p.

p.

iriififll cl<

ipsami
etc.

tftikae

ipsavas ipsamas
etc.

etc.

titiksavahe
etc.

etc.

tftikamahe
etc.

Present Subjunctive.

2.

<-HIH
ipsani
etc.

ipsava

ipsama

titiksai

etc.

etc.

etc.

3.

ipseyam ipseva

etc.

etc.

Present Optative.

titikseya titiksevahi

ipsema
etc.

etc.

etc.

titikf&vahfti tftiksamahai

etc.

etc.

titiksemahi
etc.

4. Present Imperative.
2

tftikf asva tftiksetham

ipsatam ipsata

ipsa
etc.

etc.

5.

ipsant

(f.

Present Participle.

^tft
6.

ipsanti) (nlddHIUI tftik^amft^a

Imperfect.

aipsam aipa&va aips&ma atitikse

etc.

etc.

a.

atitiksavahi

etc.

etc.

met with;

No

1st pi. in

of the impv. in

tftt,

maai,

or

2d

only ipsatftt.

pi.

atitikaamahi
etc.

etc.

be reported from
in thana or tana, is

There are almost no irregularities of inflection

the older language.

titiksadhvam
etc.

etc.

etc.

etc.

to

The quotable subjunctive

KBU. has jijfiftslta

forma are those in sani, sftt and sat, sfin, and santa.

738 b). But the fern, pple Bffftaati (instead of sisftsantl) occurs
once or twice in the older texts; and RV. has didhisftna.
(cf.

b. In the epics and later are found sporadic forms of the non-a-

XIV. SECONDARY CONJUGATION.

1032]
conjugation:
pi.

thus,

sisrksmas

and the

376

titik^mahe and bubhugate 3d

(BhP.),

lipsati and cikireati (MBh. against

The anomalous jighfirisiyat occurs also in MBh. and Vas.

(MBb.)

440 b).

fern, participles

1033. a. Desiderative forms outside the present-system are

extremely rare in the oldest language. The RV. has osly perfect
forms from a stem mimiks
thus, mimiksathus, mimiksatus,
mimiksus; mimikfe, mimiksire
along with the present forms

mimiksati, mimiksa etc. mimiksant (pple) they show that xnimik?

or mikf has taken on the character of an independent root. In AV.
are fonnd two aorist forms, irtsls and acikitsls, and a participle or two
all of them from stems
from mimaAsa (see below, 1037 a, 1030 a)
which have lost their distinct desiderative meaning, and come to bear
an independent value. The forms noted from the other earlier texts
will be given in full below.
:

b. In the later language, a complete system of verbal

forms

is

allowed to be

made

the desiderative stem, less

in the desiderative conjugation,

its final

vowel, being treated as

Thus:

a root.

1034. Perfect.
phrastic (1070

The

desiderative perfect

is

the peri-

ff.).

Thus, ipsam cakara etc. titiksam cakre etc. Such forms

are made in $B. from yyisr&m, dhurv, badh, ruh; and in ChU.
from man.
a.

b. Apparent perfect forms of the ordinary kind

RV. have been noticed in the preceding paragraph.

10) has once didasitha thou hast desired to give.

in

1035.

Aorist.

The

aorist

of

is

made from mimiks

And AB. (viii. 21.

the

is.

-form:

thus,

*l[Hir1&fN atitiksisi.
a.

hibitive:

The AY. has acikitsis, and Irtsis (augmentless, with

TB. has aipsit;

570).

and amimansisthas; KB. jijnasisi; JUB. aipsisma; and

sisam. No examples have been found in the later language.
b.
it

ma

pro-

B. ftirtsit, ftciklrgis and ajigharisis,

precative is also allowed

thus,

A A.

adhit-

ipsyasam, titiksisiya; but

never occurs.

1036. Futures.
iary vowel

ipsitasmi;

i:

The

thus,

iHiHM

futures are

made with

the auxil-

$lUM|lfa IpsifySmi and

titiksisy^

and

fHi

The 9B. has titiksisyate and didrksitaras. Such forms

jijnasyamas (MBh.), didhakfySmi (R.), and mimSAsyant (GGS.)
a.

doubtless presents, with -sya- blunderingly for -sa-.

as

are

DESIDERATIVE.

377

[-1039

Verbal Nouns and Adjectives.

1037.

made with

are

that vowel

the auxiliary vowel

^
ever taken.

is

i,

In the older language have been noted

a.

sita (AV.,

where

miman-

participle in ta,

jijyusita (AB.), sucjrusita and dhlksita (B.)

GB.),

gerundive in tavya, lipsitavya (AB.),

gerund in tvS,

jijnasya (B.);

1038. Of

These too

in all cases

didhyasitavya (B.)

mimansitva

in

ya,

(K.).

other declinable stems derived from the desiderative stem,

e. g. titiksu, dipsu,
by far the most common are the adjective in u
and the abstract noun in a
bibhatsu, sisasii (RV. once didfku)
e. g. ipsa, bibhatsa, mimansa, QUQrusa
both of which are made

with increasing freedom from an early epoch of the language especially the
former, which has the value and construction (271 a) of a present parti:

ciple.

few adjectives in

enya

nims.enya

(PB.),

966 b)

(having a gerundive character:

occur in the earlier language: thus, didr-ksenya (RV.),

jijnasenya (AB.),

and,

9u$rugenya

(TS.),

with irregular reduplication

(JB.); and didrkseya (RV %)

(apparently) paprksenya (RV.), dadhisenya

a similar formation. RV.has also sisasani and mruk8ani,andsi8asatu(?^.

is

In the later language, besides some of the formations already instanced (those
u and a, and in sya and sitavya), are found a few derivatives in aka,

in
as

bubhusaka; in ana, as jijnasana, didhyaaana; and,

aniya (cikitsanlya) and ty (gn^rugitg) ; further, second-

cikitsaka,

very rarely, in
ary

derivatives

(doubtless)

in

in from the noun in

(one or two of these occur in the older language).

a, as ipsin, jigisin

And

of an adjective in

a we have an example in bibhatsa (B.S., and later), and peihaps in

avalipsa (AVP.) such words as ajugupsa, du^cikitsa, are rather to be
understood as possessive compounds with the noun in a. As to noun-stems
;

in is, see

392 d.

1039.
passive
7J

ya

is

Derivative

or

Tertiary Conjugations.

allowed to be made, by adding the passive-sign

to the desiderative root (or

Ipsyate

^KIH

it is

ative,

by adding in

(1041)

stem without

desired to le obtained;
like

thus, ^millfH

manner the

ipsaySmi /

final a)

thus,

and a caus-

causative-sign

cause

to desire

^T aya

obtainment.

Of these formations in the older language are found mimansyamana (doubtless to be read for -saxnana, AV.), lipsyamana (B.), and
rurutsyamana (K.). Half-a-dozen such passives are quotable later, and
a.

one or two causatives:

e. g.

cikitsyate, vivaksyate, jijnasyate; cikir-

sayant, cikitsayisyati.
b.

which

is

For the desiderative conjugation formed on causative stems,

found as early as the Brahmanas, see below, 1052b.

XIV. SECONDARY CONJUGATION.

1040]

378

1040. Some stems which are desiderative in form have lost the
peculiarity of desiderative meaning, and assumed the value of independent roots examples are cikits cure, jugups despise, titiks. endure,
bibhats abhor, mimans ponder, 9u<jrus obey. Doubtless some of the
apparent roots in the language with sibilant final are akin with the
:

desideratives in origin:

On

a.

948 b),

the former

is

9ik?, desiderative of $ak.

e. g.

account of the

near

relation

of

desiderative

and future

(cf.

the latter was rather to be

occasionally found where

expected: thus, rajanam prayiyasantam (B.) a king about to depart;

prana uccikramisan (ChU.) the breath on the point of expiring mu;

murfur iv& *bhavat

(H.) he was fain to die.

IV.

Causative.

In the later language is allowed to be made

most roots a complete causative conjugation.
The

1041.

from

a.

basis of this

is

a causative stem, formed by appending the

causative-sign 5RT
b.

aya

to the, usually strengthened, root.

But by no means

all

conjugation-stems formed by

PT aya are of causative value

the sign

and the grammarians

regard a part of them as constituting a conjugation -class,

the tenth or cur-class,

according to which roots

inflected as according to the other classes,

and

may be

either alone

or along with others (775).

c. In

RV., the proportion without causative value is fully one third.

is a more obviously denominative one than any of the other

The formation

conjugation-classes, an intermediate between

them and the proper denom-

meaning has established itself in connection with

the formation, and become predominant, though not exclusive. A number
of roots of late appearance and probably derivative character are included
in the class, and some palpable denominatives, which lack only the usual
inatives.

causative

denominative accent (below, 1056).

d. The causative formation is of much more frequent use, and more
decidedly expanded into a fall conjugation, than either the intensive or the
desiderative. It is made from more than three hundred roots in the early lan-

guage (in RV., from about one hundred and

fifty);

but in the oldest,

its

forms outside the present-system are {apart from the attached reduplicated
aorist:

1040) exceedingly

1042.

few.

The treatment of

sign $KX aya

is

as follows:

the root before the causative-

379

CAUSATIVE.
a.

Medial or

capable of

it

initial

240;

i,

thus,

u, r,

[1042

have the..guna-strengthenmg

vedaya from ^vid, codaya from

(if

j-

j/cud,

tarpaya from yt?p and kalpaya from >/klp (only example)

cintaya, gulphaya, drnhaya.
;

but

b. But a few roots lack the strengthening: these are, in the older
cit (citaya and cetaya), is, il, ria (riaaya and
re?aya),

language,

vip (vipaya and vepaya), tuj, tur, tu (tufaya and toa.aya), dyut
(dyutaya and dyotaya), rue (rucaya and rocaya), 9110 (<jucaya and
9ocaya), 9ubh (cubhaya and 9obhaya), krp, mr<J, aprh ; and grabh
makes in RV. grbhaya. Dua. and guh lengthen the vowel instead. Mrj
sometimes has vrddhi, as in other forms
thus, marjaya (beside marjaya). On the other hand, guna appears irregularly (240 b) in srevaya
:

hedaya, meka.aya. Similar irregularities in the later

giraya, tulaya (also tolaya), churaya (also choraya),

(beside 9rivaya),

language

are

No forms without strengthening have

nausaya, sphuraya.

made

a causative value

in the older language.

c. A final vowel has

the^r^dM-stren^thening
~
9ayaya, cyavaya, bhavaya, dharaya, aaraya.
d. But no root in i or I has vrddhi in the Veda

cayaya,

thus,

(unless payaya
indeed, regular causatives from such roots are hardly quotable: only RV. has ksayaya (beside
ksepaya) from ]/kai possess; for a few alternatively permitted forms, see

[k, below] comes from

pi rather than pa)

as,

In B. and S., however, occur gayaya and sayaya (]/si or

1.
sa); and later -ayaya, cayaya, smayaya, dayaya, nayaya.

below,

few

dru, plu,

yu

e.

smr, hr ; vr

roots

have a form also with guna-strengtbening

separate,

makes varaya

choose

thus,

9ru, pu, atu, sru; jr waste away, dy

later (it

is

not found in

cyu,

pierce,

V.

sr,

epic

also

varaya).
f. A medial or initial a in a light syllable is sometimes lengthened, and sometimes remains unchanged: thus, bhajaya, svapaya,
adaya ; janaya, Qrathaya, anaya (but mandaya, valgaya, bhaksaya).

The

g.

in the older

roots

dam,
p'ease

gam (gamaya

once in RV.), tarn,

raj (usually ranjaya), prath, cjrath, 9nath, vyath, svad,

(also

chandaya), nad, dhvas

(abo

manhaya), nabh

later

language,

further,

the earlier or

kram,

in

dhvansaya), rah,

chad

mah

nambhaya), tvar, svar, hval. In the

kvan, jvar, trap, day, pan, rac, ran ring,

the later language,

kam,

(also

(also

vadh, val, va9, 9lath, skhal, sthag.

kal,

which keep their short a are

language

jan, pan, svan, dhan, ran, stan,

or

khan, ghat, cani,

Toth forms are made (either in

both taken together) by ad,

in

cal, jval,

tvar, dal, dhvan,

nad, nam, pat, bhram, math, mad, yam, ram, lag, lal, vam, vyadh,
9am be quiet, 9ram, 9vas, svap. The roots which lengthen the vowel
are decidedly the

more numerous.

h. If a nasal
ally

is

taken in any of the strong forms of a

appears in the causative stem

e.

g.

root,

it

usu-

dambhaya, dancjaya, indhaya,

'Ju

XIV. SECONDARY CONJUGATION.

1042]

380
From

limpaya, rundhaya, qundhaya, kyntaya, dynhaya.

number

and without the nasal are made: thus (besides

those mentioned above, g), kuncaya and kocaya, granthaya and grathaya, byihaya and barhaya, bhrafiqaya and bhra^aya, 9\indhaya
and (jodhaya, safijaya and sajjaya, sincaya and secaya. In a tew of
of roots, stems both -with

these is seen the influence of present-stems.

i.

Most roots in

and the root

final a,

y,

add p before the con-

jugation-sign: thus, dapaya, dhapaya, sthapaya; arpaya.

j. Such stems are made in the older language from the roots ksa,

khya,

gfi sing (also

gayaya),

ghra, jna, da

gift,

da

give,

divide,

dra

ma

measure, mla, ya, va blow, stha, sna,

ha remove; the later language adds ksma, dhma, and ha leave. From
jna and sna are found in AY. and later the shortened forms jnapaya
run,

dha

put and

dha

suck,

and snapaya, and from $ra only Qrapaya (not in RV.). Also, in the
gla forms glapaya, and mla forms mlapaya.

later language,

k. Stems from a-roots showing no

are, earlier,

gayaya

gapa-

(also

ya) from j/ga sing, chayaya, pfiyaya from /pft drink (or pi), pyftyaya from >^pya or pyay; sayaya from ysS (or si); also, later, hvayand further, from roots v& weave, vya,
aya from j/hva (or hu);
and $a (or <}i), according to the grammarians.
1. The same p is taken also by a few
i- and 1-roots, with other
accompanying irregularities: thus, in the older language,
ksayaya) from ]/ksi possess; japaya (VS. and

beside

lapaya (TB. and

once) from }/9ri;
later,

ksapaya

later

later also

adhyapaya

layaya) from yli

(S.

and

later)

from yji;

qrapaya (VS.,
from adhi+yi;
in the

ksayaya) from |/ksi

(beside

ksepaya (RV.,
later)

cling

destroy;

mapaya

from

from y'smi; hrepaya from yhri;

and the grammarians make further krapaya from }/kri; capaya (beside
gather; bhapaya (beside bhayaya and bhisaya)
cayaya) from

ymi; smapaya

smayaya)

(beside

yd

from

ybhi; repay a from

makes ropaya (B. and

makes knopaya (late).
in.

More anomalous

and vlepaya from yVlI. Moreover,

rohaya (V. and later), and

|/ri,

later)

beside

cases,

in

which the so-called causative

/ruh

yknu
is

pal-

pably the denominative of a derived noun, are: palaya from j/pfi protect
prinaya from ]/pri; linaya (according to grammarians) from yll; dhu-

j;

naya

(not causative in sense j from j/dhu;

from I/ban;

sphavaya

bhisaya from ]/bhl; ghataya

from ]/spha or sphay*

n. In the Prakrit, the causative stem is made from all roots by the
addition of (the equivalent of) apaya; and a number
(about a dozen) of
like formations are quotable from Sanskrit texts, mostly of the latest
period ; but three, kridapaya, jivapaya, and diksapaya, occur in the epics
and two, a<japaya and ksalapaya, even in the Sutras.

1043. Inflection:

stem

is

Present-System. The

causative

inflected in the present-system precisely like other

CAUSATIVE.

381

stems in

a (733 a):

general the
as

first

will be

it

[1043

sufficient

to

give here in

persons of the different formations, taking

model the stem ^T[U dhSraya, from yq dhr.

1.

Thus:

Present Indicative.
active.

P-

dharayami

dharayavas

etc.

etc.

dharayamas
etc.

middle.
d.

s.

dharayavahe dharayamahe

dharaye
etc.

a.

in

mas

The

p.

etc.

etc.

masi greatly outnumbers (as ten to one) that

RV. and AV. No example occurs of 2d pi. act. in thana,

1st pi. act in

in both

nor of 3d sing. mid. in e for ate.

2. Present Subjunctive.
For the subjunctive may be instanced all the forms noted as
occurring in the older language:
active.
l

dharayama

dharayani dharayava

dhsr4ysthas

dhariysn
middle.

dharayai

b.

dharayavahai

Only one dual mid.

form in

aite

occurs:

madayaite

(KV.).

The only RV. mid. form in ai, except in 1st du., is madayadhvai.
The primary endings in 2d and 3d sing. act. are more common than the
secondary.

3.

Present Optative.
active.

dhardyeyam
etc.

dharayeva
etc.

dharayema
etc.

1043

XIV. SECONDARY CONJUGATION.

382

middle.

dliarayeya

dhfirayevahi

etc.

dharayemahi
etc.

etc.

0. Optative forms are very rare in the oldest language (four in RV.,
two in AY.); they become more common in the Brahmanas. A 3d sing.
mid. in Ita instead of eta (cf. 738 b) occurs once in B. (kamayita AB.),

not very rare in S. (a score or two of examples are quotable), and

found in MBh. and later. Of a corresponding 3d pi. in Iran only
one or two instances can be pointed out (kamayiran AQS., kalpayiran

is

is also

AGS.).

4.

Present Imperative.
active.

2 lllfTr

dhfiraya

En^TTcT^

SJTfTIrT

dharayatam

dharayata
etc.

etc.

etc.

middle.

dharayasva

dharayetham dharayadbvam
etc.

etc.

etc.

d. Imperative persons with the ending tat occur dharayatat (AY.)

and cyavayatat (B.) are 2dsing.; patayatat (B.) is 3d sing.; gamayatat and cyavayatat (K. etc.), and varayatat (TB.) are used as 2d
:

pi. Varayadhvat (K. etc.) is 2d

such an ending (see above, 549 b).

5.
*4

e.

in

pi.,

and the only known example of

Present Participle.

( u ti^dharayant

m^UHIUI dhSrayamana.

The feminine of the active participle is regularly and usually made

But a very few examples in atl are met with (one in

antl (449 c).

the older language:

f.

The middle

namayati

Apast.).

participle in

mana

is

made through

the whole history

language, from BY. (only yatayamana) down, and is the only

one met with in the earlier language (for irayanas [sic !], MS. ii. 7. 12,
of the

is

evidently a false reading, perhaps for fraya nas).

in the epics and later is one formed with ana

common

But decidedly more

:

e.

g.

kamayana,

cintayana, palayana, vedayana. It is quotable from a larger number

of roots than is the more regular participle in mana. As it occurs in
no accentuated

text, its accent

cannot be given.

383

CAUSATIVE.
6.

[1046

Imperfect.
active.

adharayam

AdharaySva

adhftrayftma

etc.

etc.

etc.

middle.

adharaye

AdhSrayavahi ddharayamahi

etc.

etc.

1044. As was above pointed

stem in

outside

aya

etc.

out,

the formations from the causative

the present-system are

in the oldest language very

In RV. are found two forms of the future in syami, one passive
participle (codita), and ten infinitives in dhyai; also one or two derivlimited.

nouns in tp (bodhayitf, codayitrl), five in isnu, seven in itnu,

and a few in a (atiparaya, nidharaya, vacaminkhaya. vie. vamejaya),
and in u (dharayii, bhavayu, mandayu). In AV., also two s-future

ative

forms and four gerunds in tva; and

one of which

made

a few

a periphrastic perfect

from

derivative noun-stems,

(gamayam

cakara). In the
Brahmanas, verbal derivative forms become more numerous and various, as
will be noted in detail below.
is

1045. Perfect.
periphrastic (107 la);

The accepted causative

a derivative noun in a

the causative stem, and to

its

accusative, in

perfect
is

is

the

made from

5m,

is

added

the auxiliary: thus,

dharayam cakara
dharayam oakre
a.

Of

thiB perfect

gamayam cakara

(or

asa: 107 Ob)

no example occurs in RV. or SV. or VS., only one

in AV., and but half-a-dozen in all the various

texts of the Black Yajur-Veda, and these not in the

mantra-parts of the
by no means frequent in the Brahmanas, except in
$B. (where they abound: chiefly, perhaps, for the reason that this work

They

text.

are also

uses in considerable part the perfect instead of the imperfect as

its

narrative

tense).

3046. Aorist.
is

The

aorist of the causative conjugation

the reduplicated, which in general has nothing to do

with the causative stem, but

a. It has

been already

is

made

is

from the

root.

856 ff.).

is probably founded on an
belonging to it as a reduplicated form,
a matter of gradual growth; in the Veda it is made from a

b. Its association with the causative

original intensive character

and

directly

fully described (above,

XIV. SECONDARY CONJUGATION.

1046]

considerable number of roots

stances

in

AV.. about a

The

c.

causative aorist of j/U dhy, then,

etc.

as follows:

etc.

adidharavahi adidharamahi

adidhare
etc.

etc.

example was

is

adidharama

adldharava

etc.

An

KV., more than a third of its inwhich have no causative stem in aya.

(in

fifth)

adldharam

384

etc.

inflected in full at

864.

1047. In a few cases, where the root has assumed a peculiar

form before the causative sign

as

by the addition

of a

or B

the reduplicated aorist is made from this form

(above, 1042 iff.)
instead of from the simple root thus, atia$hipam from sthap (stem
sthapaya for j/atha. Aorist-stems of this character from quasi-roots
:

ap are arpipa (j/r), jijapa or jijipa, jijnapa or jijnipa, c^rapa,

tisthipa, jihipa; the only other example from the older language is

in

bibhisa from bhla for j/bhi.

1048. But a few sporadic forms of an is-aorist from causative conjugation-stems are met with: thus, dhvanayit (RV. TS. has instead the
;

wholly anomalous dhvanayit), vyathayia and ailayit (AV.), pyftyayiathfia and avadayiethas (KBU.), in the older language (RV. has also

unayis from a denominative stem); in the later, ahladayisata (DKC.),

and probably aghatayithas (MBh.; for -isthas: cf. 904 d). The passive
3d sing, aropi, from the causative ropaya, has a late occurrence (atr.).
1049.
made

A precative

is

of course allowed by the grammarians to be

for the causative conjugation: in the

middle, from the causative stem

with the auxiliary i substituted for its final a; in the active, from the
form of the root as strengthened in the causative stem, but without the
causative sign: thus,

^I/JIHH dharyaaam
This formation

1050.
are

is to

Futures.

made from

etc.

Ml^fUNlU dharayiflya

be regarded as purely

Both

etc.

fictitious.

futures, with the conditional,

the causative stem, with the auxiliary

^

which takes the place of

its

final

a.

Thus:

S-Future.
dharayiayami
t4l(ltl^uti

dharayiayant

etc.

EJIRjkJ dharayiaye

etc.

lH(u^JHIUI dharayiayamana

i,

CAUSATIVE.

385

[1051

Conditional.

^Tt ( ftl

H^adhar ayiyain

44

etc.

Efc||{i7j&3

etc.

adharayigye

Periphrastic Future.

H dharayitasmi

etc.

RV. and AY. contain only two

and none of the periphrastic. The former
begin to appear in the Brahmanas more numerously, but still sparingly,
with participles, and conditional (only adharayisyat B.
alapayisyahas been mentioned above that

It

a.

examples each of the s-future,

thas ChU.);

two instances (parayitasmi and

of both formations are quotable from the later

of the latter,

Examples

janayitasi).

8.

affords

language (including the middle form dar^ayitahe: 947;c).

1051.

made

in two different ways: either

stem

tive

Verbal Nouns and Adjectives.

cribed)

(in

or

2.

the same

manner

1.

from the

as the

These are
full

causa-

futures, just

des-

from the causatively strengthened root-form

(with loss of the causative-sign).

a. To the latter class belong the passive participle, as dharita;
the gerundive and gerund in ya, as dharya, -dharya; and the gerund
in am, as dharam; also, in the older language, the root-infinitive,

as

-dharam

etc.

To

(970 a).

the former class belong the infinitive

and the gerund in tva, as dharayitum, dharayitva, and the gerundive

in tavya, as dharayitavya (also, in the older language, the infinitives
in tavai and dhyai, as janayitavai, irayadhyai, etc.).
The auxiliary
i is taken in every formation which ever admits that vowel.
b. Examples of the passive participle are irita, vasita, 9ravita.
But from the quasi-root jnap (1042J) is made jnapta, without union\owel.
c.

Examples of the

infinitive

and gerund in tvS are josayitum,

in the epics, and even later,

dharayitum ; kalpayitva, arpayitva. But

infinitives

(jesitum,

are

made with

occasionally

loss

of the

causative-sign:

e.

g.

bhavitum, dliaritum, mocitum.

d. Examples of the gerunds in ya and am are -bhajya, -gharya,

-padya, -vasya, nayya, -sthapya; -bhajam, -sthapam. But stems

showing in the root-syllable no difference from the root retain ay of the

causative-sign in the gerund, to distinguish it from that belonging to the
.

primary conjugation

e. g.

-kramayya, -gamayya, -janayya, -jvalayya,

-kalayya, -9amayya, -racayya, -Spayya.

e.

Examples

of the

ay itavy a, hvayayitavya

gerundive iu
;

are tarpayitavya, gamsthapya, harya, yajya; of

tavya

of that in ya,

aniya, sthapamya, bhavaniya.

Whitney, Grammar. 2. ed.

that in

25

1051]
f.

as

XIV. SECONDARY CONJUGATION.

Examples

follows:

386

of other formations occurring in the older language

-sthapam, -vasas;

root-infinitive,

cases than accusative,

ayitavaf; (jamayitos

infinitive in tu,

are

other

-janayitave; janayitavaf, payayitaval, -cjcotinfinitive in dhyai, isayadhyai, irayadhyai,

;

tanBayadhyai, naqayadhyai, mandayadhyai, madayadhyai, risayadhyai, vartayadhyai, vftjayadhyfti, syandayadhyfti (all RV.);
gerundive in ayya, panayayya, sprhayayya, trayayayya (P ytra).
g.

Other noun -derivatives from the causative stem are not infrequent,
more numerous and various than from any other of the

decidedly

being

secondary conjugation-stems.

Examples (of other kinds than those instanced

in

1044) are: arpana, dapana, prmana, bhisana; j&apaka, ropaka;

patayalu, spj-hayalu; janayati, jnapti.
h.

All the classes of derivatives,

it

will be noticed, follow in regard

to accent the analogy of similar formations from the simple root,

no influence

Derivative

1052.

From

and show

of the special accent of the causative-stem.

or

the causative stem are

siderative conjugation.

Tertiary Conjugations.
made a passive and a de-

Thus:

The passive-stem is formed by adding the usual

ive-sign IT ya to the causatively strengthened root, the
a.

pass-

caus-

ative-sign being dropped: thus, miRT dhSryate.

b. Such passives are hardly found in the Yeda (only bhajya- AY.),
but some thirty instances are met with in the Brahmanas and Sutras: examples are jnapya- (TS.), sadya- (K.), pftdya- (AB.), vadyasthapya- (GB.); and they become quite common later.
c.

The

desiderative stem

addition of the sign

i$a,

is

made by

(TB.),

reduplication and

of which the initial vowel replaces

the final of the causative stem thus, i^Ml^fUNfri didharayi^ati.

:

These, too, are found here and there in the Brahmanas and later
(about forty stems are quotable): examples are pipayayisa (K.), bibhavd.

ayisa and cikalpayisa and lulobhayiaa (AB.), didrapayisa and riradhayisa and apipayisa (^B.), and so on.
e.

As

see above,

to

causatives

made from the

intensive and desiderative stems,

1025, 1039.
V. Denominative.

its

denominative conjugation
basis a noun-stem.
1058.

is

v/

one that has

for

a. It is a view now prevailingly held that most of the presentsystems of the Sanskrit verb, along with other formations analogous with a

^OVA

Y\

DENOMINATIVE.

387

[1056

present-system, are In their ultimate origin denominative; and that many

apparent roots are of the same character. The denominatives which are so
called differ from these only in that their origin is recent and undisguised.

The grammarians teach

1054.

the language

may

that of an

?f

that any noun-stem in

he converted, without other addition than

union- vowel enabling it to he inflected

second general conjugation) into a present-

(as

according to the

stem, and conjugated as such.

But such formations are rare in actual use. The RV. has a few
and doubtful examples, the clearest of which is bhisakti he heals,
from bhisaj physician; it is made like a form of the root-class; abhisnak
seems to be its imperfect according to the nasal class; and patyate he
a.

isolated

appears to be a denominative of pati -master;

rules

other possible cases

krpananta, tarusema etc., vanusanta, bhurajanta,

From the other older texts are quotable kavyant (TS.),

are if anas etc.,

vananvati.

ac,lonat (TB.).

unmulati

svadhamahe

(SB.),

(SQS.).

And

a consider-

number of instances, mostly isolated, are found in the later language

e. g. kalahant (MBh.), arghanti (Pane.), abjati ftatr.),
gardabhati
(SD.), utkanthate (SD.), jagannetrati (Pras.), kelisvetasahasra-

able

pattrati

(Pras.).

1055. In general, the hase of denominative conjugation

is

made from the noun-stem by means of

TJ

sign

a.

the conjugation-

ya, which has the accent.

The

conjugation,

identity

as

of this

ya

making with the

with the
final

ya

of the so-called causative

a of a noun-stem the
What relation it sustains

causative-

to the ya
hardly to be questioned.
of the ya-class (759), of the passive (708), and of the derivative inten-

sign

aya,

sive stem

is

(1016),

is

much more

doubtful.

1056. Intermediate between

the

denominative and causative

conjugations stands a class of verbs, plainly denominative in origin,

but having the causative accent. Examples, beginning to appear at the
earliest period of the language, are

(from

}/ky praise],

mantrayate

speaks, takes counsel,

+ tra),

kirtayati commemorates (from kirti,

arthayati or -te makes an object of, seeks (from artha goal,

mantra, j/man

varnayati depicts (from varna color], kathayati or -te gives

how of anything, relates (from katham how?}, and so on. These,
along with like forms from roots which have no other present-system
from
(though they may make scattering forms outside that system
the root directly), or which have this beside other present-systems
without causative meaning, are reckoned by the grammarians as a
separate conjugation-class, the cur-class (above, 607, 775j.

object),

the

25*

XIV. SECONDARY CONJUGATION.

1067]

-^ft.

388

1057. Denominatives are formed at every period in the

history of the language, from the earliest down.
a.

of

They

are frequent in RV., which contains over a hundred,

AY. has only half as many (and personal forms from

all varieties

hardly a third as many: from the, rest, present participles, or derivative nouns); AB., less than twenty; QB., hardly more than a dozen
and so on. In the later language they are quotable by hundreds,
but from the vast majority of stems occur only an example or two;
;

the only ones that have won any currency are those that have assumed
w
the character of cur-class" verbs.

The denominative meaning

1058.

is,

as in

other lan-

guages, of the greatest variety; some of the most frequent

forms of

are

it

be like,

or treat as; cause to

act as, play

make

be,

into; use,

part of; regard

make

that which

wish for, crave

of; desire,

the

is

application

signified

by

the noun-stem.
a. The modes of treatment of the stem-final are also various
and the grammarians make a certain more or less definite assignment
of the varieties of meaning to the varieties of form but this allotment finds only a dubious support in the usages of the words as met
with even in the later language, and still less in the earlier. Hence
;

classification, according to the final of the noun-stem

and the way in which this is treated before the denominative sign ya,
will be the best one to follow.

the formal

1059.

From stems

in a.

oftenest remains unchanged:

hostile;

b.

The final a of a noun-stem

amitrayati plays the enemy, is

a.

thus,

devayati

cultivates the gods, is pious.

But

final

is

also often

lengthened: thus, aghayati plans

mischief; priyayate holds dear; aqvayati seeks for horses; a^anayati

desires food.
o.

While in the Veda the various modes

are well distributed,

of denominative formation

no one showing a marked preponderance, in the

later

language the vast majority of denominatives (fully seven eighths) are of

the two kinds just noticed: namely, made from a-stems, and of the form
aya or aya, the former predominating. And there is seen a decided ten-

dency to give the denominatives in aya an active form and transitive meanand those in aya a middle form and intransitive or reflexive meaning.

ing,

In not a few cases,

parallel formations from the same stem illustrate this

kalusayati makes turbid, kalusayate is or becomes
urbid; tarunayati rejuvenates, tarunayate is rejuvenated; sithilayati
No distinct traces of this distinction are
loosens, Qithilayate grows loose.

distinction:

e.

g.

DENOMINATIVE.

389

[1064

recognizable in the Veda, although there also corresponding forms with short
long a sometimes stand side by side.

a and with

Final

d.

is

sometimes

adhvariyati performs the

putriyati desires a son;

candrakantiyati

Not

is

rarely

i):

thus,

mighty; putrlyati or

craves
fifty

dropped (after

sajjiyate t ready;
flesh,stems of this form are quotable.
or r):

turanyati

thus,

is

the sacrifice.

adhvaryati performs

f.

(very

tavisiy&ti

ma&Biyati

moonstonelike.

It is occasionally

e.

rapid;

as in

is

to

changed

sacrifice;

Other modes of treatment are sporadic: thus, the addition of s,

seeks the breast; the change of a to e, as in vareyati

etanasyati

plays the wooer.

From stems

in a. Final a usually remains, as in gopayherdsman, protects; pptanayati fights; but it is sometimes

treated in the other methods of an a-stem: thus, pftanyati fights; tilotta-

1060.

ati plays

miyati

the

Tilottama.

acts

From stems

Such stems are (especially

i, i, and u, u.
They show regularly I and u before ya: thus,
arfttiyati (also -tiy-) plots injury; janlyati (also -niy-) seeks a wife;
sakhiyati desires friendship; nariyate turns woman;
gatruyati acts

1061.

in

those in u, u) very rare.

the foe;
is

is

yjuyati

straight;

discontented: with short u,

a.

More

rarely, i or

vasuyati
gatuyati

desires wealth;
sets

is treated as

asuyati grumbles,

in motion.

(or else is gunated, with loss

v): thus, dhunayati comes snorting] laghayati makes easier.

Sometimes, as to a (above, 1059f), a sibilant is added: thus, avisydti
is vehement; urusyati saves.
From dhi, RV. makes dhiyayate.

of a

thus,

or

1062. From other vowel-stems, a. Final f is changed to ri:

matriyati treats as a mother (only quotable example).
b. The diphthongs, in the few cases that occur, have their final ele-

ment changed

1063.

thus,

gavyati

seeks cattle,

final

goes a-r aiding.

consonant usually remains

thus, bhisajyati plays the physician, cures; uksanyati acts

apasyati is active ; namasyati pays reverence ; sumanasyate
favorably disposed; tarueyati fights.
a. But a final n is sometimes dropped, and the preceding vowel treat-

before
like
is

a semivowel:

to

From consonant- stems. A

ya:

a lull

ed as a final: thus, rajayate or rajiyati is kingly, from rajan; -kannayati from -karman; svamiyati treats as master, from svamin: vysais the only example quotable from the older language.
Sporadic cases occur of other final consonants similarly treated: thus, ojayate from ojas, -manayate from -manas;
while, on the other hand,

yate from v^san

an a-vowel

yati from

is occasionally

if,

1064. The
before the

added

to

such a consonant before ya: thus, isa-

satvanayati from satvan.

largest class of consonantal stems

ya; and,

as

are those showing

has been seen above, a sibilant

analogy, added to a final vowel,

is

sometimes,

making the denominative-sign

virtually

by

sya

XIV. SECONDARY CONJUGATION.

1064]
a

or even, with
to

also

added

after

an

i- or

u- vowel, asya; and

be recognized by the grammarians as an independent

inatives that express desire

(in-sya
ples)

love

of

life);

madhusyati

or

comes
denom-

this

sign, forming

sumakhasyate

thus,

vrsasyati

399

desires the

madhvasyati

is merry; jivanasyamale (the only quotable exam-

longs for honey; ksirasyati craves

milk.

1065. The grammarians reckon as a special class of denominatives

what are really only ordinary ones made from a compound nounstem having kama as its final member: thus, rathakamyati lonys for

in

kamya

the chariot (K.

yati
ples)

only example found in the older language) ; arthakarn; putrakamyati wishes a son (the only quotable exam-

desires wealth
;

coming from the possessive compounds

payati

treats as property is a (sole

Prakritic causative form

aya from drdha, and perhaps mradaya

a.

etc.

And artha-

(1042n).

a. Stems of anomalous formation are

1066.

rathakama

quotable) example of a stem having the

A number

of

draghaya from dirgha, dradhfrom mrdu.

denominative stems occur in the Yeda

for

which no corresponding noun-stems are found, although for all or nearly

all of them related words
appear: thus, ankuya, stabhuya, isudhya;
dhisanya, risanya, ruvanya, huvanya, isanya ; ratharya, 9ratharya,

saparya; iyasya (B.), irasya, daQasya, makhasya, panasya, sacasya. Those in anya, especially, look like the beginnings of a new
conjugation-class.

b. Having still more that aspect, however, are a Vedic group of stems
in aya, which in general have allied themselves to present-systems of the
nft-class (732), and are found alongside the forms of that class: thus,

gpbhayati beside grbhnati. Of such, RV. has grbhaya, mathaya,

prusaya, musaya, grathaya, skabhaya, stabhaya. A few others
have no na-class companions: thus, damaya, gamaya, tudaya (AV.);
and panaya, na^aya, vrsaya (/vys rain), vasaya (/vas clothe], and
perhaps

a9aya (y&q attain).

Here may be mentioned

also quasi-denominatives made from onomatopoetic combinations of sounds, generally with repetition: e. g. kitakic.

taya, thatathataraya, misamisaya, Qara^araya.

1067. The denominative stems in RV. and AV. with causative accentuation are: RV.

ankhaya, arthaya, iaya (also iffaya), urjaya, ytaya,

kypaya, mantraya, mygaya, vavraya, vaj4ya (also vajaya), vll&ya,
suvaya (also susvaya) ; AV. adds kirtaya, dhupaya, palaya, viraya,
sabhagaya.
a. The accent of anuiya and hastaya
(RV.) is wholly anomalous.
1068. Inflection.
flected

(733 a)

The denominative stems

are in-

with regularity like the other stems ending in

throughout

the present-system.

Forms

5f

outside of

[1069

DENOMINATIVE.

391

except from the stems which are reckoned

that system

to the causative or cur-class,

and which follow in

all

re-

are of the utmost rarity.

spects the rules for that class
a. In BY. occur a no form not belonging to the present-system, except
(with ma prohibitive), an ig-aorist 2d sing. (cf. 1048). Farther
examples of this aorist are asuyit (B.), papayis^a (TS.: pi., with ma
The form asaparyait (AV.
prohibitive), and avrsayisata (VS. etc.).
xiv. 2. 20), with ai for I (555 c), might be aorist; but, as the metre

unayis

is probably a corrupt reading; amanasyait, certainly imperfect,

s
appears to occur in TB. (ii. 3. 8 ). Other forms begin to appear in the
e.
the
futures
Brahmanas:
g.
gopayisyati ($B.), meghayisyant, kan-

shows,

duyisyant, <;Ikayiijyant (TS.), the participles bhi^ajyita (? JB. -jita)

and iyasita (B.), kanfluyita, 9lkita, and meghita (TS.), the gerund
samqlaksnya (B.), and so on. In the later language, also, forms outside the present-system (except the participle in ta) are only sporadic ; and
of tertiary conjugation forms there are hardly any : examples are the causatives

yif a

dhumayaya

and asuyaya (MBh.), and the desiderative abhisisena-

(gic.).

b. Noun-derivatives from denominative stems follow the analogy of

(1051g). In the older language, those in u

those from causative stems

and &

ana

(especially the former) are

prevails over all others.

much

the most numerous;

CHAPTER

later,

that in

XV.

PERIPHRASTIC AND COMPOUND CONJUGATION.

1069.

ONE

periphrastic formation,

the

future, has been already described (942

become in the

later

periphrastic
ff.),

since

it

has

language a recognized part of every

verbal conjugation, and since, though still remaining essenit has been so fused in its parts and altially periphrastic,

tered in construction as to assume in considerable measure

the semblance of an integral tense-formation.

far the most important other formation

By

class is

of the

XV. PERIPHRASTIC AND COMPOUND CONJUGATION.

1070]

The Periphrastic

Perfect.

unknown

1070. This (though almost

392

in the Veda, and

coming only gradually into use in the Brahmanas) is a

tense widely made and frequently used in the classical
Sanskrit.

made by prefixing the accusative of a derivanoun-stem in %T S (accented) to the perfect tense of an

a. It is

tive

as

yJBTFT

namely, of

verb:

auxiliary

ysfj

and very rarely of

be,

ky make,

more often

of

i/H bhtl be.

b. In the older language (see below, 1073d), ky is almost the only

auxiliary used in making this tense, as occurring very few times, and bhu

bhu is quite rare (it is found nine times in MBh.,

and a few times elsewhere), but as gains very greatly
in currency, having become the usual auxiliary, while k? is only exceptional.

never.

Later, also,

six times in Rgh.,

c.

Somewhat
unknown

similar formations

purayam

(MBh.),

The

1071.

a. It is

tions:

(etc.)

in

vyadhus

yet other auxiliaries

(Viracaritra),

not

mj-gayam avasit

(ib.).

the /'accented )perfect of the derivative conjuga-

TT

desiderative, causative,

a being

intensive 5u<s(MIH

and denominative;

made from the present-stem which

the general basis of each conjugation

causative

are

varayam pracakramus

thus,

periphrastic perfect occurs as follows:

intensive,

noun

the

with

in the later language

absolutely

bobudham,

snWPnbodhayam

thus, from

desiderative
;

is

yWJ budh,

jgHrHIH bubhutsam,

denominative

H^UIH^mantray-

5m.
b.

The formation from

causative stems (including those denominatives

which have assumed the aspect of causative s

1056) is by far the most
frequent Only a few desideratives are quotable (1034 a), and of inten:

sives only

o.

jagaram asa (1020 a;

Most

beside jajagara).

roots beginning with a vowel in a

heavy

syl-

by nature or long by position) make this perfect

only, and not the simple one thus, STRTTO asam from y^TCT

lable (long

as

sit,

V33T

^TPT Iksam from y^f Iks

tijh

forsake; ^UPT

only examples quotable).

see; 3s*hlH

edh&m from

ujjham from

j/^TJ^edh

thrive (the

PERIPHRASTIC PERFECT.

393

d. Excepted are the roots

ap and anch, and

[1073
those beginning with

before two consonants (and taking fin as reduplication:

788).

e. The roots (that is, stems reckoned by the grammarians as

roots) of
more than one syllable have their perfect of this formation: thus, cakasam.
But urnu (713) is said to form urnonava only; while jag? (1020)
makes a perfect of either formation, and daridra (1024 a) is said to do

the same.
f.

few other

roots

cfiyfim, tfiyam,

make

the periphrastic in addition

to

the

usual

Thus, in the older language only are found the stems

reduplicated perfect.

dwell}, vidam (>/vid know),

bibhayam and juhavam; the later
dayam, nayam, smayam, hvayam, and

nilaySm, vasarn (yVaa

vyayam, and

the reduplicated stems

language adds

ayam, jayfim,
bibharam; and

the reduplicated

the grammarians teach like formations

from us, kas, and the reduplicating hri. The stem is made in every case
from the present-stem, with guna of a final vowel.

1072.

The

periphrastic perfect of the middle voice is

made with the middle

inflection

use. the auxiliaries CRT as

s

to take a
a.

One

of y%\

and H bhu are

ex

kr>.

For passive

said to be allowed

middle inflection.
or two late examples of

bhu with

middle inflection have been

pointed out, but none of as.

b. It is unnecessary to give a paradigm of this formation, as
the inflection of the auxiliaries is the same as in their independent

use

for that of >/kr, see

c.

The connection

800 k;

of.

of j/bhu, see

800 d;

of j/as, see

800m.

the noun and auxiliary is not so close that other

mimanayam
prabhraf^ayam yo naghusam ca-

words are not occasionally allowed to come between them: thus,

sam eva cakre (B.)

he

merely speculated;

cakara (JB.) he verily knew this,kara who made Nayhusha fall headlong

vidarh va idaxn

(Rgh.).

1073. The above is an account of the periphrastic formation

with a derivative noun in am as it appears especially in the later
language; earlier, its aspect is rather that of a more general, but
quite infrequent, combination of such a noun with various forms of
the root kr.

Thus

Of the periphrastic perfect occurs only a single example in the

whole body of Yedic texts (metrical): namely, gamayam cakara (AY.).
In the Brahmanas examples from causative stems begin to appear more
B. (which has them
freely, but are everywhere few in number, except in
a.

From
from twenty-four roots, and a few of these in several occurrences).
desiderative stems they are yet rarer (only seven occurrences, five of them
The periin
B.
see 1034 a); and from intensives they are unknown.
in $B.,
phrastic perfects of primary conjugation were noted above (107 If:
:

XV. PERIPHRASTIC AND COMPOUND CONJUGATION.

1073]

eight stems and about eighty occurrences, chiefly from Iks, bhi,

vid

394

and vid;

found in the greatest number of texts).

b. Forms with the aorist of the auxiliary are in the oldest Brahmanas

that from

as

numerous

is

as those

with the perfect.

Thus, with

akar

occur

ramayam

eadayam and svadayam and sthapayam (MS.);

and with akran, vidam (T8. TB. MS.). With the aorist optative or
precative has been found only pavayam kriyat (MS.).
and

(K.),

janayam

thus,

juhavam karoti ($.).

0.

Like combinations with other tenses are not entirely unknown:

So also in the later language, where have

been found quotable half-a-dozen such cases

vidam karotu and kurvantu (Pane. etc.).

as

vidam karoti

d. Only two or three cases of the use of as instead of

kr

(Pane.),

as auxil-

met with in the older language they are mantrayam aaa (AB.
GB.), janayam asa (vU.), and iksam asa (8.).
e. A single example of an accented auxiliary is met with in the accentuated texts namely, atireoayam cakrus (B.). As was to te expected,
iary are

from the nature of the combination, the noun also retains

its

accent (com-

pare 945).

Participial Periphrastic Phrases.

The frequent

1074.

use, especially in the later language,

of a past or a future passive participle with the copula (or

without

also

it)

to

make

participial phrases

analogous to that of verb-tenses,

(999).

But other

similar

having a value

has heen already noticed

combinations are not

in any period of the language,

as

made with

unknown

other auxil-

iaries, or with other participles.

a.

They occur

even in the Veda, but are far more common and

and become again of minor account in the

conspicuous in the Brahmanas,

later language.

1075. Examples of the various formations are as follows:

a.

This

is

rence.

(usually present) participle with the tenses of the verb i go.

the combination, on the whole, of widest and most frequent occurThus ayajvano vibhajann eti vedah (RV.) he ever gives away
:

yatha sucya vaaah samdadhad iyad

evil 'tabhir yajnasya chidram samdadhad eti (AB.) just as
one would mend [habitually] a garment with a needle, so with these one
mends any defect of the sacrifice; agnir va idaxh vai^vanaro dahann
ait (PB.) Agni Vaicvanara kept burning this creation; te 'surah parawealth of the non-offerer;

the

evam

jita

yanto dyavaprthivi upaxjrayan (TB.)

took refuge with heaven

mana lyuh

(^-B.) the

those

Asuras, getting beaten,

and earth; te 'sya grhah paqava upamuryaanimals, his family, would be continually destroyed.

PAKTICIPIAL PHRASES.

395

[1076

b. The same with the verb oar go (continually or habitually), signifying

more distinctly than the preceding a continued or habitual action. Thns

agnav agnfy carati pravi^tah (AV.) Agni is constantly present in the
still

fire

adandyaih dandena ghnanta? caranti

of beating with a rod what

C.

is

The same with the verbs as

sit

and sthfi stand, with a like mean-

Thus, juhvata asate (K.) they continue sacrificing; te

ing.

prativavadato

'tis^han

In the

refusing.

later

(AB.)

they,

make

gone

having

stha

language,

predicates of various kind, to

is

the

verb

'pakramya

kept

off,

vehemently

oftenest used,

with

a verbal phrase of continuance.

present or future or perfect participle with as and bhu be.

as only is used in the optative,
usually in other forms. Thus : yah purvaxn anijanah syfit (AB.)
d.

The

(PB.) they make a practice

undeserving of punishment.

participle is oftenest a future one;

bhu

not have made sacrifice before; samavad eva yajfie kur(GB.) they did the same thing at the sacrifice; parikridanta
(MS.) they were playing about; yatra suptva punar nil Vadrabhavati (B.) when, after sleeping, he is not going to fall asleep

whoever

may

vana asan
asan

syan
again;

havyam

the sacrifice;

hi vaksyan bhavati (AB.)

dasyant syat

(K.)

may

for he

be going to

intending to carry

is

yena vahanena

give;

syantsyant syat (QB.) with what vehicle he may be about to drive. True
expressions for perfect and pluperfect and future perfect time are capable
of being

made by such means, and now and then

made, but in no

are

regular and continued fashion.

Composition with Prepositional Prefixes.

1076. All the forms, personal and other, of verbal con-

of both

jugation

and even

primary

and secondary conjugation,

some extent of denominative

to

(so

far

as

the

denominative stems have become assimilated in value to

occur very frequently in combination with

simple roots)
certain
(see the

words of

direction, elements of

an adverbial character

next chapter), the so-called prepositions (according

to the original use of that term), or the verbal prefixes.

a. Practically,

in the later language,

were formed, out of root and

it

is

as if a

compounded

root

from which then the whole conjugation

chap. XVII.) is made, just as from the simple
prefix*,

derivatives
below,
Yet, even there (and still more in the older language 1081 a c), the
combination is so loose, and the members retain so much of their independent

(with

root.

Monier Williams is an exception)

the conjugation of each root with prefixes is treated under the simple root,
and not in the alphabetic order of the prefix. Derivative words, however,
value, that in most dictionaries (that of Sir

PERIPHEASTIC AND COMPOUND CONJUQATION.

1076] XV.
are

396

by universal agreement given in their independent alphabetic place,

like

simple words.

1077. Those verbal prefixes which have value as such

throughout the whole history of the language are given

below, in alphabetic order, with their fundamental meanings
:

ati across,

beyond, past, over, to excess;

adhi above, over.' on. on to;

,

5RT anu

after, along,

toward;

f antar between, among, within;

apa away, forth,

off;

api unto, close upon or on;

abhi

m
5TT

to,,

unto, against (often

,

with implied violence)

ava down, off;

5

unto, at;

to,

lid up,

up forth or out;

33

lipa

unto,

ft ni

to,

down;
out,

pars

to

in,

toward;
into;

forth;

a distance, away, forth;

pari round about, around]

pra forward, onward, forth, fore;

prati in reversed direction, back

to

or

against,

against, in return;

fe vi apart, asunder, away, out;

along, with, together.
a.

the

of these, of course, are used much more widely and frequently

In order of frequency in the older language (as estimated by
of roots with which they are found used in RV. and AV.), they

Some

than others.

number

stand as follows

ava, nis,

pra, a, vi, sam, abhi, ni, ud, pari, anu, upa, prati,
apa, para, adhi, api, antar. Api is of very limited
in the later language, having become a conjunction, too, also.
:

ati,

use as prefix

b. The meanings given above are only the leading ones. In combinations
of root and prefix they undergo

yet seldom in such a

way

amental sense are not easy to

much

modification, both literal

that the
trace.

steps

of transition

and

figurative

from the fund-

Sometimes, indeed, the value of a

VERBAL PREFIXES.

397

root is hardly perceptibly modified

[-1081

by the addition of the

An

prefix.

in-

tensive force is not infrequently given by pari, vi, andCjsaxp^

1078. Prefixes essentially akin with the above, but more disand of more restricted use, are these:

tinctly adverbial,

acha (or acha) to, unto.- tolerably frequent in RV. (used with
over twenty roots), but already unusual in AV. (only two roots),
quite restricted in B., and entirely lost in the later language;
avis forth to sight, in view : used only with the roots bhu, as,

and ky;
tiras through, crossways; out of sight: hardly used except with
bhu (in RV., with three or four others);

ky, dhS,

puras

forward: used with only half-a-dozen

in front,

roots,

especially kr, dha, i;

pradus forth
a.

and kr)

only with bhu, as, kr.

to view:

few others, as bahis

outside,

saksat

sufficiently, properly,

vina

without,

in view,

alam

are still less

bhu

(with

removed from

ordinary adverbs.

1079. Of yet more limited use, and of noun-rather than adverbvalue, are:

9rad (or 9rathP), only with dhS

Qraddha believe, credit;
hin, only with kr (and obsolete in
make

the sound,

a.

And

>""g

beside

low,

these

RV.,

(in

once also with kr):

hiflkr

the classical language):

murmur.
stand yet

more

fortuitous

combinations:

see

below, 1091.

1080.
root.
less

More than one

prefix

may be

set before the

same

Combinations of two are quite usual of three, much

common; of more than three, rare. Their order is in
;

general determined only hy the requirements of the meaning,

each added prefix bringing a further modification to the

combination before which

never allowed, either

it

is

earlier or

set.

later,

But
to

TT

is

almost

be put in front

of any of the others.

(as

a. The very rare cases of apparent preflxion of ft

Svihanti MBh., avitanvanfth BhP.) are perhaps

having the

ft

to

another prefix

best explained as

used independently, as an adverb.

1081. In classical Sanskrit, the prefix stands immediately

before the verbal form.
a.

the

In the earlier language, however (especially in the Veda; in

Brahman a

less often

and more

restrictedly),

its

position

is

quite

PERIPHRASTIC AND COMPOUND CONJUGATION.

1081] XV.

398

separated from the verb by another word or words,

after the form to which it belongs; it may also
stand alone, qualifying a verb that is understood, or conjointly with
another prefix one that is expressed.
free:

may be

it

and may even come

devan e *ha vaksyati (RV.) he shall bring the gods

pra na ayunsi tSrisat (AY.) may he lengthen out our lives; tav
a yatam up a dravat (BY.) do ye two come hither quickly; gamad
vajebhir a sa nah (RV.) may he come with gifts hither to us; pari
mam pari me prajam pari nah pahi yad dhanam (AY.) protect me,
my progeny, and what wealth we own ; yatah sadya a ca para ca yanti
(AY.) from whence every day they advance and retire; vy aham sarvena
b. Thus, sa

hither;

[avrtam] vi yaksmena aam ayu^ft (AY.) / have separated

from disease, [I have joined myself] with life; vi hy
enena pagyati (AB.) for by it he sees; vi va esa prajaya pa^ubhir
rdhyate (TB.) he is deprived of progeny and cattle.

papmana
all

from

c.

evil,

Three or four instances have been cited from the

of a prefix separated from, or following,

a verb

later language
perhaps the prefix in every

such case admits of being regarded as an adverb.

1082. As regards the accent of verb-forms compounded with

the case needs to be considered in which the prefix
stands (as always in the later language) immediately before the verb
otherwise, verb and prefix are treated as two independent words.
prefixes, only

1083. a.
personal verbal form, as has been seen above
(592), is ordinarily unaccented: before such a form, the prefix has
its own accent; or, if two or more precede the same form, the one
nearest the latter
b.

If,

is

so accented, and the others lose their accent.

however, the verb-form

is

accented, the prefix or prefixes

lose their accent.

c.

That

in

is,

every case,

the verb

along

with

its

normally

situated prefix or prefixes so far constitutes a unity that the whole

combination is allowed to take but a single accent.
d. Examples are: pare *hi nari punar e *hi ksipram (AY.) go
away, woman; come again quickly; atha 'starh viparetana (RV.) then

samacinusva 'nusamprayahi (AY.)

yad grhan upodafti (AY.) when
he goes up to the house; eva ca tvam sarama ajagantha (RV.) now
that you, Sarama, have thus come hither; yena "vig$itah praviv^itha
scatter

ye

away

to

your

home;

gather together, go forth together

'pah (RV.) enveloped

1084.

after;

in which thou didst enter the waters.

prefix,

however, not seldom has a more independent

value, as a general adverb of direction, or as a preposition (in the

usual modern sense of that term), belonging to and governing a noun;
in such case, it is not drawn in to form part of a verbal compound,

but has

its

and are not

own

accent.

divisible

The two kinds

by any

distinct

of use shade into one another,

and

fixed line.

VERBAL PREFIXES.

[1087

a. There is in RV. a considerable number of cases (some thirty) in

which the pada-text gives unnecessarily, and probably -wrongly, an independent accent to a prefix before an accented vBrb (or other prefix): refor

solving,

a-aruhat

aruhat into a aruhat, vyacet into vi acet,

abhf avarsit, vyasarat into vi a asarat (instead of

example,

abhyavar?it

into

etc.).

1085. In combination with the non-personal parts of the verbwith participles, infinitives, and gerunds
the general
system

member

rule is that the prefix loses its accent, in favor of the other

But the
namely, when combined
of the compound.

prefix instead has

sometimes the accent:

with the passive participle in ta or na: thus, pareta gone

antarhita concealed; avapanna fallen; sampurna complete

a.

forth;

1284).

(cf.

b. But some exceptions to this rule are met with

e. g., in RJV.,
nicita, nifkrta, prac.asta, nigatta, etc.; in AV., apakrita.
:

c.

with the

infinitive

in

tu (972),

hartum to collect; apidhatave to

The doubly accented dative in

throws the other back upon the prefix

ing;

apabhartavai for carrying

in all its cases:

thus,

saih-

cover up; avagantos of descending.

tavfti retains its final accent, but
:

thus,

anvetavai for follow-

off.

1086. The closeness of combination between the root and the

prefix is indicated not only by their unity of accent, but also by the
euphonic rules (e. g. 185, 192), which allow the mutual adaptations
of the two to be made to some extent as if they were parts of a
unitary word.
1087.

few special irregularities

call for notice:

api, adhi, and ava, in connection with

certain roots and their derivatives, sometimes lose the initial vowel
namely,
api with nah and dha, adhi with stha, ava with gfth etc.: e. g.
a. In the

later

language,

pinaddha, pihita, dhisthita, vagahya, vatansa, vadanya, vas^abhya,

vamajjana, veksana, valepana. In the Veda, on the other hand, is
is

in a few cases found instead (apparently) of nis with j/kr.

b. The final vowel of a prefix, especially an i, is (oftenest in the

older language) sometimes lengthened, especially in derivative words: e. g.

pratikara, nlvrt, parihara, virudh, adhivasa, api vrta, abhivarta ;

anurudh ; avayatl, pravrs, upavasu. In the Veda, the initial of anu
is sometimes lengthened after negative an: e. g. ananuda, ananukr-tya.
c. In combination with yi yo, the. prefixes para, pari, and pra
sometimes change their r to 1. In this way is formed a kind of derivative
stem palay flee, inflected according to the a-class, in middle voice, which
is

not

uncommon from

sciousness of

its

the Brahmanas down,

apalayi$$has (SSS.),

and has

so

lost

the

con-

sometimes takes the augment prefixed: thus,

apalftyata (R.), apalayanta (MBh.); it makes

origin that

it

1087] XV.

PERIPHRASTIC AND COMPOUND CONJUGATION.

400

The stem palyay,

similarly

the periphrastic perfect

palayam cakre.
two texts

and play has

been found nowhere except in MS. Also the imperfect nilayata (TS. TB.
not separated in the pada-text) and perfect nilayam cakre (QB.) are
in one

inflected, occurs only

or

(B.

JB. JUB.)

doubtless a corresponding formation from yi with nis, though nearly akin

form and meaning with forms from yli-f-ni. So also pari becomes
pali in the combination palyang (B. $S.), whether viewed as a denomin

inative formation
(iii.

10.

d.

or as

And MS.

]/ang -fpari.

has once

plaksarayan

in an etymology).

The

root

kr make

sometimes assumes (or

retains

from a more

and upa:

original condition) an initial a after the prefixes earn, pari, nis,

samskurute, samaskurvan, samskrta, etc.;

And j/kr
pariskrta, etc.; nir askrta; upaskrta.
thus,

pari^krnvanti,
scatter is said by

the grammarians to add s in the same manner, under certain circumstances,

after

apa and prati

apaskiramana, praticaskare, both

(only

late,

are quotable).
e. The passive participle of the roots
the abbreviated form tta after a prefix
is

lengthened (compare

955 f,

and the

give

the augment

root

and da cut has often

of which

and the derivative in

In a few sporadic cases,

f.

instead of between

da

is

the final vowel, if

ti,

below,

1,

1157c).

taken before a prefix,

avasatkarsit (GB.)

udaprapatat (AB.); anvasamcarat, pratyasamharat, pratyavyuhat, anvaviksetam, apraisit, asambhramat (MBh.); abhyanimantrayat
(Har.); vyavasthapi (SDS.); compare also the forms from palay, above,
And AB. has once niniyoja (for niyuyoja, as read in the correspondc.
ing passage of Q^S.). Some of the apparent roots of the language have
it

thus,

been suspected of being results of a similar unification of root and prefix

e. g. ap from a-f-ap, vyac from vi-j-ac, tyaj from ati
aj.

g.

ud

The

loss

of

stha and stambh

the initial s of

has been noticed above

Also

(233 c).

(137 a,

after the

prefix

c), certain peculiarities

of combination of a prefix with the initial vowel of a root.

1088. As to the more general adverbial uses of the prefixes,

and their prepositional uses, see the next chapter.
1089. As to the combination of the particles a or an privative, dus
As to the addition of
ill, and su well, with verb-forms, see 1121b,g,i.
the comparative and superlative suffixes

above,

taram and tam&m

to verbs,

see

473 c.

Other Verbal Compounds.

1090.

It has been seen above that some of the prepositional

are employed in combination with only very small classes
of roots, namely those whose meaning makes them best fitted for

prefixes

auxiliary and periphrastic uses

dha put, i go
and that the

such as kr make,
first

bhu and

as

be,

of these are widely used in com-

VERBAL COMPOUNDS.

401

bination with a derivative in

am

make a

to

[1093

periphrastic conjugation.

Such roots have also been, from the earliest period of the language,
but with increasing frequency, used in somewhat analogous combinations with other elements, substantive and adjective as well as
adverbial; and this has become, in part, developed finally into a
regular and indefinitely extensible method of increasing the resources
of verbal expression.

1091.

ing in

The

a.

onoinatopoetic

roots

of (mostly) reduplicative
the prefixed element endthus, in RV., akkhallkftya croak-

ky and bhu,

or I (generally the former):

janjanabhavant

ing,

kj*nu tear; in AV.,

masa (also TS. MS.
;

number

older language has a

compounds with

alalabhavant making merry, kikira

flimmering,

masmasa 'karam

manmalabhavant, kikkitakara
bhara *bhavat; in AB., bababakurvant. The
;

mas-

I have crushed; in VS.,

in TS., malmalabhavant
in MS.,
bibibabhavant,

mysmysa) kuru;

in K.,

bhar-

accentuation, where snown,

of a verb-form with accompanying prefix.

is like that

b. Further, combinations with yky of utterances used at the sacriand mostly ending in a: thus, svaha, avadha, svaga; also vasat.
In these, too, the accentuation is generally that of a verb with prefix e. g.
svagakaroti (B. ; but avadha karoti [?] TA.), vasa^kuryat (MS.);
fice,

and, with another prefix,

An

c.

anuvasatkaroti

nations, put in corresponding

on a

spit

(<}ula);

bhavayant (AA.)
1092.

a.

form:

thus,

anrnakartos (AB.) of

namas

obeisance,

still

more purely

and karnagfhya

above,

990 b).

shown by the accusative ashome; which, appearing only in ordinary phrases in RV M is in AV.
b.

tam

homage, in a

in the Veda, only with the ger-

namaskf tya (beside hastagfhya

qula kuryat (QB.) may roast

getting clear of debt; aikya-

uniting.

The noun

noun-value, becomes combined with yfcp

und, in

($B.).

instance or two also occur of ordinary words in such combi-

solitary

combination with yi go

compounded with the

in

participles

is

astamyant, astamesyant, asta-

xnita (with accent like that of ordinary compounds with a prefix)

Brahmanas and the

in the
thus,

later

language

is

treated

quite like

and

a prefix:

astameti (B.).
C. Other ordinary accusative forms of adjectives

verbal derivatives of

kr and bhu

language: thus, qytaihkftya and

pamanambhavuka

etc.

in combination

are found here and there in

with

the older

nagnaihkftya (TS.); nagnambhavuka,

anaru^karoti (?B.).

(TS. et al.)j

1093. In the early but not in the earliest language, a nounstem thus compounded with ky or bhu (and very rarely with as),
in verbal nouns and ordinary derivatives, and then also in verbal
forms, begins to assume a constant ending I (of doubtful origin).
a. There is

(above,

109 la)

Whitney,

no instance of this in RV., unless the 1 of akkhallkftya

In AV., besides the obscure
is to be so explained.

Grammar.

2. ed.

26

1093

XV. PERIPHRASTIC AND COMPOUND CONJUGATION.

402

vatikpta and vatikara, is found only phalikarana. In the Brahmana

language, examples begin to occur more often thus, in TS., (jyeti, mithB., besides
uni, mus^i; in T.B., further, phali, kruri, udvasi; in
:

some of these, also ekl, kalvali, tivri, daridrl, brahmani, mithuni,

svi; and aQvabhidhani, of which (as of mus^I) the I might be that of
an ordinary grammatical form; in K., dvl; in GB., pravani; in SB.,
vajri; in AB., matl (from maty a). From Upanishad and Sutra are to
be added dvfiiti (MU.), saml (KgS.), navi and kusali (AGS.). The
accent is in general

that

like

of the

combinations treated above

similar

(1091): e. g. krurikurvanti, svlkrtya, brahmanibhuya, mithunlbhavantyau, phalikartavai, krurikrta; but sometimes a mere collocation
takes place: thus, mithuni bhavantis (TS.), phali kriyamananam
The I is variously treated: now as an un(TB.), vajri bhutva (TA.).

akuruta and mithuni abhavan (TS.);

as in mithuny enaya syam,
mithuny abhih syam, and svyakurvata (B.).

combinable

now

as

final,

in qyeti

as liable to the ordinary conversions,

b. Out of such beginnings has grown in the later language the follow-

ing rule:

1094.

Any noun

or adjective stem

be com-

is liable to

pounded with verbal forms or derivatives of the roots y5fi

ky and ^bhu (and of STCT^as also but such cases are exIf the
tremely rare), in the manner of a verbal prefix.
;

final of the
if

stem be an a- or i-vowel,

an u- vowel,
a.

it is

Examples are

becoming of one mind

,-

to

changed

torn to pieces with blows

harajarjarOqpta

becomes a pout ;

thou makest

upaharikarosi

changed

to

\3T-1i

stambhibhavati

it is

of

the

an

ekacittibhuya

offering

claws

nakhapra-

qithillbhavanti

loose; kundallkrta ring-shaped; surabhikyta made fragrant;

adhikarana pawning; rjukftya straightening; hetukarana taking as
cause.
As in the case of the denominatives (1059c), the combinations

become

with a-stems are the immense majority, and occnr abundantly (hardly less
than a thousand are quotable) in the later language, but for the most
those made with i- and u-stems are a very
part only once or twice each
small number.
In a few instances, stems in an and as, with those
;

finals

kr,

changed to

I,

amani-bhu;

are
final

met with:

ya

after

kansi-ky ; and anomalous cases

to become n, but no examples

e.

like

are

g.

atmi-kr, yuvi-bhu;

consonant

is

contracted

iiTiTna.nito I:

e.

g.

kamdi<ji-bhu occur. Final r is said

The combinations with kr
quotable.

are about twice as frequent as those with

bhu, and examples with as do

not appear to have been brought to light.

b. Similar combinations are occasionally made with elements of questionable or altogether obscure character:
C.

Examples

are not altogether

e.

g.

urari-kr*, uri-kr-.

wanting in the

later language of

&

as

NOUN- AND ADJECTIVE-COMPOUNDS.

403
final of the

compounded nonn-stem

kf, 9amba-kp, and one or two

(cf.

1091):

thus,

[1098

duhkha-kr, niskula-

others.

1095. Of all the forms which constitute or are attached to the

verbal system, the passive participle is the one most closely assimilated in its treatment as a combinable element to an ordinary adjective.
Next to it come the gerund and the gerundives. Combinations of the
kind above treated of are quite common with passive participles and
gerunds.

CHAPTER

XVI.

INDECLINABLES.
1096.

THE

indeclinable words are less distinctly divi-

ded into separate parts of speech in Sanskrit than

elsewhere in Indo-European language
to the fact that the class of prepositions

existence, but

which are

They

is

represented

is

especially

usual

owing

hardly has a real

by certain adverbial words

used prepositionally.
however, be briefly described here under the

to a greater or less extent

will,

usual heads.
Adverbs.

1097.

Adverbs by

Suffix.

Classes of adverbs, some-

times of considerable extent, are formed by the addition

of adverb-making suffixes especially to pronominal roots or
stems, but also to
a. There is

no

noun and
ultimate

case-endings in declension; and

used in the manner of cases.

adjective stems.

difference
.the

between such suffixes and the

adverbs of this division sometimes are

1098. With the suffix, tas, are made adverbs having an ablative
and not rarely also an""ablative construction. Such are made:

sense,

a. From pronominal roots, in atas, itae,ytata8t yfttas, kutas,

amutas, svatas (not found earlier); from the pronominal stems in t or
'

26*

1098

XVI. INDECLINABLES.

404

d (494)

of the personal pronouns: thus, mattas (only example in V.),

tvattas, asmattas, yusmattas; and from pronominal derivatives: thus,

itaratas, kataratas.

From noun and

b.

period, but

more freely

adjective stems
later

e.

g.

of every class, since the

earliest

mukhatas, agratas, rbhutas, rktas,

Qirsatas, janmatas, nastas, yajustas, paratas, anyatas,

anyataratas, sarvatas, daksinatas, abhipatas (once, in RV., from &

hrttas,

case-form: patsutas).
c.

From

a few prepositions: thus,

abhftas, parftas, antitas.

ato bhuyah (RV.) more

tatah saffhat (AV.) from that sixth,- ato 'nyena (B.) with
any other than this; sarvato bhayat (AGS.) from all fear; kuta<j cid
deqad agatya (H.) arriving from some region or other; purad itah (R.)
d. Examples of ablative construction are:

than

from

that,-

this city;

e.

tasmat pretakayatah (KSS.) from

But the

distinctive

ablative

meaning

and the adverb has a more general,

agratas

in

front;

accordance with duty;

'dhikah (M.)

is

especially

asmatsamipatas

in

chagatas (H.) with

dead body.

that

not infrequently
a locative,

effaced,

value:

thus,

dharmatas in
the goat; gunato

our presence;
reference to

superior in virtue.

1099. With the suffix/ tra/fan the older language often trS) are
made adverbs haying a locjbffe sense, and occasionally also a locative construction.
a. These

adverbs are very few, compared with those in tas. They

and from other stems having a

are formed chiefly from pronominal stems,

namely, in tra, atra, tatra, yatra, kutra,

axnutra, anyatra, vi^vatra, sarvatra, ubhayatra, aparatra, uttaratra, itaratra, anyataratra, purvatra, patatra, samanatra, ekatra,

quasi-pronominal character:

anekatra, ekaikatra; in tra, asmatra, satra, purutra, bahutra,

daksinatra. But a few in trft come from ordinary nouns thus, deva:

tra,

martyatra, purusatra, manusyatra, pakatra, Qayutra, kuru-

paiicalatra.

Those in tra are distinguished from

the others

by their

accent.

b. Examples of locative construction are hasta a daksinatra (RV.)

right hand; yatra 'dhi (RV.) in which; ekatra purufe (MBh.)
:

in the

in a single man ; atra maratmake (H.) in this murderous

bhutvaxh tatra yujyate (H.) sovereignty befits him. And,

as the locative

case is used also to

the adverbs in

express the goal

tra have sometimes an accusative

gaccha

go there or thither ;

of motion

(304),

so

creature

as well as a locative value: thus,

patho devatra yanan (RV.)

pra-

tatra

roads that go to

the gods.

1100. One or two other suffixes of locality are:

a.

ha, in iha

here,

kuha

where ? and the Vedic

vi9vaha

vaha, vi^vaha) always (compare below, 1104b); and iha

(like

(also vi<;-

atra

etc.:

ADVERBS BY DERIVATION.

405
1099 b)
(H.) at

sometimes used with locative-case value:

is
this

[1102
e.

g.

iha

samaye

conjuncture.

b. tat, which is added to words having already a local or directive

thus, to adverbial accusatives, praktat, udaktftt, tavattat; to

value:

adverbial ablatives, arattat, uttarattat,

parakattat ; and

to prepositional

paQcatat, adhastat, avastat, parastat, purastat, bahif^at.

Apparently by analogy with these last, the suffix has the form stat in
upari$tat (and BhP. has udast&t).
adverbs,

c. hi, in

1101.

uttarahi (B.) and daksinahi

By

the suffix tha are

(not quotable).

made adverbs of manner,

especially

from pronominal roots or stems.

tatha, yatha; katha and ittha (by the side of which stand
and ittham; and
B. has itthat); and the rare imatha and

a. Thus,

katham

amutha. And atha

(V. often atha) so then doubtless belongs with them.

Further, from a few adjective and noun stems, mostly of quasi-pronominal
thus, vigvatha, sarvatha, anyatha, ubhayatha, aparathft,
itaratha, yataratha, yatamatha, kataratha, katamatha, purvatha,

character

pratnatha, urdhvatha, tiraqcatha, ekatha

(once, AV.); and evatha.

ytutha,

namatha

Yatha

b.
of

(JB.),

iva

becomes usually toneless in V., when used in the sense

a noun forming the subject of comparison: thus, tftyavo

after

yathS (RV.)
11

like thieves.

02^ One or two other

suffixes of

manner are:

very commonly used, from the earliest period,

especially as particle of quotation, following the words quoted.
a. ti, in fti thus,

brahmajaye 'yam iti ced avocan (RY.) if they

a Brahman's wife" ; tarn deva abruvan vratya kim
(AV.) the gods said to him: Vratya, why do you stand?"

b. Examples are
have said "this

nu ti^asi

is

'ti

used more pregnantly:

(AY.) whoever has faith that

Often, the iti is

deva

ti

munir musiko 'yam

being

a mouse;

really

what reason) do you

c.

But

iti is

iti

pa^yati (H.)

yuyam

TH

iti

thus,
the

yah Qraddadhati eanti

tarn vyaghram

gods exist}

the sage looks upon

sidatha (H.) why

that tiger as
(lit.

alleging

sit?

sometimes used in a

less specialized

way, to mark an

onomatopoeia, or to indicate a gesture e. g. bahif $e astu bal ti (AV.)

let it come out of you with a splash; ity agre kr^aty athe 'ti (^B.) he
ploughs first this way, then this way; or it points forward to something to
:

be said:

mad

e.

g.

yan nv

byhaty ucyata

ity
iti

ahur anyani chandansi

(PB.)

when now

they say

varfiyaitai kasthus:

"the

other

why is the bfhati spoken?" It also makes a number

and compounds e. g. ititha the so-many-eth ; itivat in this

metres are greater;

of derivatives

fashion;
forsooth

ityartham
it
As
was).

an accusative, see

itihasa a story or legend (lit. thus

use of a nominative with iti as predicate to

for this purpose;

to the

268 b.

XVI. INDECLINABLES.

1102]

d. With the suffix of

The word

ti is to

406

be compared that of tati

etc.

(519).

abbreviated to ti two or three times in QB.

is

like, cw, and eva (in V. often eva), earlier

emphasizing the preceding word; for thus is used
later the related evam, which hardly occurs in RV., and in AV. only with

e/vkxin iva

j/vid:

as,

f.

(toneless)

a particle

later

thus,

evam vidvan

In later Vedic

thus.

knowing

(AV.

etc.,

and the

often counts for only a single syllable,

1103.

a.

By

the suffix

of

later parts

RV.) iva more

Va.

da are made adverbs of

time, but almost

only from pronominal roots.

b. Thus, tada, yada, kada (in RV. also kada), ida (only in V.);
and sada, beside which is found earlier sadam. Besides these, in the
older language, only sarvada; later a few others, anyada, ekada, nit-

yada.

quasi-locative

kadacid divase
c.

By

the

(R.)

case use is

on a

perhaps

seen occasionally

in snch phrases as

certain day.

related

danim

made idamm, tadanim,

are

vi<jvadanim, tvadanim (toneless). ViQvadani occurs as adjective in TB.

d. With rhi are made, from pronominal roots, tarhi, etarhi, yarhi,
karhi, amurlii.
e. The suffix di, found only in yadi if, is perhaps related with da,
in form as in meaning.
Sadadi (MS.) is of doubtful character.

1104.

By

the suffix

dha

are formed

adverbs especially from

numerals, signifying -fold, times, ways, etc.

a.

Thus,

ekadha, dvidha

(also

(in the older language usually tredha),

dhfi),

dvidha and dvedha), tridha

saddha (also sodha and sad-

dvfida^adha, ekaxmavifi^atidlia, sahasradha, and

so on.

naturally, from words having a quasi-numeral character: thus,

Also,

anekadha,

katidht, tatidha,
bahudha, purudha, vi^vadha, 9a9vadha,
aparimitadha, yavaddha, etavaddha, masadha. In a very few cases,
also from general noun and adjective stems: thus, mitradha (AV.),
priyadha (TS'. ; predha, MS.), yjudha (TB.), urudhS and citradhft
(BhP.) and from one adverb, bahirdha.
;

b. The particle adha or adha, a Vedic equivalent of atha, probably

belongs here (purudha and vi<jvadha, with shortened final, occur a few
times in RV.); also addha in truth; and perhaps
an equivalent sadha- in several Vedic compounds.
in

ha

(11

00 a) may

1105. From

be of like

saha

And

with,

which has

the other adverbs

origin.

few numerals are made multiplicative adverbs with 8 :

namely, dvfa, trie, and catur (probably,

for

caturs):

489 a.

The corresponding word for once, sakrt, is a compound rather

than a derivative; and the same character belongs still more evidently to
paficakftvas, navakrtvas, aparimitakftvas, etc., though krt and
krtvas are regarded by the native grammarians as suffixes; the earlier
a.

ADVERBS BY DERIVATION.

407

[1109

(AY. $B. MS.) have sapta krtvas, da^a krtvas, dvida^a kftvas,
as$av eva krtvas, etc. AB. has the redundant combination trif krtvah.
b. The quasi-sufflx dyus, from a case-form of div day, is in a
similar manner added to various determining -words, generally made to end
texts

e:

in

e. g. anyedyus another day, ubhayedyus (AV.

purvedyus the day before.

day,

1106.

-yadyiie) on

either

the suffix 93,8 are made, especially from numeral or

many adverbs of quantity or measure or manner,

By

quantitative stems,

generally used distributive!}-.

a.

season

are
eka9&8 one
paccbas foot by
crowds, Btamba9as

Examples

by

gana9&8 in
tavacehas in

manmagas

qata^as by hundred*, ftu9&8

aksara9as syllable by syllable,
bunches, paru^gas Limb by limb,

by one,
foot,

by
such and such number or quantity:

sarva9aa

way,

season,

mukbya9as

wholly,

and,

principally,

more general

in a

krchragas

stingily,

as minded.

1107. By the suffix vat are made with great freedom, in every
period of the language, adverbs signifying after the manner of, like, etc.

angirasvat like Angiras, manuBvat (RY.)

after the manner ofJamadagni; purvavat

a. Thus,

jamadagnivat
or

as of old,

puranavat,

and

kakatallyavat

after the

as

Manu

did,

pratnavat

or

fashion of the crow

the palm-fruit.

b.

This

Yeda makes

vant

the

is really

shift of accent: below,

certain adjective

like thee,

adverbially

1111 g)

mavant

of

used accusative (with adverbial

vant ( 1 233 f), which in the

of the suffix

compounds of a similar meaning: thus, tva-

my

sort,

etc.

sat are made from nouns quasi-adverbs signifying in or into the condition or the possession of what is indicated by the
noun; they are used only with verbs of being, of becoming, and of making:
namely, oftenest kr and bhu, but also as, gam, ya, and ni (and, accord-

1108. By the

ing

suffix

the grammarians, sam-pad). Some twenty-five examples are quofrom the later literature; out none from the earlier, which also

to

table

appears to contain nothing that casts light upon the origin of the formation.
The connection with the
of sat is not liable to conversion into f .

The 8
verb

is

not so close as to require

that in tvft

the use of the gerund in

(990) ; and other words

ya

are sometimes interposed

instead of

between the

adverb and verb.

a.

Examples

are:

sarvakarmani bbasmasat kurute

(MBh.)

loko 'yam dasyusad bhaved (MBh.) this world

would become a prey to barbarians ; yasya br abmanasat sarvam vittam
asit (MBh.) whose whole property was given to Brahmans; niyatam bhasmasad yati (Har.) it is inevitably reduced to ashes; agnin atmasat
reduces att deeds to ashes;

krtva

(Y.) having taken the

1 1

09.

fires

to one's self.

a. Suffixes, not of noun-derivation

traced with more

or less plausibility in

or of inflection,

a few other adverbs.

may be

Thus,

for

XVI. INDECLINABLES.

1109]

example, in pratar early, and sanutar away ; in

408
daksimt

with right hand,

and oikitvit with consideration ; in nunam now, and nananam variously.

Bat the cases are in the main too rare and doubtful to be worth notice here.
b. In the epics begin to be found a small class (about a dozen are
quotable) of adverbs having the form of a repeated noun-stem with its first
occurrence ending in a and its second in i: e. g. hastahasti hand to
hand, ratharathi chariot against chariot,

karnakarni

ear to ear.

The adverbs thus

c.

far described are almost never used preThose of the next division, however, are in many in-

positionally.

stances so used.

Case-forms used

1110.

Adverbs.

as

A large num-

ber of adverbs are more or less evidently cases in form,

made from stems which are not otherwise in use. Also

many cases of known stems, pronominal or noun or adjectused with an adverbial value, being distinguished

ive, are

from proper cases by some difference of application, which

sometimes accompanied by an irregularity of form.

is

1111. The accusative is the case most frequently and widely

used adverbially. Thus:
a. Of pronominal stems: as, yad if, when, that, etc.; tad then etc.;
idam now, here; adas yonder; and so on. Of
icfty, whether, etc.;

km

are the (mostly Vedic) particles kad, kam and

old (common at every period), sxnad and sumad, im and
sun (by some regarded as still possessing pronoun-value), -kim. Compounds with fd are ced if, ned lest, ed, avid, kuvid ; with cid, kucid ;
with -kim, TiAVrm and m^lrrnr^ and akim.

like value,

kam(P),

apparently,

id,

b. Of noun-stems:
at will,

if

you please;

as,

nama

naktam

by

name; siikham happily; kamam

rahas secretly; osam quickly

by night;

(V.); and so on.

Of adjective

c.

dram

long

vigrabdham

purvam

unlimited numbers: as, satyam

nityam constantly ; bhuyas more,
prakatjam openly; and so on.

stems,

in

formerly ;

confidently;

truly;

again

The neuter

singular is the case commonly employed in this way;

used especially as made from great numbers of compound adjective stems, often from such as hardly occur, 01 are not at all found,
in adjective use. Certain of these adverbial compounds, having an indecli-

d.

and

it is so

nable as prior member, are made by the Hindu grammarians a special class
of compounds, called avyayibhava (1313).
e.

But the feminine singular

also

is

sometimes used, especially in

the so-called adverbial endings of comparison, taram and tamam, which

are attached to particles (cf. 1119), and even (473 c) to verb-forms:

CASE-FORMS AS ADVERBS.

409
e.

g.

[1112

nataram, kathamtaram, uccaistaram, 9anaistaram, jyokta-

mam.

In the oldest language (RV. and AV.), the neuter instead of the
feminine form of these suffixes is almost alone in use: see 1119.
f.

of obscure form or connection

Many adverbs

are

to

be explained

with probability as accusatives of obsolete noun or adjective stems

examples

tusnim in silence; sayam at evening; sakarn together, with (prep.);

aram or alam sufficient (in the later language used with j/kr in the manner
of a prefix: 1078 a); prayas usually; isat sometchat; amnas unexpectedly; bahis outside; mithu and mithas, muhu and muhus, jatu,
are

so on.
Madrik etc., and ninik (in KV.), are perhaps contracted
forms of adjectives having |/ac or anc as their final (407 ff.). The presence of other roots as final members is also probable for u$adhak, anu-

and

sak and ayusak, anusthu and susthu, yugapat, etc. Compare

am beside those in a, above, 1101 a, 1102e, 1103b.

also

the forms in

g. In (Vedic) dravat quickly is to be seen a change of accent for

the adverbial use (pple dravant running'),- and drahyat stoutly (RV.,
The comparative and superlative suffixes
once) may be another example.
(above, e) show a like change; and it is also to be recognized in the derivatives with

vat (1107).

1112. The instrumental

value: generally in the singular,

is also often used with adverbial

but sometimes also in the plural.

Thus:
a.

Of pronominal stems

Of noun-stems:

b.

vie ena

especially

aktubhis
c.

as,

as,

ena and ay a, kaya, ana, ama, amuya.

ksanena

instantly;

diva by day; dis^ya

acjesena completely;

fortunately ;

sahasa suddenly;

by night; and so on.

Of

adjectives, both neuter (not distinguishable from masculine)

and

akhilena wholly; pray ena mostly; daksinena to the south;

uttarena to the north; antarena within; cirena long;
Canals and
paracais afar
(janakais slowly ; uccais on high ; nicais below

feminine:

as,

tavislbhis mightily; and so

on.

d. More doubtful cases, mostly from the older language,

may be

in-

tira^cata, devata, bahuta, and sasvarta (all RV.),

dvita, taditna, irma,
homonymous instrumentals from nouns in ta
m^a, vrtha, saca, astha (P), mudha (not V.), adhuna (B. and later).
stanced as follows

e. Adverbially used instrumentals are (in the older language), oftener

than any other case, distinguished from normal instrumentals by differences
of form: thus, especially, by an irregular accent: as, ama and diva

perhaps guha; apaka, asaya, kuhayfi (?); naktaya,

svapnaya, samana; adatraya, rtaya, ubhaya, sumnaya (?); dakin
sina, madhya; nlca, praca, ucca, pagca, tira9ca; vasantS;
(given above);

a few u-stems,

amuya

by

(given above),

inserted before the ending, which is accented

a<;uya,

thus,

sadhuya, raghuya, dhr^nuya, anus-

XVI. INDECLINABLES.

1112]

410

and urviya (for urvya) and viqvya (properly

thuya, mithuya;
are
more
irregular.
slightly
vfqvaya)
1113. The dative has only very seldom an adverbial use.
with changed
Examples are aparaya for the future (RV.
ciraya long ; arthaya for the sake of; ahnaya presently.

a.

cent)

1114. The
Thus:

Of pronominal stems

a.

expectedly;

asmat

ablative

tat,

at,

yat

not

is

infrequently

used adverbially.

kasmat why ? akasmat

as,

normal forms,

(V.:

casually,

etc.).

as, &8at near; arat afar; balat

halat emuLously; saka<jat on the part of.

c. Oftenest, of adjective

saksat

pratyantat

(8.) to the end.

adverbially used ablatives

likewise

changed accent in the early language: thus, apakat from afar;

near by;

sanat from of

adharat

below.

old (but instr.

1115. The genitive

is

sana)

uttarat from

show a

amat from
the north;

almost never used adverbially.

a. In the older language occur

cirasya

kutu-

obviously;

In a few instances,

d.

forcibly;

as, durata/ar; meat below; pa<jcat

samantftt completely; acirat not long;

stems

plainly, actually?

pratyaksatamat (AB.) most

later,

un-

instead of the pronominal

b. Of noun-stems:

behind;

ac-

aktos by

night, and

vaetos

by day;

long.

1116. The locative

Thus:

is

sometimes used with adverbial value.

a. From noun and adjective stems: fike near; are and dure afar;
abbisvare behind; aetamike at home; rte without (prep.) agrem/ront;
sthane suitably; sapadi immediately ; -arthe and -krte (common in com;

position) for

the

sake of;

apari^u

in after

time;

ftdfiu

first;

rahasi

in secret.

1117. Even a nominative form appears

verbial

value

in (Vedic) kfs,

nakis and makis, negative

stems (as

interrogative

particles.

paran AB., nyan

And

to

be stereotyped into an ad-

particle,

and

its

compounds

masc. nominatives' from anc-

Apast.) are sometimes found used by sub-

stitution for neuters.

1118.

Verbal Prefixes and kindred words. The

verbal prefixes, described in the preceding chapter (1076

are properly adverbs, having a

special

office

ff.),

and mode of

use in connection with verbal roots and their more

imme-

diate derivatives.
a.

Their occasional looser connection with the verb has been

In the value of general adverbs, however,

noticed above (1084).

ADVERBIAL PREFIXES.

411

[1121

they only rarely occur (except as dpi has mainly changed its office
from prefix to adverb or conjunction in the later language) but their
prepositional uses are much more frequent and important see below,
;

1126b.
b. In composition with nouns, they (like other adverbial elements)
not infrequently have an adjective value: see below, 1281 ff., 1305.

1119. Several

473 4) form comtara and tama, or ra

adhara and adhama, apara and

of the prefixes (as noticed above,

parative and superlative adjectives, by the suffixes

and ma: thus, uttara and uttama,

apama, avara and avama, upara
doubtless of the same character; also,

and

upama,

and

antara and antama.

prathama is
And accusa-

most part not otherwise found in

use) have the value of comparatives, and rarely superlatives, to the prefixes
themselves: thus, sam^itam cit samtaram earn 9i9adhi(AV.) whatever
tives of such derivative adjectives (for the

is

quickened

stride out yet

do thou

vitaram vi kraxnasva (RV.)

pra tarn naya prataram vasyo acha. (RV.)
further toward advantage; lid enam uttaram naya

still

more widely

lead him forward still

(AV.) lead him up still

further quicken;

higher.

a. Besides those instanced, are found also

nitaram, apataram, abhitaram, avataram, parataram, parastaram. In the Erahmanas and

later (above, 11 lie), the feminine accusative is used instead: thus, atitaram and atitamam, abhitaram, anutamam, atamarcu pratitaram,
nitaram, uttaram, prataram and pratamam, vitaram, samtaram
(also

RV., once).

1120. Kindred in origin and character with the verbal preand used like them except in composition with verbs, are a
few other adverbs thus, avas down; adhas below (and adhastaram) ;
fixes,

paras far off (and parastaram)

pura

'before

antara (apparently,

antar-f-a) among, between; antiwar; upari above; and saha (already

mentioned, 1104b) along, with, and saca together, with, may be noticed
with them. Vina without, and visu- apart, appear to be related

with vf.

1121.

Inseparable Prefixes.

small

number of

adverbial prefixes are found only in combination with, other

Thus

elements.
a.

The negative

prefix

a or an

an

before vowels, a before

consonants.
b. It

is

combined especially with innumerable nouns and adjectives;

much more rarely, with adverbs, as akutra and apunar

(AV.), anadhas (TB.), akasmat, asakrt; in rare cases,

(RV.),

aneva

with pronouns (as atad, akimcit); and even, in the later language, now and then
with verbs, as asprhayanti (BhP. gig.) they do not desire, alokayati

Now and then it is prefixed

kamamara, anaviprayukta, anavadya(P).
(SD.) he does not view.

also

to itself:

e. g.

ana-

X^ X INDECLINABLES.

1121]

C. In

very few cases,

atura

the negative

adeva

asat non-existent,

thus,

412

a appears

arati enemy,

godless,

be made long:

to

a^auca

impurity,

ill(?).

d.

The independent negative adverbs, na and mS, are only in ex-

1122e.

ceptional instances used in composition: see below,

e.

The

f.

The

comitative prefix sa, used instead of the preposition earn,

and interchangeably with saha, before nouns and adjectives.

dus

prefix of dispraise

badly (identical with >/dus:

ill,

225 a).
g. It is combined in the

with a verbal form,

du9oaranti

at least

(R.) behave

same manner
a

single

as

or

an.

example appears

Of combinations
be quotable:

to

ill.

h. The corresponding laudatory prefix su well is in general so

closely accordant in its use with the preceding that it is best mentioned here, though it occurs not rarely as an independent particle
in the oldest language

BY., more than two hundred times in the

only fourteen times), and even occasionally

(in

peculiar parts of AV.,

later.

The particle su sometimes appears in B. and later before a verband considering its rapid loss of independent use in V., and the
analogy of a and dus (above, b, g) it is probably at least in part to be
i.

form,

The pada-text

regarded as in composition with the verb.

10 reads su-apayati, but its testimony

is

of

little

or

of

AV.

xix. 49.

no value. E. has

na su vijnayete

and na vai su viduh, and KeU. has su veda; TB.

susambodhayati(P); MBh. and BhP. have supatasthe; R. has su9akyante.
of the
j. The exclamatory and usually depreciative prefixed forms
has

interrogative

pronoun

(506)

are

most

analogous

with

the

inseparable

prefixes.

1122.

Miscellaneous Adverbs.

verbial character

and

the classes hitherto

a.

office,

treated,

Asseverative particles

Other words of ad-

not clearly referable to any of

may be mentioned

(in part,

as follows:

only in the older language):

khalu, tu (rare in older language), vai, vava

(in Brahman a language only), hi, hina, u, aha, ha, gha, samaha,
sma, bhala.

thus, anga, hanta, kila,

b. Of these,

hanta is a word of assent and incitement; hi has won

meaning, and accents the verb with which it stands in
connection (595 e) ; sma sometimes appears to give a past meaning to a

also

an

illative

(778 b); u is often combined with the final a of other paratho, no, mo, uto, upo, pro; but also with that of verbforms, as datto, vidmo. The final o thus produced is pragrhya or uncombinable (138c). Particles of kindred value, already mentioned above,

present tense
ticles:

thus,

ADVERBS.

413

kam

are id,
are

kam,

or

cid, jatu, eva.

[1122

Some of the

asseverative particles

much used

as devices

pecially
c.

to

in the later artificial poetry with a purely expletive value,

help make out the metre (padapurana verse-fillers'); so es-

ha, hi, tu, sma.

Negative particles are: na, signifying simple negation; ma,

signifying prohibition.

As

d.

to the construction of the verb with

nu

the Yeda,

For the Vedic

e.

(or

na

In nahi,

nu: 248 a)

has

ma,

see above,

579.

In

sometimes a negative meaning.

of comparison, see below, g, h.

na

is

also

combined with hi, both elements retaining their

It is perhaps present in nanu

In general, neither na nor
is used in composition to make negative compounds, but, instead, the inseparable negative prefix a or an (112 la): exceptions are the Vedic par-

meaning; also with fd in ned lest.

and cana, but not in hina (RV., once).

full

ma

nakis and makis, naklm and makim;

ciram, napunsaka, and, in the later language,

ticles

f.

naciram and ma-

also

number

of'others.

Interrogative particles are only those already given: kad, kirn,

last introduces an objection or ex-

kuvid, svid, nanu, of which the

postulation.

Of particles of comparison have been mentioned the toneless

and yatha (also toneless when used in the same way). Of fre-

g.

iva,

quent occurrence in the oldest language

loss of accent) the

is also

na, having (without

same position and value as the preceding.

h. Examples of the na of comparison are rsidvisa if um na srjata

dvisam (RV.) let loose your enmity like an arrow at the enemy of the singer;
vayo na vyksam (AV.) as birds to the tree; gauro na tysitah piba
:

(RV.) drink
a

a thirsty buffalo.

like

modification or

adaptation

of

This use
the

sure] not [precisely] a thirsty buffalo;

i.

Of

be noticed
j.

is

negative

and

generally explained as being

one:

to be

thus, [although,

so on.

particles of place, besides those already mentioned,

kva where? (in V., always to be read kua).

may

nunam was

men-

Particles of time are:

nu now

(also

nu:

tioned above, HQ9a), adya and sadyas and sadivas (RV., once) today,
at once (all held to contain the element div or dyu), hyas yesterday,

Qvas tomorrow, jy6k

Of

k.

may be

particles

noticed

1109 a); sasvar

1.

In the

(also related

of manner,

nana

with dyu) long; piinar again.

besides

variously (for

those

nananam,

(RV.) secretly.

above classifications are included

words, and most of those of the later language:

tionaries.

already mentioned,
its derivative, see

all

the Vedic adverbial

for the rest, see the dic-

XVI. INDECLINABLES.

1123]

414

Prepositions.

1123. There

is,

prepositions (in the

already stated, no proper class of

as

modern sense of

no body of

that term),

words having for their prevailing office the "government"

of nouns. But many of the adverbial words indicated above
are used with nouns in a

more

to the

a. If

way which approximates them

fully developed prepositions of other languages.

one and another of such words

solely in prepositional use, this is

as vina, rte
occurs almost
merely fortuitous and unessential.

1124. Words are thus used prepositionally along with

But

noun-cases excepting the dative.

all

the

in general their office is direc-

determining more definitely, or strengthening, the proper

case-use of*the noun. Sometimes, however, the case-use is not easy

tive only,

to trace,

by the

and the noun then seems to be more immediately "governed"

that is, to have its case-form more arbitrarily

preposition

determined by its association with the latter. This is oftenest true

of the accusative; and also of the genitive, which has, here as elsewhere (294 b), suffered an extension of its normal sphere of use.

1125.

a.

The adverbs by

derivative form (1097 ff.) have least

of a prepositional value (exceptions are especially a few

the suffix tas: 1098).

made with

b. Most of the verbal prefixes (exceptions are ud, ni, para, pra;
and ava and vi are almost such) have their prepositional or quasiprepositional uses with cases; but much more widely in the older

time than in the later: in the classical language the usage

restricted to prati, ami,

and

is

mainly

a.

Most of the directive words akin with the more proper preas saha, vina, upari,
used prepositionally some of them
antara, purS
freely, earlier and later.
d. The case-forms used adverbially are in many instances used
prepositionally also: oftenest, as was to be expected, with the genitive; but frequently, and from an early time, with the accusative;
more rarely with other cases.
c.

fixes are

e.

We

will

take

up now the

cases for

a brief exposition,

beginning

with those that are least freely used.

1126. The Locative.

that can claim the
derivative

name

This case

of preposition.

antara, meaning

is

Of

least

of

all

directives,

within, in, are oftenest

used with words

antar and

added

to

it,

its later

and in the

language as well as earlier. Of frequent Vedic use with it are a

and adhi : thus, martyes v a among mortals ; prthivy am adhy osadhlh
the plants upon the earth; tejo mayi dharaya 'dhi (AY.) establish glory

classical

[1129

PREPOSITIONS.

415

api and upa are much rarer thus, yS apam api vrate [santi]
the domain of the waters: amur ya upa stirye
ssanti]
saca along icith is not rare in
(RV.) who are up yonder in the sun;
RV.', but almost entirely unknown later: thus, pitroh saca satl staying
in

me

(BV.) who are in

with her parents.

1127. The Instrumental.

The

directives

used with

this case

almost only those which contain the associative pronominal root sa

as

are

saha

sardham, samam, samaya, saratham; and, in

as, te sumatibhih sam patmbhir na vrsano
nasiinahi (RV.) may we be united with thy favors as men with their spouses.
By substitution of the instrumental for the ablative of separation (283 a),
(most frequent), sakam,
the Veda, the prefix sam

vinfi

without

the Yeda,

(not

sometimes the instrumental; and so, in

beyond, with which the ablative is also,

takes

Vedic)

avas down and paras

and much more normally, construed. And adhi, in RV., is used with the
snuna and snubhis, where the. locative would be expected.

instrumental

1128. The Ablative.

In the prepositional constructions of the ab-

(as was pointed out and partly illustrated above, 293), the ablative
value of the case, and the merely directive value of the added particle, are
for the most part clearly to be traced.
Many of the verbal prefixes are
more or less frequently joined in the older language with this case oftenanu, apa, ava, prati, and the
est, adhi and pari; more sporadically,
lative

separatives nfs
hither,

was

and vf.

by which

sufficiently

the prefixes,

it

comes

The change of meaning

to

fill

the office of

explained above (293 c).

Of

its

of the ablative with

opposite, the accusative,

directive

words akin with

babis, puras, avas, adhas, paras, pura, vinS,

and tiras out of knowledge of
accompany this case by a perfectly regular
Also the case-forms arvak, prak, paccat, urdhvam,
construction.
purvam, par am, and rte without, of which the natural construction with
an ablative

many

is

as

predominant

earlier.

1129. The Accusative.

and related
Most naturally (since the accusative is essentially the to-case), those that express a motion or action toward anything as abhi, prati, anu, lipa, a, ati and adhi in the sense of
over on to, or across, beyond, tiras through, antar and antara when mean-

Many

of the verbal prefixes

words take an accompanying accusative.

Examples are: yah pradiqo abhi stJryo

between, pari around.
vicas^e (AV.) what quarters the sun looks abroad unto ; abodhy agnih
praty ayatim usasam (RV.) Agni has been awakened to meet the advancing dawn; gacchet kadacit svajanam prati (MBh.) she might go
ing

somewhither to her

own

people

him I will ask with reference

imam praksyami nrpatim prati

to the

(MBh.)

mama

cittam anu cittebhir

king;
with your minds; e *hy a nah (AV.)

6 *ta (AV.) follow after my mind

come hither to us; upa na e 'hy arvan (RV.) come hither unto us; y6
devo martyan dti (AV.) the god who is beyond mortals; adhis$haya

varcasa 'dhy anyan (AV.) excelling above others in glory. Also abhitas
and paritas, which have a like value with the simple abhi and pari;

1129]

XVI. INDECLINABLES.

416

and upari

above (oftener with genitive).

Less accordant with ordinary
accusative constructions is the use of this case with adhas, paras, paras,

vinS, beside other cases which seem more suited to the meaning of those
And the same may be said of most of the adverbial case-forms
particles.
with which the accusative
situation or

used.

is

Thus,

number

of instrumental of

"dityam, ye parena "dityam

(TB.) those who are below the sun, those who are beyond the sun antarena
yonim (B.) within the womb; te hi 'dam antarena sarvam (AB.) for
all this universe is between them; uttarena garhapatyam
(B.) to the
north of the householder's fire; daksinena vedim (QB.) to the south of
direction:

as

ye

'varenfi,

the

vam

purvam

and the same

(g.) to the right

of

the

yamunam

nikasa

and

daksinena vrksavatikam

hearth;

sacrificial

orchard;

have

Similarly, urdh(Ear.) near the Yamuna.

an accusative object as well as an ablative;

true later of rte.

is

Abhimukham

toward has a more

natural right to construction with this case.

1130. The Genitive.

The words which

are

accompanied by the

genitive are mostly case- forms of nouns, or of adjectives used substantively,

retaining enough of the noun-character to take this case as their natural

Such

agre in front of, abhya<je near, arthe

nimitte and hetau by reason of, madhye in
the midst of; and other cases, as arthaya, karanat,
saka^at, hetos. And
really, although less directly and obviously, of the same character are other
adjective cases (some of them showing other constructions, already noticed)
as adharena, uttarena and uttarat, daksinena and daksinat,
paqcat,
urdhvam, anantaram, samaksam, saksat. More questionable, and
adjunct.

and krte for

are

the locatives

the sake of,

illustrations rather of

the general looseness of use of the genitive, are

its

constructions (almost wholly unknown in the oldest language) with more

proper words of direction: thus, with the derivative paritas, paratas,

and antitas, and parastat and purastat (these found in the Brahmana
language: as, samvatsarasya parastat after a year; suktasya purastat before the hymn [AB.]); with anti, adhas, avas, puras; with upari
above (common later); and with antar.

Conjunctions.

1131.

The

conjunctions,

also,

as

distinct

class

of

words, are almost wanting.

a. The combination of clauses is in Sanskrit in general of a very
simple character much of what in other Indo-European languages is
effected by subordinating conjunctions is here. managed by means of
;

composition of words, by the use of the gerunds (994), of iti (1102),

of abstract nouns in case-forms, and so on.

1132.

The

relative

derivative adverbs,

already

given

[1135

CONJUNCTIONS.

417
(1098

may

IF.),

properly be regarded as conjunctions; and a

ced and ned (111 la).

1133. Purely of conjunctive value are rf ca and, and
va
or (both toneless, and never having the first place
^T
few other

particles of kindred value, as

in a sentence or clause).
a.

Of copulative value, along with ca,

is in

the older language

especially uta (later it becomes a particle of more indefinite use); and

api, tatas, tatha, kim ca, with other particles and combinations of.
particles, are used often as connective* of clauses.

b. Adversative is tu but (rare in the older language); also, less

strongly,
c.

Of

(toneless).

value

illative

is

hf for

(originally,

and in great part

1122b.

at

every period, asseverative only): compare above,

d.

meaning

To ca

(as well as to its

compound ced) belongs

occasionally the

if.

e. It is needless to enter into further detail with regard to those uses

which may be not

less properly, or

more properly, called conjunctive than

adverbial, of the particles already given, under the head of Adverbs.

Interjections.

1134.

The

jections are,

utterances which

may be

as in other languages,

in part onomatop03ias,

classed as inter-

in part voice-gestures,

and in part mutilations and corrup-

tions of other parts of speech.

1135. a. Of the class of voice-gestures are, for example: a, ha,

haha, ahaha, he, ha (AV.), ayi, aye, haye (KV.), aho, bat (BV.),
bata (RV.) or vata, and (probably) hfruk and huruk (RV.).
b. Onomatopoetic or imitative utterances are,

for

example (in
kikira (palpitation: RV.); bal and pha$ (phas?) or phal splash (AV.); bhuk bowwow (AV.); gdl pat (AV.); as, 'his, as, and has (PB.); and see the
words already quoted in composition with the roots ky and bhu,
the older language)

ci<jca whiz (of

an arrow

RV.)

above, 1091.
c. Nouns and adjectives which have assumed an inter) ectional
character are, for example: bhos (for the vocative bhavas, 456); are
or re (voc. of ari enemy}; dhik alas! (may be mere voice-gesture, but
perhaps related with )/dih); katam woe is me I distya thank heaven!

svasti hail! suathu, sadhu good, excellent! None of these are Vedic
in interjectional use.

Whitney, Grammar.

2. ed.

27

1136

XVII. DERIVATION OF DECLINABLE STEMS.

CHAPTER

41 g

XVII.

DERIVATION OF DECLINABLE STEMS.

1130.

THE

formation from roots of conjugable stems

namely,
mode-stems, and stems of secondary conjugation (not
essentially different from one another, nor, it is believed, ultimately
from the formation of declined stems)
was most conveniently treated above, in the chapters devoted to the verb. Likewise the formation of adverbs by derivation (not essentially different from casetense-stems,

in the chapter devoted to particles. And the formation

of those declinable stems
namely, of comparison, and of infinitives
and participles
which attach themselves most closely to the systems of inflection, has also been more or less fully exhibited. But
formation),

the extensive and intricate subject of the formation of the great

of declinable stems was reserved for a special chapter.

body

a. Of course, only a brief and compendious exhibition of the subject

can be attempted within the here necessary limits: no exhaustive tracing
out of the formative elements of every period ; still less, a complete state-

ment
gins;

of the varied uses of each

element; least of all, a discussion of oribut enough to help the student in that analysis of words which

must form
the

field,

terial,

a part of bis labor from the outset, giving a general outline

and preparing

for

more penetrating

b. The material from accented texts, and especially the Vedic mawill be had especially in view (nothing that is Vedic being inten-

tionally

and the examples given will be, so

such texts with their accent marked.

left unconsidered);

possible, words found in

not thus vouched for will be accented unless the fact

ed

of

investigation.

far

as is

No word

is specifically

point-

out.

1137.

The

roots themselves, both

are used in their bare form,

inal,

verbal and

pronomany added

or without

suffix, as declinable stems.

a.

As

b.

The pronominal

and hence,

to this use of verbal roots, see below, 1147.

roots, so-called, are essentially declinable;
in their further treatment in derivation, they are through-

out in accordance with other declinable stems, and not with verbal
roots.

1138. Apart from this,

suffix.

And

these suffixes

WV

every such stem

fall

is

into two general

made by a
classes:

$'

PRIMABY AND SECONDARY SUFFIXES.

419

A, Primary

[1140

which are added

suffixes, or those

directly

to roots;

B. Secondary suffixes, or those which are added to derivative stems (also to

and sometimes
a.

The

pronominal

roots, as just

pointed out,

to particles).

division of primary suffixes

unadi

(more regular) and

nearly

corresponds to the

(less regular) suffixes of the

kft
Hindu grammarians
;

the secondary, to their taddhita-suffixes.

1139.

But

this distinction,

and

theoretically

practically, is

though one of high value,

not absolute. Thus:

come

to have the aspect and the use of primary

that is to say, the earwhich really contain a secondary element
liest words exhibiting them were made by addition of secondary
suffixes to words already derivative.
a. Suffixes

b. Sundry examples of this will he pointed out below: thus, the

gerundival suffixes, tavya, amya, etc., the suffixes uka and aka, tra,
and others. This origin is probable for more cases than admit of demonstration;

and

it

is

assumable

for others

which show no

distinct signs

of

composition.
c. Less often
a suffix of primary use passes over in part into
secondary, through the medium of use with denominative "roots" or
otherwise: examples are yu, iman, lyas and istha, ta.
,

primary suffixes are added not only

to more original roots, but, generally with equal freedom,
to elements which have come to wear in the language the
1140. Moreover,

aspect of such, by being

jugation

and even,

made the

to a certain

basis

of primary con-

extent, to the bases of

secondary conjugation, the conjugation-stems, and the bases

of tense-inflection, the tense-stems.
The most conspicuous examples of this are the participles, present
perfect, which are made alike from tense and conjugationstems of every form. The infinitives (968 fit.) attach themselves only in
sporadic instances to tense-stems, and even from conjugation-stems are made
a.

and future and

but sparingly earlier; and the same

is true

of the gerundives.

b. General adjectives and nouns are somewhat widely made from conjugation-stems, especially from the base of causative conjugation see below
:

a (1148j,k), a (1148c, d), ana (1150m), as (11611),

ani (1159b), u (1178 g i), ti (1157 g), ty(1182e), tnu (1196b),
Bxm(1194b), uka(1180d), aku (1 181 d), Slu (1192 b), tu(1161d).

the suffixes

27*

XVII. PRIMARY DERIVATION.

1140]

From tense-stems

420

unknown:
a (1148J), a (1149d, e),
ana (1150n), i (1155d), u (1178f), ta (1176e), tu (1161 d), uka
(1180d), tra(1185e), ti(1157g), vin(orin: 1232b, 1183a); from
c.

the examples are far fewer, but not

thus, from present-stems, occasional derivatives in

stems in a 8 apparently of aoristic character (besides infinitives and gerundderivatives in a (1148J), ana (1150J), ani (1159b),
antlieOa), fina (1175), as (1151 c), I (1156b), istfia (1184a),
u (1178f), us (1154a), ty (1182e), in (1183a)..

ives), occasional

The primary suffixes are added

compounded with the verbal prefixes.
1141.

a.

roots as

also to

Whatever, namely, may have been originally and

mode

of production of the derivatives with prefixes,

the recorded life of the language as if the root and

it is

strictly the

throughout

its prefix or preconstituted a unity, from which a derivative is formed in the

same manner as from the simple root, with that modification of the
radical meaning which appears also in the proper verbal forms as

fixes

compounded with the same prefixes.

b. Not derivatives of every kind are thus made; but, in the
main, those classes which have most of the verbal force, or which
are most akin in value with infinitives and participles.
c.

The occurrence

of such derivatives

will be noted under each suffix

with prefixes, and their accent,

are chiefly (in nearly the

order of their comparative frequency), besides loot-stems, those in a, in
ana, in ti, in tar and tra, and in in, ya, van and man, i and u, as,

below.

They

and a few others.

1142. The suffixes of both classes are sometimes joined to their

that is to say, by one which
primitives by a preceding union-vowel
wears that aspect, and, in our ignorance or uncertainty as to its
real origin, may most conveniently and safely be called
The line between these vowels and those deserving to

that name.
be ranked as

by

of organic suffixal character cannot be sharply drawn.

Each of the two great classes will now be taken up
for

more particular

A.

1143.

primary
Thus:
a.

Form

suffix is

By

far the

(except, of course,

itself,

Primary Derivatives.

of root.

added

The form of

is liable to

most frequent

or vyddhi-increinent.

240): thus,

by

consideration.

is

more

root to

which a

or less variation.

a strengthening change, by gunaall circumstances

The former may occur under

where guna-change

is

in general forbidden

235,

veda from yvid, moda from j/mud, vardha from j/vydh;

FORM OF ROOT.

421

[1145

ay ana from yi, savana from J/BU, sarana from ]/sr; and BO on.
But the latter is only allowed under such circumstances as leave long
a as the resulting vowel: that is to say, with non-final a, and with
a final i- or u-vowel and y before a vowel: thus, nSda from >/nad,
grabha from >/grbh or grabh, vaha from yvah, nay a from i/nl,
bhava from ybhu, kara from ]/kr; such strengthening as would
make vaida and mauda does not accompany primary derivation.
b. Strengthening in derivation does not stand in any such evident
connection with accent as strengthening in conjugation; nor can any general rules be laid down as to its occurrence; it has to he pointed out in
detail for each suffix.
So also with other vowel-changes, which are in
general accordance with those found in inflection and in the formation of

tense- and mode-stems.

c.

The reversion

noticed (216).
considered.

of a final palatal or

final

or

to a guttural has

is occasionally lost,

been already

as in formations already

d. After a short final vowel is sometimes added a t:

namely, where

stem without suffix (1147d), and before a following y

(1169), vara and varl (1171), yu once (11 65 a), and ya

a root is used as
or

of

(1213

van

The presence

a).

of t before these suffixes appears to indicate

original secondary derivation from derivatives in ti

e.

suffix

The

root

(1147 c,e);

is

sometimes reduplicated:

oftenest before

a (1148k),

rarely
i

an

aud tu.
in the

(1155e),

use without

u (1178d);

but

a (1149e), ana (1150m), vana (1170a),

van and varl (1169d, 1171a,b), vani (1170b), vi (1193), vit
(1193b), ani (1159b), in (1183a), tnu (1196a), ta (1176a), ti
(1157 d), tha (1163a), tp (1182b), tra (1185f), uka (1180f), aka
(1181 a), ika (1186c), ma (1166b).
also before other suffixes,

as

1144. Accent. No general laws governing the place of the

accent are to be recognized each suffix must in this respect be considered by itself.
;

a.

In connection with a very few suffixes

is to

tain degree of tendency to accent the root in case

be recognized a cer-

of a

nomen

actionis

or

and the ending in the case of a nomen agentis or

see
derivative
the suffixes a, ana, as, an, and man, below,
participial
where the examples are considered. Differences of accent in words made
by the same suffix are also occasionally connected with differences of gender: see the suffixes as and man.
infinitival

derivative,

1145.

Meaning. As

regards their signification, the primary

derivatives fall in general into two great classes, the one indicating
the action expressed by the verbal root, the other the person or
the latter,
thing in which the action appears, the agent or actor
either substantively or adjectively.
infinitival;

the other

is

more

The one

concrete,

class is

participial.

more

abstract,

Other meanings

XVII. PRIMARY DERIVATION.

1145-]

may

in the

422

main be viewed as modifications or specializations of

these two.
a.
ciples,

Even the words indicating

are,

as their

The gerundives

modified words of agency.

(961 ff.), secondary

recipience of action, the passive parti-

use also as neuter or reflexive shows,

derivatives,

originally

are,

as

only notahly

was pointed out above

indicating

only concerned with

the action.

1146. But these two classes, in the processes of formation, are

not held sharply apart.
There is hardly a suffix by which actionnouns are formed which does not also make agent-nouns or adjectives ; although there are not a few by which are made only the latter.
In treating them in detail below, we will first take up the suffixes

by which

derivatives of both classes are made,

and then those form-

ing only agent-nouns.

a.

following

To

the finding of the different suffixes is given the

them, in their order as treated, with references to paragraphs

facilitate

list of

yu

ana

1147
1148
1149
1150

as

1151

van

tas, nas, sas

1152
1153
1154
1155
1156
1157
1158
1159
1160

vana,
vara
ant

a
&

is

us
i
i

ti

ni
ani

an

tha

1161
1162
1163

thu

1164

tu

nu

1147.

1165

ma
mi

man
-ni,

-nu

vans

mana
ana
ta

na, ina,

una

u
u
uka
aka
tr or tar

Stems without

suffix;

Root-words. These

words and their uses have been already pretty fully considered above (323, 348 if., 383 ff., 400, 401).
They are used especially (in the later language, almost
as finals of compounds, and have both fundamental values,
as action-nouns (frequently as infinitives: 971), and as agent-nouns
a.

solely)

and adjectives

(often

governing an accusative:

271e>

As

action-

nouns, they are chiefly feminines (384! in many instances, however,

they do not occur in situations that determine the gender).

ROOT-STEMS; STEMS IN

423

number of words, mostly of

b. In a small

reduplicated root

[1148

a.

used without

is

rare occurrence, the

suffix.

c. The Vedic cases are: with simple reduplication, sasyad, cikit,

dadrh, didyii and didyut, juhtl, and perhaps ganga and c,fc.u; with
intensive reduplication, -nenl, malimluc, yavlyiidh, and jogu and

vamvan
daridra

In
(with the intensive instead of the nsnal radical accent).
seen a transfer to the a-declension.
Asusu is probably to he

is

understood as a compound, asu-ali.

end in a short vowel, a t

d. If the root

added (383f
t

is

regularly and usually

h).

e. Examples have heen given at the place just quoted. In jagat the
added to the mutilated form of >/gain reduplicated, and rnayat

is

once) appears to put

(TS.,

after a long vowel.

it

qriitkarna (RV.) of listening

member of a compound.

ears,

In a single instance,

a stem of this class occurs

as

prior

f. Words of this form in combination with verbal prefixes are

very numerous. The accent rests (as in combination of the same with
other preceding elements) on the root-stem.

g. A few exceptions in point of accent occur: thus, avasa, upastut;

and, with other irregularities of form, parijri, upastha, uparistha.

1148.

With

51 a.

the suffix

51

is

made an immensely

and heterogeneous body of derivatives, of various

meaning and showing various treatment of the root: gunalarge

fitrengthening,

and

vyddhi-strengthening,

retention unchanged,

reduplication.

In good part, they are classifiable under the two usual general
heads; but in part they have been individualized into more special
senses.
1.

a.

With guna-strengthening of the root (where that

is

poss-

These are the great majority, being more than

235, 240).
twice as numerous as all others together.
ible

b.

Many nomtna actionis as, qrama weariness, graha seizure, aya

veda knowledge, hava call, krodha wrath, josa enjoyment,
:

movement,

tara

C.
living,

pent,

sarga emission.
Many nomtna agentis :

crossing,

megha
bhoja

cloud,

generous,

coda

as,

ksama

inciting,

khada

patient,

plava

boat,

svaja constrictor, jiva

sara brook, sarpa ser-

devouring.

d. Of the examples here given, those under b accent the radical sylAnd this is in perhaps a majority
lable, and those under c the ending.
of cases the fact as regards the two classes of derivatives; so that, taken

in connection with

kindred facts as to other suffixes,

it

difference of accent as a general tendency of the language.

hints at such

few sporadic

XVII. PRIMARY DERIVATION.

1148]
instances are

met with

according to

its

of the

accent: thus,

424

same form having the one or the other value

esa haste, esa hasting; gasa order, 95,88,

orderer (other examples are coda, <jaka, qoka: compare a similar difference with other derivatives in as, ana, an, man). But exceptions are

numerous

Java, smara, action-nouns; cxava,

and the subject calls for a much wider
agent-nouns
and deeper investigation than it has yet received, before the accentuation
referred to can be set up as a law of the language in derivation.
thns, for example, jaya,

mogha, stava,

2.

With vyddhi-strengthening of the root

e.

the resulting radical vowel that

(most often), u or u, i or i (rare).
is

is,

f.

Examples of

dava

action -nouns

tar a

are:

but only where

of medial a, and of final y

kama

love,

bhaga

share,

nada

Very few forms of clear derivation and

meaning are quotable with accent on the root-syllable.
noise,

g.

nay a

crossing.

Examples of agent-nouns are: grabha

jara lover.

seisz'np,

vaha

carrying,

leading,
3.

h.

turd

lean,

fire,

With unstrengthened
rapid, yoga, yoke,

root,

sruva

the examples are few:

spoon,

priya

dear,

vra

e.

g.

kr9a

troop, (juca

bright.
i.

number of words of

this class, especially

as occurring in

com-

position, are doubtless results of the transfer of root-stems to the a-declen-

sion

e.

j.

g.

-ghusa, -sphura, -tuda, -drQa, -vida, -kira.

A few a-stems

are

made, especially in the older language, from conju-

gation-stems, mostly causative: thus,

-amaya, ilaya, -inkhaya, -ejaya,

-dharaya, -par ay a, -mrdaya, -gamaya (compare the a-stems, 1 149 c,d) ;
Occasional examples also
also desiderative, as bibhatsa (compare 1038).
occur from tense-stems: thus, from nu-stems, or secondary stems made
from such, hinva, -inva, -jinva, -pinva, -ainva, -sunva, -ac,nuva;
from others, -pyna, -myna, -styna, -puna, -jana, -pa9ya, -many a,

-dasya, -jurya, -ksudnya, -sya, -tis^ha, -jighra, -piba; from futurekarisya (JB.), jani^ya, bhavifya, rucisya (P) ; apparently from

stems,

aorist-stems, jef &,

nesa-, parsa, prksa

(P),

-hosa.

a from a reduplicated root-form are a considerable class, mostly occurring in the older language.
They are sometimes
made with a simple reduplication thus, cacara, cikita, drdhra, dadnrsa,
4.

k. Derivatives in

babhasa, -babhra, vavra, ^i^aya, gignatha (an

action-noun), sasra;

but oftener with an intensive

merely

reduplication:

thus,

strengthened,

caksma, -cacala, jagara, nanada, lalasa, vivadha (?), -memisa,

reriha and leliha, vevija, nonuva, momugha, -roruda, lolupa ; with
consonant added, -cankaQa-, -cankrama, jangama, cancala, -janjapa, dandhvana, -nannama, -jarjalpa, jarjara, -tartura, -dardira,
murmura, gadgada; dissyllabic, -karikra, kanikrada, caracara and
calacala, marimf^d, malimluca, varivrta, sansrpa, panispada,
sanisyada, sanisrasa, patapata, madamada, -vadavada, ghana-

STEMS IN

425
ghana. Many
stem

[1149

a, a.

of these are to be regarded as from an intensive conjugation-

but some of them show a form not met with in intensive conju-

gation.
5. 1.

Derivatives with this suffix from roots as

compounded with

the verbal prefixes are quite common, in all the modes of formation
con(in each, in proportion to the frequency of independent words)
:

considerably the largest body of derivative stems

They are of both classes as to meaning. The accent

stituting, in fact,

with prefixes.
with few exceptions, on the ending
and that, without any reference to the value of the stem as action-noun or agent-noun.
is,

m. Examples are: sarhgama assembly, nimesa wink, abhidroha

anukara assistance, udana inspiration, pratya^rSva response;
paricara wandering, samjaya victorious, vibodha wakeful, atiyaja
over-pious, udara inciting, elevated, uttuda rousing, samgira swallowing,
adardira crushing, adhicankrama climbing.
enmity,

n. The only definite class of exceptions in regard to accent appears

be that of the adverbial gerunds in am (above, 995), which are accentA very few other stems have the same tone: for
ed on the root-syllable.

to

A few others, mostly agentexample, utpata portent, aqresa plague.

nouns, have the accent on the prefix: for example, vyosa (i. e. vi-osa)
burning, prative9a neighbor, abhaga sharing; but also samkac.a appearance.
o. For the remaining
arable prefixes

compounds of these derivatives, with the insepand with other elements, see the next chapter. It may

be merely mentioned here that such compounds are numerous, and that
the a-derivative has often an active participial value, and is frequently
preceded by a case-form, oftenest the accusative.
p.
yet they

-words in the language appear to end with a suffix a, while

to no root which can be otherwise demonstrated

Many
are

referable

as such.

1149.

S.

The

vast majority of stems in

5TT

a are

feminine adjectives, corresponding to masculines and neuters

in 51 a (332, 334). But also many suffixes ending in % a

have corresponding feminine forms in long

greater or

less

number

of action-nouns.

making a
These will be

EFT a,

given under the different suffixes below.

however, a considerable body of feminine
to a root, and having an independent
aspect; though they are doubtless in part transfers from the rootnoun (1147. Usually they show an unstrengthened form of root, and
(such as occur in accented texts) an accented suffix.
a.

There

action-nouns

is

further,

made by adding a

XVII. PRIMARY DERIVATION.

1149]

426

b. Examples are 193, lordship, kria play, daya pity, ninda reproach,
(janka doubt, hinsa injury, ksama patience, k^udha hunger, bhasa
speech,

seva
Bat

service,

sprha

eagerness.

nouns in & are made in large numbers,

and with perfect freedom, from secondary conjugation-stems.
c.

d.

vlrtsa,

especially, such

Thus,

from

especially

bibhatsa,

etc.

from

perfects, especially

desiderative

as

stems,

jigiaa, bhiksa,

(see 1038); in the formation of periphrastic

causative stems, but also from desiderative and

intensive, and even from primary present-stems

(1071 cf); from denominaa$vaya, sukratuya, apasya, uru-

tive stems, in the older language, as

sya, asuya, a<janaya, jivanasya,

as

etc.,

and quite rarely in the

later,

mfgaya.

e. The only example from a reduplicated stem is the late paspa<ja;

susa, jangha, and jihva, which have a reduplicated aspect, are of
doubtful origin.
From present-stems come icchfi and probably -rceha.

for

1150.

OR

ana.

With

this suffix (as

with

a)

are form-

ed innumerable derivatives, of both the principal classes of

meaning, and with not infrequent specializations. The root
has oftenest guna-strengthening,
instead; and in a few cases

but not

seldom vrddhi

remains unstrengthened.
Derivatives of this formation are frequent from roots with
prefixes,

and

it

also in composition

with other elements.

The normal and

greatly prevalent accent is upon the rootsyllable, without regard to the difference of meaning but cases occur
of accented final, and a few of accented penult. The action-nouns
a.

are in general of the neuter gender. The feminine of adjectives is

either in ft or in I (for details, see below). And a few feminine
action-nouns in ana and
occur, which may be ranked as belong-

made

am

ing to this suffix.

1.

head

o.
seat,

perty,

b.

fall,

With strengthened and accented

root-syllable.

Under

this

as above indicated, the great mass of forms.

of action-nouns are eadana
dana giving, cayana collection, vedana probhojana enjoyment, karana deed, vardhana increase;
tapana burning, cetana visible, codana impelling.

With guna-strengthening: examples

raksana

havana

protection,
call,

of agent-nouns,

d. With vrddhi-strengthening (only in such circumstances that g

remains as vowel of the radical syllable): examples are -catana, n9ana,

madana, -vacana, -vasana, -vahana, sadana, -spa;ana, svadana,

-ay ana, -yavana, -sravana, -parana.
e.

From

roots

with prefixes,

the

derivatives

of this

very numerous, heing exceeded in frequency only by those

formation are

made with the

STEMS IN

427
a

suffix

on,

(above,

udyana
and

release

11481, m).

upgoing,

nidhana

1150

few examples are:

receptacle,

samgamana

releasing,

ana.

a,

pranana

akramana striding
vim 6 c ana

expiration,

assembly and assembler,

adhivikartana

For other compounds

of these derivatives, showing the same accent (and the same feminine
A few exceptions occur:
stem), see the next chapter (below, 1271).
cutting off,

avaprabhran<jana

fatting

away down.

vicaksana, uparicjayana, and the feminines pramandan! and nirdahani.

f. The adjectives of this formation, simple or compound, make their
feminine usually in I: thus, codani, pe^ani, sparani, jambhani;
prajnam, proksam, samgrahani, abhisavanl, vidharam (oetani

An adjective compound, however,

is
of doubtful meaning: below, i).
having a noun in ana as final member, makes its feminine in a: thus,
supasarpana of easy approach, sadvidhana of
cana not to be ordered away.
2.

g.

The more

irregular formations

With accent on the

final: a

sextuple order,

may be

number

anapava-

classed as follows:

of agent-nouns

and

adjectives,

karana active (against karana act), krpana miserable (against krpana

misery), tvarand hasting, rocana shining, kro^and yelling, svapana
sleepy, ksayana habitable.

as

h. These, unlike the preceding class, make their feminine in a: e.

tvarana, spandana. A few feminine action-nouns in the older language have the game form: thus, a$ana, asana, manana, dyotana,
g.

rodhana, ^vetana, hasana (and compare kapana, ra^ana);

the later language in
i.

Beside these

ana

those of

(rather numerous) are doubtful as regards accent

may be mentioned a few feminines in anl,

arani, cetani (to cetana), tapani

or less doubtful character:

of

more

(to

tap-

ana), pr^ani, vyjani (with vyjana), rajani, tedani.

j.

turana

With accent on the penult

hasting,

dohana

milking,

a small

manana

number

of adjectives

as

bhandana and
vaksana carrying

considerate,

mandana rejoicing, saksana overcoming, and perhaps

(the last two with aoristic s); and a still smaller number of neuter actionnouns

kppana
a few

dansana

great

misery (against

deed,

krpana

vrjana

enclosure,

miserable'),

town,

vesana

service,

with the masculine kirana dust.

k. The only noticed example of a feminine is in a: turana. And

feminine nouns have the same form: arhana, jarana, barhana,

bhandana, manhana, mehana, vadhana, vanana, vaksana.

compare the anomalous masc. name utjana: 355 a.)
1.

(And

Without strengthening of the root are made a small number of

thus (besides those already noted, krpana and krpana,

deiivatives:

vrjana and vrjani, kirana, turana), further accented examples are

urana, dhuvana, pf^ana, bhuvana, vrjana, vrsana, -suvana; and
later are found sphurana, sphutana, sprhana, -hnuvana, likhana,
rudana, etc. RV. makes denominatives from risana-, ruvana-, vipana-,
huvana-.

XVII. PRIMARY DERIVATION.

1150]
m. Stems

in

ana

bapana, bhisana

(see

from intensives and

also

cikitaana

fas

1051

from secondary conjugation-stems:

(see 1038); from causatives. as

g); from denominatives, with great freedom,

akarnana, unmulana, Qlaksnana, cihnana;

as

in the later language,

made

are

from desideratives,

thus,

428

other reduplicated stems,

only

cankramana, jan-

gamana, jagarana, yoyupana.

n.

few isolated cases may he further mentioned

from tense-stems,

-jighrana, -urnavana, -pa9yana, yacchana, -sincana; from prepositions, antarana and samana; astamana from the quasi-prefix (1092b)

astam.

ana

Feminines in

yoaan, yosa,

(beside

1151.

etc.)

doubtful connection

of

are

yosana woman

and pftana.

this

ERT/ap By

suffix

are

made

(usually with

guna-strengthening of the root- vowel) especially a large class

of neuter nouns, mostly abstract (action-nouns), but sometimes assuming a concrete value;

and

in the

also,

erable
a.

number of
The accent

older

and a consid-

language, a few agent-nouns and adjectives,

infinitives.
in

words of the

first class is

on the

root,

and

in

the second on the ending; and in a few instances words of the two
classes having the same form are distinguished by their accent; the
infinitives have for the most part the accent on the suffix.
1.

Examples of the

b.

first

and principal class are: avas

aid,

favor, tapas warmth, prayas pleasure, tejas splendor, Qravas fame,

dohas milking, karas deed, prathas breadth, cetas and manas mind,

caksas
c.

eye,

saras pond, vacas speech.

few words of this class are of irregular formation:

thus,

with-

javas), uras
breast, mfdhas contempt; and iras- (irasy-) and vipas-, and the ad.
verbs tiras, mithas, huras-, also Qiras head, are to be compared;
out

strengthening

of

the

juvas

root,

quickness

with

(beside

vyddhi-strengthening, -vacas, vasas, vahas,

doubtful connections, pajas, pathas, and -hayas ;
aoristic a,

hesas

missile;

pivas contains

-svadas, and, of
perhaps with

an

apparently not radical.

a of a root is usually inserted y before the suffix

dhayas, -gayas. v But there aie in the oldest language apparent xemains of a formation in which as was added directly to radical a:
d. After final

(258)

thus,

bhas and -das

thus,

mas;

(often to be pronounced as two

and -dhas and -das, from the roots dha and da.

syllables),

jnas,

The instances in which an agent-noun is differentiated by its

action-noun are
apas work, and apas active ; yayas
beauty, and yaqas beauteous,- taras quickness, and taras (VS., once)
quick; tavas strength, and tavas strong ; duvas worship, and duvas
lively (?); mahas greatness, and mahas great,- between raksas n. and
2.

e.

accent from an

STEMS IN ana,

429

[1152

as, tas, nas, sas.

raksas m., both meaning demon, and between tyajas n. abandonment (?)
and tyajas m. descendant??), the antithesis is much less clear.
f.

Adjectives

yajas

stowing,

as without corresponding

in

offering,

vedhas

pious, probably

abstracts are:

ahanas

From

dhvaras.
made mrgayas wild animal (RV., once).

other words of isolated occurence, as vegas,

stem

tive

is

But there are

g.

havas

call,

and tvesas

be-

denomina-

a very few cases of abstract nouns,

also

not neuter,

and doubtless
The feminine usas dawn, and

accented on the ending: thus, jaras old age,

also

togas

heady; and a few

impulse.

bhiyas

fear;

dos,as niyht, might belong either here or under the last preceding head.

as

h. Apparently containing a suffix

certain

ketas.
i.

The feminine apsaras nymph

The

are

the noun

upas

lap,

and

angiras, nodhas, bhalanas, arcananas, naci-

proper names:

irregular formation of

of doubtful derivation.

is

some

of the words

of this division will

be noticed, without special remark.

3. j. The infinitives made by the suffix as have been explained
above (973): they show various treatment of the root, and various
accent (which last may perhaps mark a difference of gender, like that
between sahas and jaras).

4.

k.

No

The formation

in

of derivatives

as from

roots

compounded

indeed, it is to be admitted at all.

nor any action-noun ; and the
infinitive in as occurs with a prefix

with prefixes

is

very restricted

if,

some instances evidently, and in most others

apparently, possessive compounds of the noun with the prefix used adjecthe most probable exceptions are -nyokas and vispardhas. As in
tively
adjective combinations are in

these examples, the accent

1.

is

always on the prefix.

Certain Vedic stems in

ar may be noticed

exchanging with stems in as, and

were reported above, at 169 a.

here, as

apparently related

more

or

with such.

less

They

In connection with this, the most common and important suffix

ending in s, may be best treated the others, kindred in office and
possibly also in origin, which end in the same sibilant.

1152.

TO

tas,

TO

nas,

TO

sas.

made an extremely small number

made retas

With

these suffixes are

of action-nouns.

Thus:

a.

With tas

b.

With nas are made apnas acquisition, arnas wave, -bharnas

reknas riches; and in dravinas wealth, and parinas fulness.

offering,

are

seed,

and srotas stream.

apparently to be seen the same suffix, with prefixed elements

the present value of union-vowels.
Probably the same is true of

is

nas

house-friend,
c.

With sas

mentioned with

and fjunas (RV.) n.

is

pr.,

perhaps made vapsas

it (rather

tarus-a?).

119 anas (or

-na)

having

damu-

n. pr.

beauty; and tarusas may be

XVII. PRIMARY DERIVATION.

1153]
1153. ^R

With

is.

the suffix is

430

formed a small num-

is

ber (about a dozen) of nouns.

a.

The

in part nouns

are

They

radical syllable has

suffix (except in

are:

arcis,

most are used concretely.

is on the
vyathis, and amis, raw meat). Examples
of action, but

the guna-strengthening, and the accent

jyotis

light,

rods, and

(jocfs

chadis

light,

chardfs

or

barhis

cover,

sarpfs butter havis oblation, dyotis light, and kravis raw flesh. Avis-, pathis, bhrajis-, and mahis- are isolated variants
of stems in as; and tuvis-, $ucis-, and surabhis- appear inorganically
straw, vartfs track,

for

tuvi

etc.

in a few compounds or derivatives.

1154. 3TT us.

With

made

this suffix are

a few words,

of various meaning, root-form, and accent.

a.

They

arus wound and

ful

sore;

cakgus

The nouns

and wonder.

syllable:

of accent:

brightness

thus,

and

few have

heat

eye;

vapus

and hot;
wonder-

seeing,

and accented on the root-

are mostly neuter,

ayus, tarus, purus,

thus,

tapus

words signifying both action and agent.

are

both meanings, without difference

muhus

(?

only adverbial),

mfthua

yajus, 9asus; exceptions are: in regard to accent, janus birth;

in regard to gender, manus man, and nahus, proper name. Of adjectives,
are accented on the ending jayus, vaniis, and daki-nis burning (which
(do.),

appears to attach itself to the aorist-stem).

1155. ^
of derivatives,

i.

With
of

this

all

genders:

show a various form of the

Their accent

duplicated.

much

is

root:

also

specialized

body

adjectives and masculine

and a few neuters. They

agent-nouns, feminine abstracts,

have meanings

are formed a large

suffix

strong,
various.

weak, and re-

Many

of

them

and many (including most

of the neuters) are hardly to be connected with any root

elsewhere demonstrable.
1.
a. The feminine action-nouns are of very various form: thus,
with weak root-form, ruci brightness, tvfsi sheen; kp}{ ploughing, nyti
with guna-strengthening (where possible), ropi pain, <joc{ heat,
dance;

vanf and sani

gain;

ji course, aj{ race; from

The

with vfddlii-strengthening, grata seizure, dhraydus comes dtigi (compare dusayati, 1042 b).

variety of accent, which seems reducible to no

rale, is illustrated by
examples given. The few inflnitively used words of this formation
(above, 975 b) have a weak root-form, with accent on the ending.

the

2.
variety.

adjectives

and masculine agent-nouns exhibit tho same

c.

grbhi

b. The
Thus

With unstrengthened

container.

root:

^uci

bright,

bhfmi

lively

(ybhram),

STEMS

431

IN is, us,

i, I.

[1156

With unstrengthened

root (or root incapable of guna^change): ari

arcf beam, granthi knot, kri^i playing; with vyddhiincrement, karisi, jani, -dhari, sari, sacf, sadi, -Bfihi, and a few words

d.

mahi

enemy,

of obscure

The

connections:

isolated
e.

great,

thus,

-ana?! appears

With reduplicated

able class,

drapi mantle, rfi<}{ heap, pfini hand, etc.

come from the perfect-stem (788) of y&q.

to

root.

of quite various form.

This

in the older language a consider-

is

Thus

with weak or abbreviated root,

cakri, jaghri (/ghar), papri, sasri, -amri, babhri, vavrf, jagmi,

-jajni ()/jan), -tatni, jaghni, sasni, susvi, -qiqvi ; and, with displaceof final a (or its weakening to the semblance of the suffix), dadi,
from the
papi, yayl (with a case or two from yayl), -jajfii, dadhi;
ur-form of roots in changeable p, jaguri, taturi, papuri (pupuri SV.)
- with simple reduplication, cikiti, yiiyudhi, vivid;
with strength-

ment

ened reduplication, -c&cali, tatypi, dadhp^i, vavahi, sasahl, tutuji

and tutujf, yilyuvi, ytiyudhi; and jarbhari and bambhari.
And

and dundubhi drum have the aspect of belonging to the

but are probably onomatopoetic. The accent, it will be noticmost often on the reduplication, but not seldom elsewhere (only

karkari
same

lute

class,

ed, is

once on the

was noticed above (27 If) that these reduplicated

It

root).

derivatives in i not seldom take an object in the accusative, like a present

participle.
f.

at all

Formations in

numerous.

They

from the root compounded with prefixes are not

on the suffix. Examples arc:

are accented usually

ayaji, vyana?!, nijaghni, paradadf, visasahf; but also ajani, amuri,

As compounded with other preceding words, the adjectives or
agent-nouns in i are not rare, and are regularly accented on the root: see

vivavri.

the next chapter,

1276.

From >/dha comes a

derivative -dhi, forming many masculine

compounds, with the value both of an abstract and a concrete: thus, with
From ]/da is made in
prefixes, antardhi, uddhf, nidhf, paridhi, etc.
like manner adi beginning, and from ]/stha, pratis^btf resistance. Opinions are at variance as to whether such forms are to be regarded as made
g.

with the suffix

3.

ples are

i,

displacing the radical a, or with weakening of

&

h. Neuter nouns in i are few, and of obscure derivation:

aksi

eye,

aathi bone, dadhi

to i.

exam-

curds, etc.

i.
Stems in ^ I (like those in 5TF 5, above,
3$
are
for
the
most part feminine adjectives, correspond1149)

1156.

ing to masculines and neuters of other terminations.

made from a-stems (332, 334: and see
from i-stems (344, 346), from u-stems (344 b),
from f -stems (376 a), and from various consonant-stems (378 a).
a. Thus, feminines in I are

also the different suffixes),

b. But there are also a few stems

pendent derivatives.

Examples

are

in I wearing the aspect of inde-

daksi, dehi, nadi, nandi, peal,

1156

XVII. PRIMARY DERIVATION.

432

vaksi (apparently with aoristic a), veqi, QakI, 9601, (jami, 9fmi, tarl,
vapi; they are either action-nouns or agent-nouns. In the later language

344 a)

(as noticed at

there

is

very frequent interchange of

i-

and i-stems

and the forms from them.

c. In the oldest language there are even a few masculines in I.
were noticed, and their inflection illustrated, above, at 355 b, 356.

1157.

fa

ti.

This suffix forms

large class

quently used feminine nouns of action;

and

(masculine)

agent-nouns

The

adjectives.

general the same form as hefore the suffix

ive participle (952

that

ff.)

and

They

of fre-

also

a few

root has in

ta of the pass-

rT

a weak, and often

is to say,

a weakened or abbreviated, form.

a. The accent ought, it would appear, in analogy with that of
the participle, to rest always upon the suffix; but in the recorded
condition of the language it does so only in a minority of cases:
namely, about fifty, against sixty cases of accent an the radical syl-

and a hundred and forty of undetermined accent; a number of

iti, yti, citti, tfpti, pakti, pus^i, bhuti, bhrti, v&\i, <jakti,
have both accentuations.
grugti, srsti, sthiti

lable,

words

of the normal formation

b. Examples

1.

rlt{ flow, stutf praise,

fame, purti bestowal,

stream (j/dhftv; pple

bhaktf

matf

division,

c.

The

ista),
roots

ukti

are:

rati

service,

gift,

speech

which form

and with accented

pple dita), dfttf

root,
tight,

in ita (956)

participle

dhautf

gati motion,

(yVac: pple ukta), vfddhl

their

uti aid,

stuti praise, kirtf

thought, pltf drink (>/pS; pple pita),

dhauta);

c,aihti repose, diti division (>/dft;

(/yaj: pple

vi$$

{$\i offering
increase.

do not have

the i also before ti: thns, only gupti, -drpti.

few roots having their
participle in na instead of ta (957) form the abstract noun also in ni
(below, 1158).
beside the more

And

from the roots tan and

ran

regular tati and rati; also

occur tantl and ranti,

ahanti

(once; VS.) beside

having the form da, the derivative in composition is
sometimes -tti (for dati, with loss of radical vowel compare the participleform -tta, above, 955 f): thus, niravatti (K.), sampratti ($B.),

From

ahati.

roots

paritti (TB.), vasutti, bhagatti, maghatti

d.
is

various

proper

(all

RV.).

few derivatives are made from reduplicated roots; their accent

and -cdditi, jfgarti, and perhaps the

thus, carkrtf, didhiti

name yayati;

also

jagdhi from |/jak

e. Derivatives from roots with prefixes are

(233 f).
numerous, and have

(as in

the case of the participles in ta, and the action-nouns in tu) the accent
on the prefix: examples are anumati, abhttij ahuti, niryti, vyapti,

samgati.

The only exceptions noticed

are

asakti and Ssuti, and abhi-

STEMS

433

IN

1,

ti,

[1158

ni.

In other combinations than with prefixes, the accenstf (beside abhis^i).

tuation is in general the same: see the next chapter (1274).

to

2.
f. The adjectives and agent-nouns
which, as masculines, are
are
be connected with these rather than with the feminine abstracts

very few

thus,

puti

putrid,

patti footman, pati master;

The accent

character.
3.

g.

eager, dhuti shaker, jnati relative,

and a few others, of more or less dubious

vasti

as in the other class.

is various,

few words show the suffix ti preceded by various vowels,

The ordinary intermediate i of the ta-participle

seen in saniti, ujhiti, -grhlti (I, as usual with this root 800 b),
pa^hiti, bhaniti; and with them may be mentioned the adjective rjiti,
union- or stem-vowels.
etc. is

the proper names turviti

and dabhiti, and snihiti and snehiti, notWith ati are made a few derivatives, vawithstanding their long final.
riously accented: thus, the action-nouns anhat{, dr^ati, pakgati, mith-

ati, vasati, ramati, vratati, amati and amati, -dhrajati; and the
agent-words arati, khalati, vrkati, ramati, dahati. In some of these
is to be seen with probability a stem-vowel, as also in janayati and
rasayati (and RY. has gopayatya). The grammarians' method of re-

presenting a root by its 3d sing. pres. indie., declining this as a ti-stem,

begins in the older language: e. g. etivant (TB.), ksetivant (AB.),

and juhoti and dadfiti

yajati

yiivati young, maiden

(S.),

nandati (MBh.). The feminine

of isolated character.

is

h. In some of the words instanced in the last paragraph, ti is perkindred character belongs to it in
haps applied as a secondary suffix.
the numeral derivatives from pronominal roots, kati, tati, yati, and from
numerals, as daqati, viinjati, sastf, etc., with pankti (from pafica);
in padati; and in addhati, from the particle addha.

H ni.

1158.

This suffix agrees in general in its uses

but
its derivatives with the preceding

and in the form of

makes a very much smaller number of words, among

which the feminine abstracts are a minority.
it

As was

a.

their

noticed above (1157c), a few verbs (ending in vowels)

passive participle in na instead of ta make their action-

making
noun in ni instead
injury,

jurni

heat,

From the older language are quotable jyani

hani abandonment (and the masculines ghrni and

of ti.

jlrni); later occur glani, -mlani, saimi-.

a$ni eating, -usni burning, vahni

bhurni excited, dharnf sustaining,
virile; and with them may be mentioned

b. Words of the other class are

carrying,

preni

jurni

loving,

singing,

turni

hasty,

vy^ni and vftjni

piftni speckled.
c. In

preni, yoni,

mem,

qreni, 9roni

the radical syllable, such as does not appear

d. Derivatives in ni

Whitney, Grammar.

2. ed.

is

seen a strengthening of
derivatives in ti.

among the

:om roots with prefixes do not appear

28

to occur.

XVII. PRIMARY DERIVATION.

1158]
e. In

hraduni and hladuni we have

434

a prefixed u.

In the words

ending in ani, the a has probably the same value with that of ati (above.
1157g); but ani has gained a more independent status, and may be best
treated as a separate suffix.

The words made by this suffix have

same double value with those made by the preceding
1169. ?rf% ani.

the

Their accent

suffixes.

is

Thus:

various.

a. Feminine action-nouns, sometimes with concreted meaning

as,
isani impulse, qarani injury, dyotani brightness, ksipam blow, &<*&ni
missile, vartanf track; and -arcjani, udani-, jarani-.
:

other agent-words are: arani fire-stick, carani

caksani enlightener, tarani quick, dhamani pipe, dhvasani
Dharani and one or two
scattering, vaka&ni strengthener, sarani track.
other late words are probably variants to stems in ani. From a reduFrom desiderative stems are made
plicated root-form comes -paptani.

b. Adjectives and

movable,

ruruksani, ai^asani, and (with prefix) a-9U(juk8ani. And a small

number of words appear to attach themselves to an s-aorist stem: thus,
parsani, sakijani, caraani.
c. It is questionable

whether the infinitives in sani (078) are

to

be

put here, as accusatives of a formation in ani, or under the next suffix,

as locatives of a formation in an, from roots and stems increased by an
aoristic 8.

^T

1160.

Not many words

an.

are

made with

a suffix

of this form, and of these few are plainly to be connected

with

Certain rare neuters (along with the doubtful

roots.

are

infinitives)

nouns of action; the

The accent

and neuter agent-nouns.

a.

The

infinitives

locative cases, are those

of a tense-stem.

They

once

usual one), and

c.

are masculine

which admit of being referred to this suffix, as

in sani, of which the sibilant may be the final

are all given above

b. The other action-nouns in

thority (RV.,

rest

is various.

compare rajan

gambhan

an

(978).

are

mahan

greatness,

the accent-relation

is

rajan au-

the reverse of the

depth (VS., once); and PB. has

Agent-nouns (in part

ksepna once.
uksan ox,
connection)
dhvasan proper name, pusan name of

of

doubtful

are:

taksan carpenter,
majjan marrow, rajan king, vfsan virile, bull, saghan, snlhan
(snuhan Apast.); also -gman, jman, -bhvan, -Qvan, with qvan, yuvan, yosan, aud the stems ahan, lidhan, etc. (430 4), filling up the

caksan

eye,

a god,

inflection of other defective stems.

d.

kaman.

With

prefixes

occur

pratidfvan and atidivan, vibhvan, ni-

STEMS IN

435
1161.

The

tu.
rj

ni, ani, an, tu, nu.

great mass of the words of this form-

ation are the infinitives -- accusatives

guage, in the earlier likewise datives

see above, 970b, 972,

[1162

But a few

in

and

the

later

lan-

ablative-genitives:

are also used independ-

action-nouns or with concreted meaning; and an

extremely small number, of somewhat questionable characently, as

ter,

all

appear to have the value of agent-words. They are of

The root has the gunagenders, but chiefly masculine.

strengthening.
a.

The

infinitive

words are accented on the radical syllable when

same accent; but a few have

simple, and most of the others have the

the tone on the ending.

of the regular formation, masc. datu share, jatutantu thread, mantu counsel, 6tu weft, sfttu
also kratu capacity, and saktu gr its
receptacle, s6tu tie, sotu pressure
fern,
vastu morning; neat, vastu thing, vastu abode;
with accent
on the ending, aktu ray, jantu being, gatu way and song, yatu (?)
with unstrengthened root,
demon, hetu cause, ketu banner (all masc.)
rtu season, pitu drink, sutu birth, and apparently kftu (in kytvas times):
with vi'ddhi-strerigthening, vastu (above).
Agent-nouns appear to be
dhatu drinkable and krostu jackal.

b. Examples are

dhatu

birth,

element,

c.

The

infinitives in

tu have (968)

often the union-vowel i before

the suffix, and this in a few cases is lengthened to

I.

In other use occur

-starltu and -dharitu (both with due), -havltu (with su); turpharitu seems of the same formation, but is obscure.

also

d. In a few instances, the suffix

or

conjugation-stem in

a; thus,

tapyatu; and sif&satu.

that of jlvatu life, which
is

s?

abstract
a.

be added to a tense-

The accent of the

last

is

paralleled

only by

showing a long

ft;

it

infinitive.

This suffix forms a comparatively small

nu.

body of words,

to

is further exceptional in

used sometimes in the manner of an

1162.

tu appears

edhatu and vahatu; tamyatii and

generally masculine, and having both the

and the concrete value.

The accent

is

usually on the ending, and the root unstrength-

ened.

ksepnu jerk, bhanu light

danu (with irregular accent) m.

b. Thus:

sunu

son,

f.

(later

demon,

sun),

vagnu

n. drop,

gj-dhnu ha*t y, tapnu burning, trasnu fearful,

and vifnu Vishnu, and perhaps sthanu pillar. Compare
tnu, 11 96 a.
f.

cow

,-

sound,

dhenu
dhrsnu bold
dew,-

28*

,-

also suffix

XVII. PRIMARY DERIVATION.

1162]

This also (like tu) appears sometimes with a prefixed a: thus,

c.

ksipanu
f.)

436

krandanu and nadanu

missile,

and perhaps the proper names

1163.

tha.

5T

nabhanu

roaring,

(only instance with prefix)

vibhanjanu

fountain,

dasanu and krtjanu

The words made with

(and -nil,

breaking to

pieces;

belong here.

this suffix are al-

most without exception action-nouns (though some have

assumed a concrete value). They are of all genders. The

weak

root is of a

(or

even weakened) form, and the accent

usually on the suffix.

Thus:

a.

song,

paktha

9otha

rnasc.,

n. pr.,

artha

-itha goiny,

bhytha

siktha sediment; and,

swelling,

goal,

-yatha

offering,

-krtha making, gatha

-Qitha lying down,

road,

of less clear

connections,

yutha

ratha chariot;
neut., uktha saying, tirtha ford, nitha song,
riktha heritage, and apparently prstha back;
fern, (with a), gatha
Radical a is weakened to I in githa song and -pitha
song, nitha way.
herd,

and -pitha protection;

drink

hatha

a final nasal

In vijigitha (B.; hut

slaying.

in

lost

is

BAU.

-ita)

is

-gatha going and

apparently seen a

formation from a reduplication of yji, victorious.

b.

on the

few examples of combination with prefixes occur, with accent

final:

thus,

nirrtha

destruction,

samgatha

union,

etc.

more common in the older language is a form of this suffix

which has become prefixed an a, which is probably of thematic origin,
c. Still

to

Thus
-anatha breathing, ayatha foot,
tvesatha vehemence, and so prothatha, yajatha, ravatha, vaksatha, ucatha, vidatha, (jansatha, ^apatha, (jayatha,
Qvayatha, (jvasatha, sacatha, stanatha, stavatha, sravatha, and,
with weak root-form, ruvatha; the later language adds karatha, taratha,
Qamatha, savatha. With a prefix, the accent is thrown forward upon
the final
thus, avasatha abode, pravasatha absence ; but pranatha
though become a union-vowel.

caratha

mobility,

breath is treated as if

varutha
1164.

2T

attached to

protection,

thu.
it,

jarutha wasting

This suffix

and, in the

makes, appears only as

5(51

a. The only Vedic examples

Later cases
stanathu roaring.

ksavathu

(S.),

integral root.

combinations of tha with other preceding vowels occur

d. Isolated

thus,

pran were an

(like

(?);

and

matutha (]/man?).

tha, above) has an

very few derivatives which

a
it

athu.
are

are

ejathu quaking, vepathu

nandathu

(TS.),

trembling,

nadathu

(U.),

davathu, bhraA^athu, majjathu,vamathu,9vayathu,

sphurjathu.

1165.

yu. With this suffix are made a very few nouns,

STEMS IN nu, tha, thu, yu, ma, mi, man.

437

[1168

both of agent and of action, with unstrengthened root and

Thus:

various accent.

a. Abstracts (masc.)

are

manyii

wrath,

mytyu

death (with t added

to the short final of the root).

b. Adjectives etc. are

i.

qundhyu

1.7),

druhyu

yajyu

pure;

bhujyu pliable, mucyu (GB.

sahyu strong, dasyu enemy; and,

n. pr.,

pious,

with vyddhi-strerigthening, jfiyii victorious.

For other derivatives ending in yu, see the suffix u, below, 1178h,i.

c.

1166.

almost

all

accent, as
a.

q ma. The action-nouns made by

of action-nouns are:

Examples

bhama

progress,

b.

9agma

this suffix are

masculine; and they are of various root-form and

are also the agent-nouns and adjectives.

of

Examples
mighty,

a reduplicated

sanna

brightness,

etc.

agent-nouns

ajma cour.se, gharma heat; ema

stoma song of praise.

flow,

are

tigma

sharp, (bhijxia_Jerr/6ie^>

idhma fuel, yudhma warrior. A single instance from

root is tutuma powerful.
Sarama f., with a before the

suffix, is of doubtful connection.

c.

number

of stems in

ma

have stems in

appear, at least in part, to be transfers from the

man
an-

to

beside them, and

the a-declension.

Such are ajma, oma, ema, arma, tokma, darma, dharma, narma,
yama, yugma, vema, susma, soma, sarma, homa.
1167. FT nii* A very small number of nouns, masculine and
feminine, formed with mi,

may be conveniently noticed here.

urmf wave, -kurmi action, surmi f. tube; from
bhumi or bhumi earth, laksmi sign; also proband the adjective krudhmi (? RV., once).

Thus, from f-roots,

others,

jamf

relation,

ably ra<jmi line, ray;

1188.

*R man. The numerous

this suffix are

of

them

much

f.

almost only action-nouns.

are neuter,

smaller

derivatives

The

and accented on the

number

are masculine,

made with

great majority

root-syllable;

and accented

011

the

The few agent-words are, if nouns, masculine, and

suffix.
have the latter accent: in several instances, a neuter and
a masculine,

of the

stand side by

side.

one and the other value and accent,

The

root

has in general the guna-

strengthening.
1.

janman
sacrifice,

a.

Examples

birth,

naman

-dyotman

of regularly

name,

splendor.

formed neuters are:

vartman

track,

veqman

karman
dwelling,

action,

homan

XVII. PRIMARY DERIVATION.

1168]

438

oman /"ar or, ojman

heman impulse,

b. Examples of masculine abstracts are:

jeman
c.

conquest,

sweetness,

strength,

Corresponding neuter action-nouns and masculine agent-nouns are

brahman priest; daman gift and daman

rule and dharman orderer; sadman seat and sadman
oman friend stands in the contrary relation to oman m. favor.

brahman
dharman
But

svadman

worship and

few other agent-nouns occur

d. On the
variman) have

and all, except brahman,

jeman

other hand,

and

giver;
sitter.

Very

are of rare occurrence.

var^man

and

svadman

(and

the difference of gender and accent without a corresponding

difference of meaning.
e.

The noun a<jman stone, though masculine, is accented on the

and two or three other questionable cases of the same kind

radical syllable ;
occur.
f.

The

derivatives

in

man

most part the accent of neuters

g.

used as infinitives (974) have

the only exception is

for

of either class, have an irregular root-form:

few words,

the

vidmane.
thus,

udman, usman or usman, bhiiman earth, bhuman abundance, syuman, siman, bhujman, vidman, cikman, c usman, sidhman aud
karsman, bharman, 9akman.
;

h. Derivatives in

man

from roots with prefixes are not numerous.

prefix, whether action-nouns or adjectives:

They are usually accented on the

thus,

prabharman

forthbringiny,

following after: the exceptions,

perhaps of possessive formation.

The same

prayaman

departure;

anuvartman

vijaman, prativartman, visarman,

are

though only with its abstract-making value,

it a union-vowel, i or I; and iman
comes to be used as a secondary suffix, forming abstract nouns (masculine) from a considerable number of adjectives.
2.

i.

suffix,

has in a number of cases before

j.

The neuters in

iman

and

Tman

are primary formations, belonging

janiman, dhariman (M.), variman (beside variman, as noticed above); and dariman, dhariman,
parlman (and pareman SV., once), bharlman, variman, sariman,
stariman, saviman, and haviman. Those in iman are hardly met
almost only to the older language

thus,

with outside the Rig- Veda.

k. The masculines in iman are in the oldest language less frequent

than the neuters just described: they are taniman (?), jariman, prathiman, mahiman, variman (beside the equivalent variman and variman), varsiman (beside the equivalent varsman and varsman), hari-

man, and draghiman

Some of these,
(VS.) beside
(V.B.).
as well as of the derivatives in
simple man, attach themselves in meaning,
or in form also, to
adjectives, to which they seem the accompanying abstracts: compare the similar treatment of the
and

drSghman

primary comparatives

468): such are p&pman (to papa, papiyas etc.);

(to dirgha, draghiyas, etc.); variman etc. (to uni,

superlatives (above,

drfighman

etc.

STEMS IN man, van, vana, vani, vanu.

439
variyas,
or

prathiman (to pythu, prathis. $ha) hariman (to hard

varsman etc. (to varsiyas etc.) svadman etc. (to avadu,

etc.)

harita)

svadiyas,

[1170

-,

Then in the Brahmana language

etc.).

dhumriman

are found further

ex-

dradhiman (MS. K. to dydha,

dradhiyas, etc.), animan (B. and animan n. 6), stheman, sthaviman (n. big piece], taruniman (K.), parufiman (AB.), abaliman
amples

thus,

(TS. K.),

lohitiman (KB.)

(ChU.),

and

still

later such as

purniman, madhuriman, qoniman,

1169.

^R

van.

etc.,

are

this suffix

By

laghiman, kfsniman,

etc.

made almost only

agent- words, adjectives and nouns, the latter chiefly masThe root is unstrengthened, and to a short final
culines.

vowel

is

added a

FT t

most always on the

their

root,

The accent

is

al-

both in the simple words and in

compounds.

a.

The insertion of t is an intimation

made by the addition of an to

that the words of this form are

in u and tu; yet

has the present value of an integral suffix in the language, and must

originally

van

before the suffix.

derivatives

be treated as such.
b.

Examples

druhvan

of

the

usual

formation

are:

masc.

yajvan

offering,

qakvan capable, -rfkvan leaving, -jitvan conquering,

sutvan pressing, kftvan active, -gatvan (like -gat, -gatya) going, Batvan (]/san) warrior; neut. parvan Joint, dhanvan b<ne. Irregular, with
strengthened root, are arvan courser, -yavan (? AY.) driving off; and,
with accent on the suffix, dpran (? VS.) and vidvan (? AV.).
c.
excelling,

van

harming,

with prefixes (which are not rare) are atitvan

sambhytvan collecting ; and perhaps vivas-

Examples from

roots

upahasvan

reviler,

shining:

abhisatvan

is

compound with governing preposition (1310).

For the compounds with other elements,

have the same accent, see below, 1277.

which,

except in special cases,

d. The stems muBivan robber and sanitvan (each RV., once) are the
only ones with a union-vowel, and are perhaps better regarded as secondof which a few are made with this suffix : see below,
ary derivatives

1234.

From

possibly

vivasvan).

e. Action-nouns

words mentioned at
as locative of

made rarftvan and cikitvan (and

a reduplicated root are

made with the

974

unless

suffix

van

bhurvani

are

only the infinitival

(RV., once)

is to

be added,

bhurvan.

The feminines corresponding to adjectives in van are not

(apparently) directly from this suffix, but from vara, and end

f.

made
in

vari; see below, 1171b.

1170.

SR vana, ^ft

vani,

cR vanu. The

very few words

XVII. PRIMARY DERIVATION.

170]
made with

these suffixes

nection with 5R van

(of

may

best be noticed here, in con-

which the others are probably

ondary extensions),
a. With vana are made vagvana

talkative,

satvan, above); and, from a reduplicated

b. With

bhurvani

vani

restless,

With

1171.

vanu

5^

roots

sec-

warrior (beside

turvani

shining.
excelling,

and

and, from reduplicated roots,

dhrsvani daring, tuturvani

harisvani is obscure.
c.

satvana

9U9ukvana

root,

made from simple

are

440

is

striving after,

made only vagvanu

With

vara.

9U9ukvani shining, daand jugurvani praising; artone, noise.

this suffix are

made

a few deriv-

having for the most part the value

atives, of all genders,

of agent-nouns and adjectives.

Much more common

are the

feminine stems in Sf^ vari, which, from the earliest period,

serve as corresponding feminines to the masculine stems
in

a.

van.

few masculine adjectives in vara occur, formally accordant (ex-

itvara going, -advara eating:

i9vara, -javara, pharvara,
bharvara, bhasvara, vyadhvara(?), -sadvara, sthavara, and doubtless with them belongs vidvala; later, -kasvara, gatvara, ghasvara
(also ghasmara), -jit vara, naqvara, pi vara, mad vara, -srtvara;
cept in accent) with the feminines: thus,
and so, farther, in the older language,

from a reduplicated
feminines in a.

root,

yayavara

(B.

and

Many

later).

of these have

b. The feminines in vari accord in treatment of the root and in

accent with the masculines in

van

to

which they correspond: thus, yaj-

vari, -jitvari, Sftvari, -9lvari, -yavarl, and so on (about twenty-five

such formations in RV.); from a reduplicated root, -9i9vari.
c. A very small number of neuters occur, with accent on the root
:

thus,

karvara

ine or

two,

deed,

gahvara

gabhvara) thicket and a feminpenult: urvara field, and urvari tow

(later also

with accent on the

.-

(both of doubtful etymology).

We take up now the suffixes by which are made only stems

having the value of agent-nouns and adjectives
beginning with a
brief mention of the participial endings, which in general have been
;

already sufficiently treated.

1172.

or

^\at

3H^ant
making present and future
(

)-

The

office

of this suffix, in

participles active, has

been

fully

explained above, in connection with the various tense-stems

and conjugation-stems (chaps. VIII.

XIV.), in combination

STEMS IN vana

441

with which alone

unless this

is

etc.,

it

also

vara, ant, vans, mana, ana, ta.

is

employed

[1176

(not directly with the root,

used as tense-stem).

a. A few words of like origin, but used as Independent

adjectives,
were given at 460. With the same or a formally identical suffix are made
from pronominal roots fyant and k{yant (451, 51 7 a). And advayant
not double-tongued (RV., once), appears to contain a similar formation from
the numeral dvi
unless we are to assume a denominative verb-stem as

intermediate.

1173.

For the (perfect active) par^ra^vSns (or^pv-as).

made with this suffix, see above, 802 6, and 458 if.

ticiples
a.
at

few words of irregular and questionable formation were noticed

RV. vocaAlso, apparent transfers to a form us or usa.

462, above.

lizes the

once, in

jujuruan.

b. The oldest language (RV.) has a very few words in vas, of doubtful relations: fbhvas and 9fkvas skilful (beside words in va and
van),

and perhaps khidvas (j/khad). The neuter abstract varivas breadth,

room (belonging to uru broad, in the same manner with variyas and

variman), is quite isolated.

pivans instead of pivan.

1174.
are, as has

MBh. makes

a nominative

pivan,

as if from

The participles having this ending

seen
been
(584 b), present and future only, and

?TH mana.

have the middle, or the derived passive, value belonging in

general to the stems to which the suffix is attached.

The participles ending in ^R ana are

1175. ETR ana.
middle
and
of
passive value, like those just noticed, and
either present, perfect, or (partly with the form HH sana:
above, 897 b) aorist.
a.

few other words ending in the same manner in the old language

may be mentioned here. The RV.

vana, vasavana, urdhvasana,
ticipial stems.

has the adjectives

apparently

takavana, bhfgamade on the model of par-

apnavana, pythavana, and cyaParqana abyss is doubtful; rujana (RV., once)

reading; apnana is of doubtful character.

Also the proper names

vana and cyavatana.

is

probably a false

1176. rTUa
ciples directly

The use

from the

of this suffix in forming parti-

root,

or from a conjugational (not

a tense) stem, was explained above, 952

thus

made

6.

The

participles

are in part intransitive, but in great part passive

XVII. PRIMARY DERIVATION.

1176]

made by

in value (like those

in

much
a. A

few general adjectives,

adaptations of this participle.

dha

the two preceding suffixes, but

and more

larger measure,

442

decidedly).

nouns with concrete meaning, are

Examples are tr^a r w?', qita cold, dror

drdha: 224a)/frm; duta messenger, suta charioteer; yta right,

ghyta ghee, jata kind, dyuta gambling, nytta danc, jlvita life, carita
The adjective tigita (RV.) sharp shows anomalous
behavior, smita smtfe.
(for

of palatal

reversion
single

to guttural before the

example from a reduplicated

(216d).

Vavata

dear

is

root.

b. Doubtless after the example and model of participles from denominative stems (of which, however, no instances are quotable from the Veda
unless bhamita RV.), derivatives in ita are in the later language

made directly from noun and adjective-stems, having the meaning of endowed with, affected by, made to be, and the like (compare the similar English formation in ed, as horned, barefooted, bluecoated). Examples are rathita furnished with a

chariot,

duhkhita

pained,

kusumita

flowered,

durbalita weakened, nihsariKjayita indubitable, etc. etc.

c. A few words ending in ta are accented on the radical syllable,
and their relation to the participial derivatives is very doubtful: such are
asta home, marta mortal, vata wind; and with them may be mentioned
garta high seat, nakta niyht, hasta hand. Vrata is commonly viewed
as containing a suffix ta,

trada, vraja)

aiid

but

means

it

doubtless comes from yvr-t (vrat-a, like

originally course.

d. Several adjectives denoting color end in

ita, but are hardly con-

nectible with roots of kindred

meaning: thus, palita gray, asita black,

harita green; akin with them are eta variegated,

rohita and lohita red,

<jyeta white. The feminines of these stems are in part irregular: thus,
em and <jyem; rohin! and lohinl, and harinl (but the corresponding
masc. harina also occurs) and asikni, palikni, and harikni.
;

small number of adjectives in the older language ending infata\

are not to be separated from the participial words in ta, although their
specific meaning is in part gerundive. They are
pacata cooked, dar<jata
e.

and pa^yata
rata.

The

of

also is that of

relation to i/raj

1177.

^ na

bhapaqyata and haryata indicates pretty plainly that the

a present tense-stem. Bajata silvery is of more obscure
color; parvata mountain must be secondary.

seen, to be seen,

*f

na (and

in forming

those in

rT

^=T

worth seeing ; and so yajata, haryata,

ina, 3*T una).

The use

of the suffix

from certain roots participles equivalent to

ta, either alongside the latter or instead of them,

was explained above,

at 957.

a. With the same suffix are made a number of general adjectives,

and of nouns of various gender (fern, in nft). The accent is on the suffix

STEMS IN

443
or on

the

root.

/(cat,

varna

fern,

tfsna

praqna

masc.,

[1178

una, u.

usna

few examples are:

qvitna white;

ravenous,

ta, na, ina,

hot,

question,

<;una fortunate,

yajna

offering,

aqna
ghfna

svapna sleep; neut., parna tw'np, ratna jewel (?);

yacna supplication. But many of the stems ending in
na are not readily connectible with roots. An antithesis of accent is seen
in karna ear and karna eared.
coZor,

t/ursf,

The few words ending

b.

dravina property,

ina

are of doubtful connection, but

may

vrjina crooked, daksina right,

druhina, -sresina, harina ; and kanina may be added.

The words ending

c.

in

amina

be mentioned here: thus,

in

violent,

una

are of various

meaning and accent,

like

ana: they are arjuna, karuna, -cetuna, taruna, daruna,

dharuna, nariina, pfquna, mithuna, yatiina, vayuna, varuna, c,aliina, and the feminine yamiina; and bhruna may be added.
those

in

d.

These are

The gerundives,

all

later

the proper participial endings of the language.

and earlier, are in the main evident secondary

formations, and will be treated under the head of secondary derivation.

We

take up

now

the other suffixes forming agent-nouns and

which have more or less a parti-

adjectives, beginning with those

cipial value.

1178.

u.

With

this

suffix are

made

a considerable

body of derivatives, of very various character

adjectives,
and agent-nouns of all genders, with different treatment of
the root, and with different accent.

It is

especially used

with certain conjugational stems, desiderative (particularly

later) and denominative (mainly earlier), making adjectives
with the value of present participles; and in such use
wins in part the aspect of a secondary suffix.

it

a. The root has oftenest a weak (or weakened) form; but it is

sometimes vriddhied least often (when capable of guna), it has the
all without any apparent connection with either
guna-strengthening
accent or meaning or gender. After final radical a is usually added
few derivatives are made from the rey (258) before the suffix.
duplicated root. But many words, ending in u are not readily, or not
;

at

connectible

all,

with roots; examples will be given especially of

those that have an obvious etymology.

uru wide, rju straight, pfthu

sadhu good, svadii sweet, tapu hot, vasu good; jadaru bursting; <jayii lying, reku empty; dhayu thirsty,

b. Examples of ordinary adjectives are

broad,

mrdu

yii conquering,

payii

protecting.

u,
c.

soft,

Final

anuf thii), and

Examples

of

a appears

to

be

lost before

the suffix in -sthu

perhaps in yu, -gu (agregu), and

nouns are: masc.,

an^u

ray,

ripu

-khu (akhu).
vayu

deceiver,

XVII. PRIMARY DERIVATION.

1173]
asu

wind-god,

sindhu

manu

life,

man, Manu;

tanu

(also masc.) river,

or

tanu

isu

fern.,

body

d. Derivatives from reduplicated roots are:

jijnu, sisnu, -tatnu (unless this is made with

444
(also

neut.,

raasc.)

ksu

arrow,

food.

cikitu, jagxnu, jigyu,

nu

or

tnu),

didyu

('?),

dadru, yayu or yayu and yfyu (with final a lost), pipru (proper name),
-dldhayu; and titaii, babhni, -raru (araru), malimlu (?) have the
aspect of being similar formations.

e.

few derivatives are made from roots with prefixes, with various

accentuation:

for

viklindu

tion,

example,

upayu

a certain disease,

on-coming,

abhi^u

pramayu

rein (director),

going to destruc-

samvasu

dwell-

ing together.
f.

splitting,

From tense-stems, apparently, are made tanyu thundering, bhindu

-vindu finding, and (with aoristic a) dakfu and dhaksu (all RV.).

u from desiderative "roots" (stems with

a) are sufficiently numerous in the ancient language (RV.
has more than a dozen of them, AV. not quite so many) to show that the
g. Participial adjectives in

loss of their final

and later such

formation was already a regular one, extensible at will
may be made from every desiderative. Examples (older) are:
;

adjectives

dipsu, cikitsu, titiks.u, piplsu, mumuk|u, iyakfu, i^liksu; with prefix, abhidipsu; with anomalous accent, didfksu. These adjectives, both earlier and later, may take an object in the accusative (271 a).
ditsii,

h.

few similar adjectives are made in the older language from caus-

dharayu (persistent), bhajayu, bhavayu, manhayu, mandayu, 9ramayii; and mrgayu from the caus.-denom. mrgaya.

atives

i.

thus,

Much more numerous,

them

eighty of
are

AV.

however, are such formations from the more

the oldest language (RV. has toward

especially in

proper denominatives,

only a quarter as many, including six or eight which

and they are still rarer in the Brahmanas, and

not found in RV.

hardly met with later). In a majority of cases, personal verbal forms from
the same denominative stem are in use: thus, for example, to aghayu,

aratiyu, yjuyii, caranyu,

manasyu, saniayu, urusyu, saparyu;

in

yant, or the abstract noun in ya

at
all. A few are made upon denominative stems from
or
nothing
(1149d),
pronouns thus, tvSyu (beside tvayant and tvaya), yuvayii or yuvByu,
asmayu, svayii, and the more anomalous ahamyu and kimyu. Espethe present participle

others, only

in

where no other denominative forms accompany the

cially

often the aspect of being

either with a
tive sense

yavayu
;

adjective, this

has

noun with the suffix yu,

with a more general adjec-

directly from the

meaning of seeking

thus,

desiring the breast

And

made

or desiring, or

var&hayu boar-hunting, stanasyu

yuvanyu youthful, bhlmayu terrible.

seeking grain,

urnayii woolen,

so the "secondary suffix

yu" wins

a degree of standing and application

*

one forming derivative adj ectives (as in ahamyu and kimyu, above,
and doubtless some others, even of the RV. words). In three RV. cases,
the final as of a noun-stem is even changed to o before it
namely, aft-

as

hoyii,

duvoyu

(and

duvoya;

beside

duvasyu), askfdhoyu.

STEMS IN

445

cept

j. The words in yu do not show

dhasius AV., once).

1179.

Stems in

^3T u.

Compared with those in

[1180

u, u, uka.

in the

^3T

Veda

are

resolution into

very few,

even as

are for the

They

(1156).

iu (ex-

most

masculines in u (344 b),

corresponding
with half-a-dozen more independent feminines (see 855 c).
part feminines

a.

to

To those already mentioned

added karsu

above are to be

pit,

-calu (in pumQcalu), -janu (in prajanu),

118O.

3^fi

With

uka.

suffix are

this

made

derivatives

having the meaning and construction (27 Ig) of a present

The root is strengthened, and has the accent.
participle.
a. The derivatives in uka are hardly known in the Veda; but they
become frequent in the Brahmanas, of whose language they are a marked
characteristic (about sixty different stems occur there); and they are found
In all probability, they are originally and
occasionally in the older language.

properly obtained by adding the secondary suffix ka (1222) to a derivative

u; but they have gained fully the character of primary formations, and
in only an instance or two is there found in actual use an u-word from
in

which they should be made.

b. The root is only so far strengthened that the radical syllable is a
heavy (79) one; and it has the accent, whether the derivative is made
from a simple root or from one with prefix.
c.

Examples, from the Brahmana language, are: vaduka, naxjuka,

upakramuka, prapaduka, upasthayuka (258), vyayuka, veduka,

bhavuka, kaodhuka, haruka, varsuka, samardJmka, dansuka,
alambuka, Qiksuka (GB.: RV. has $iksu), pramayuka (SB. has
pramSyu).
d. Exceptions as regards root-form are nirmarguka (with vyddhistrengthening, as is usual with this root 627), -kasuka, rdhnuka (from
AV. accents aamkasuka (B. has
a tense-stem; beside ardhuka).
:

samkasuka) and vikasuka

of the formation,

apramayuka)

A9anayuka
e.

Of

vasuka

(PB. et

liV. has

be one;

if it

al.) is

sanuka

AV. has

also

(which

is its

only example

ghatuka from yhan, and

(TS. et al.) is probably of another character.

the only example noticed from a conjugation-stem.

later occurrence

are

a few words whose relation to the others

karmuka

and dharmuka, tsaruka, tarkuka,

nanduka, paduka, pecuka, bhiksuka, lasuka, sediika, hindnka,

is

more

or less doubtful

hresuka.

Of

these,

only

lasuka appears

like

a true continuer of the

formation; several are pretty clearly secondary derivatives.

f. A formation in uka (a suffix of like origin, perhaps, with uka)
may be mentioned here: namely, indhuka, majjuka, and, from redu-

XVII. PRIMARY DERIVATION.

H80-]

plicated roots, jagarftka wakeful,

9tika

yayajuka

biting,

salaluka

is

muttering,

(later)

vavaduka

much,

1181. 5Rf aka.

a derivative in

we

Here, as in the preceding case,

made by secondary

a; but

it

has,

addition of

manner of a primary

suffix

is

of

efi

ka

the same reason as

for

the other, a right to be mentioned here.

the

dandatalkative;

(later)

questionable.

doubtless have a suffix

to

janjapuka

sacrificing

446

still

Its free

later

use in

date than

has very few examples in the older language.

uka;
a. In RV. is found (besides pavaka, which has a different accent,
and which, as the metre shows, is really pavaka) only sayaka missile;
AY. adds piyaka and vadhaka, and YS. abhikroqaka. But in the later
that of

it

language. such derivatives are common, more usually with raising of the rootthus, nayaka, dayaka (258),
syllable by strengthening to heavy quantity
pacaka, grahaka, bodhaka, jagaraka; but also janaka, khanaka.
They are declared by the grammarians to have the accent on the radical
They often occur in copulative composition with gerundives of
syllable.
the same root thus, bhaksyabhaksaka eatable and eater, vacyavacaka
:

designated and designation, and so on.

b. That the derivatives in

aka sometimes

take an

accusative

object

was pointed out above (27 1 c).

c.

The corresponding feminine

but more usually in

is

made sometimes

in

aka

or in

aki,

ika: thus, nayika (with nayaka), pacika, bo-

dhikS; compare secondary aka, below, 1222.

d. Derivatives in aka are made from a few

roots:

thus,

jalpaka,

bhiksaka; but very few occur in the older language: thus, pavaka (above,
With aku is
a), nabhaka, smayaka, j&h9ka(?), -calaka, pataka.
made in RY. mrdayaku, from the causative stem: pfdaku and the proper name iksvaku are of obscure connection.
e. Derivatives in

with those in

1182.

above

with

rT ty (or
rTJ" tar).

as regards both their

suffix,

uses,

ika and ika

will

be treated below, in connection

ka (1180c).

The

derivatives

made by

mode of formation and

this

their

have been the subject of remark more than once

(see 369 ff., 942 if.).
Agent-nouns are freely formed
it

at every period of the

language

these in the oldest

language are very frequently used participially, governing

an object in the accusative (27 Id); later they enter into

combination with an auxiliary verb, and, assuming a future

STEMS IN uka, aka,

447

[1183

tr, in.

Their
meaning, make a periphrastic future tense (942).
-in
tri.
is
feminine
corresponding
a. The root has regularly the giu^a-strengthening. A union-vowel
i

as regards
(very rarely, one of another character) is often taken
presence or absence in the periphrastic future forms, see above
:

its

(943

a).

b. Without guna-change

only ustr plough-ox (no proper agent-

is

noun: apparently iiks-tr: compare the nouns of relationship further on).

The root grab has, as usual, I
thus, grahitf ; and the same appears
in

-tarltr,

-pavltf, -marity, -varltr, -savltr. An u-vowel is taken

taruty, dhanutr, and sanutr; long in varutr;

instead by tarutr and

strengthened to

in

manotr and manotf.

From a reduplicated

root

comes vavatr.
c. The accent, in the older language, is sometimes on the suffix
and sometimes on the root; or, from roots combined with prefixes,
sometimes on the suffix and sometimes on the prefix.

cipial

d. In general, the accent on the root or prefix accompanies the partiuse of the word; but there are exceptions to this: in a very few in-

stances (four), a word with accented suffix has an accusative object;

much more often, accent on the root appears along with ordinary

The

value.

accent, as well

as the form,

of

manotr

is

very

noun

an isolated irreg-

jets dh&nftni winning treasures; yuyam martarn srotarah ye listen to a mortal; but, on the other hand, yamta
vasuni vidhate bestowing good things on the pious ; and j&tft jananam

Examples

ularity.

are:

conqueror of peoples.

The formation of these nouns in tr from conjugation-stems, regular

later language, and not very rare in the Brahmanas.
met with but once or twice in the Veda (bodhayitf and codayitri,
e.

and frequent in the

is

In nes^r a certain priest (RV.

RV.).

and

later),

is

apparently seen the

aoristic 8.
f.

The words

of relationship

the aspect of derivatives in

tr,

which, in whatever way,

are pitf,

matf bhratr,
,

naptr, jamfttr. Of these, only matp and yatr are in

the ordinary rules of the formation in tr.
g. Instead of tr

is

have gained

yatr, duhitf,
accordance with

found tur in one or two RV. examples

yamtur,

sthfitur.

h. Apparently formed by a suffix

nanandr, devf,
ending in

r, see

1183.

(or

ar) are uaf, savyasthr,

For other words

the last two being words of relationship.

369.

^in.

This

is

another suffix which has assumed

a primary aspect and use, while yet evidently identical in

real

character with the

frequent

secondary suffix of the

same form denoting possession (below, 1230).

XVII. PRIMARY DERIVATION.

1183H
a.

How

far

448

had gained a primary value in the early language is

Most of the words in in occurring in RV. and AV.

it

not easy to determine.

are explainable as possessives

few

it is

in

many the other value is possible, and in

kevaladin, bhadrav&dln, nitodin,

distinctly suggested: thus,

a^araisln, anamin, vivyadhin ; from a tense-stem, -a9nuvin, -pasyin

with aoristic a, -saksin ; and, with reduplication, niyayln, vadavadin.
As the examples indicate, composition, both with prefixes and
(late)

with other elements,

is

frequent;

and, in all cases alike, the accent is on

the suffix.

b. Later, the primary employment

is

unquestionable, and examples of

The radical syllable is usually

strengthened, a medial a being sometimes lengthened and sometimes remain-

it,

chiefly

in

composition,

Thus,

ing unchanged.

are frequent.

eatyavadin truth-speaking abhibhasin

manoharin

In
soul-winning.
future meaning, about to be.
c.

The use

of an

bhavin

accusative

addressing,

has established itself a prevailingly

object

with words in in was noticed

above (27 1 b).

1184. SEnT fyas and <T^? istha. These suffixes, which, from
forming intensive adjectives corresponding to the adjective of rootform, have come to be used, within somewhat narrow limits, as sufof adjective comparison, have been already sufficiently treated
above, under the head of comparison (486470).
fixes

a. It

may be

further noticed that

(only two or three times in

and that
is

b.
its

its correlative also is

made from

is

jye^ha

RV.) the accent

kanis^ha

has in the older language

on the final, jyestha,

also

in the oldest language

parsistha

a secondary form of root, with aoristic B added.

When the comparative suffix has the abbreviated form yas

never to be read in the Yeda as i.

(470 a),

c. No other suffixes make derivatives having participial value

otherwise than in rare and sporadic cases; those that remain, therefore, will be taken up mainly in the order of their frequency and

importance.

1185.
jectives,

"5T

tra.

With

this

suffix

are formed

a few ad-

and a considerable number of nouns, mostly neuter,

and often having a specialized meaning, as signifying the

means or instrument of the action expressed by the root.

The

latter

has usually the guna-strengthening, but someThe accent is various, but more

times remains unchanged.

often on the radical syllable.

a. Here,

as

in certain other

cases above,

we have

doubtless a suffix

STEMS IN lyas, i^ha, tra

449

made by adding a

originally secondary,

but

use

its

is

to the

[1186

ETC., ka.

primary tr or tar (1182);

in great part that of a primary suffix.

b. Examples of neuter nouns are

gatra limb, pattra wing, patra

vastra garment, qrotra ear; astra missile, stotra
song of praise, potra vesel; of more general meaning, dattra gift, ksetra field, mutra urine, ho tra sacrifice. The words accented on the final

yoktra

cup,

bond,

have often an abstract meaning: thus, kfatra authority, rSs^ra kingdom,

9astra doctrine, sattra sacrificial session (also jnatra knowledge).

danstra

c. Masculines are:

mantra

tusk,

prayer, attra (or atra:

232) devourer, ustra buffalo, camel, and a few of questionable etymology,

as mitra friend, putra son, vrtra foe. Mitra and vrtra are sometimes
neuters even in the Veda, and mitra comes later to be regularly of that
gender.

d. Feminines (in tra) are: astra goad,

rifice

e.
is

dans$ra

(beside hotra),

not

for

(later,

matra

measure,

dans^ra); nas^ra

hotra

sac-

destroyer.

Not seldom, a "union-vowel" appears before the suffix; but this

of the union-vowel used with tr (above,

usually the equivalent

11 82 a).

For the words in itra have the accent on i: thus, aritra (ari-

tra AV., once) impelling,

birth-place,

samtra

oar,

gift;

khanitra

and

so

shovel,

-avitra,

pavitra

sieve,

caritra,

aQitra,

janitra
-taritra,

dhamitra, dhavitra, bhavltra, bharitra, vaditra (with causative rootstrengthening), vahitra: the combination {tra has almost won the character
of an independent suffix. The preceding vowel is also in a few cases a (sometimes apparently of the present-stem) thus, yajatra venerable, krntatra
.

gayatra (f. -tri) song, -damatra, patatra wing ; but also amatra
violent, vadhatra deadly weapon; and varatra f. strap. Tarutra overcoming

8hred,

Naksatra

corresponds to tarutf .

Samskrtatra (RV.,
f.

The words

still

union-vowels before the

is

johutra

asterism

is

of very doubtful etymology.

once) seems of secondary formation.

used as adjectives in tra are mostly such as have

A single example from a reduplicated root

suffix.

crying out.

or two in tri and tru may be added here, as perhaps of

kindred formation with those in tra: thus, attri devouring, arcatri beaming, ratri or ratrl night; qatru (9&ttru: 232) enemy.

g.

word

1186.

efj

secondary

added

The

ka.

suffix

derivation (below,

to roots

is

sfj

ka

is

of very

a.

The

roots

pr.,

is

use in

directly

it.

words which have most distinctly the aspect of being

are

puska-, -meka (]/mi

(jloka (]/?ru hear} noise, report,

flake

it

almost questionable: at any rate, extremely

few primary derivatives are made with

from

common

1222); whether

and stoka drop seem

may be added.

Whitney, Grammar.

2. ed.

to

etc.,

fix), yaska
and -sphaka

belong together

to a

n. pr.,

made

quska dry,
teeming; and atukA
root stu; raka f., n.
29

XVII. PRIMARY DERIVATION.

1186]
b. Bat

ka

enters, in its value

as secondary, into

certain suffixes reckoned as primary: see

0.

459

aka

uka

and

the composition

(above,

few words in which ika and Ik a seem" added

of

1180, 1181).

to a root,

though

they are really of a kindred formation with the preceding, may be most
conveniently noticed here
thus, vf 90 ika (j/vraqc) scorpion ; anlka (?)
:

df9ika aspect, dfbhlka n. pr., mrdika grace, vrdhlka increaser,

a^arika and viqarika yr/>, -rjika beaming, rsika; rksika; and, from

face,

reduplicated root,

parpharlka

scattering (?).

Compare secondary

suffix

ka

1222).

(below,

1187. ETya.

It

made with

rivatives

altogether probable that a part of the debe ranked as

is

this suffix are not less entitled to

primary than some of those which are above so reckoned. Such,

however, are with so much doubt and difficulty to be separated from
the great mass of secondary derivatives

made with

the same suffix

preferred to treat them all together under the head of secondary formation (below, 121013).

that

it is

With

1188. ^ r a*

this suffix are

of adjectives, almost always with

with accent on the

made a

large

root-form,

number

and usually

Also, a few words used as nouns,

suffix.

of various gender.

weak

In some

cases, the suffix is

found with

a preceding vowel, having the aspect of a union- vowel.

a. Examples of adjectives in ra are: ksipra quick, chidra split,
tura strong, bhadra pleating, <jakra mighty, qukra bright, hinara inwith accent on the root, only

jurious

dhira

wise (secondary?),

From

b.

cira

attentive,

roots with prefixes

nimrgra

grdhra

greedy,

tumra

stout,

inspired, tiigra n. pr.

vipra

come only an example

or

two: thus, ni-

joining on.

Nouns in ra

O.

are: masc., ajra field, vira man, vajra thunderbolt,

agra point, ksira mill:, randhra hollow, ripra defiledhara stream, qipre. jaw, sura intoxicating drink.

9\ira hero; neut.,

ment;

fern.,

The forms of this suffix with preceding vowel may best be considered
here, although some of them have nearly or quite gained the value of independent endings.
d.
running,

patara

gambhara
thorn:

Thus:

With ara
depth,

are

flying,

made

few rare words: the adjectives dravara

nyocara suiting; and the nouns

tasara and trasara

bharvara and vasara

the same thing

(with prefix)

shuttle,

sanara

-rksara
and
As made with ara

are doubtless of secondary

gain,

formation

may be plausibly conjectured of others.

may be mentioned xnandara a tree, marjara eat.
e. With ira are made a few words, some of which are in common
use: tli us, aj ira quick, khadira a tree, timira dark, dhvasira stirring
up, madira pleasing, mudira cloud, badhira deaf, rucira bright, isira

STEMS

451
asira

lively,

missile,

sthavira

with displacement of

With ura

made

are

or

and sthira hard, and sphira fat,

sarira wave (usually salila).

firm;

radical

final

With Ira are made gabhira

and perhaps (jarlra body.
f.

[1192

IN ka, ya, ra ETC., la, va, ri, ru.

a; also

profound and (javlra mighty,

gambhira

few words, of some of which the secondary

aAhura (anhu-ra?) narrow, asura (asu-ra?)

living, chidura tearing, bhangura breaking, bhasura shining, bhidura
splitting, medura fat, yadura uniting, vithura tottering, vidura knowing,
vidhura lacking. With ura, apparently, are made sthura stout (compare
character is probable: thus,

sthavira), kharjura a

1189.

tree,

mayura

This suffix

la.

preceding, exchanging with

is
it

peacock (or imitative?).

only another form of the

in certain words, in others

prevalently or solely used from their

a.

Compicuous

first

examples of the interchange are

appearance.

qukla, sthula, -mi9la,

9ithila, salila.
b. Examples of the more independent use are:

pala

protecting,

anila

wind, trpala joyous; later capala and tarala (said to be

accented on the final), and harsula (the same). Many words ending in la
(or anila)

are of obscure etymology.

1190.

made with
They

va.

Very few words of

derivation are

too few to be worth

this suffix

are of various

clear

classifying.

meaning and accent, and generally show

a weak root- form.

rkva praising, rsva lofty, takva quick, dhruva fixed,

padva going, yahva quick (?), tjarva n. pr., hrasva short,
9ikva artful, ranva joyful, urdhva lofty, vakva twisting, urv& stall
eva quick, course, acjva horse, srakva or srkva corner; and perhaps
ulba caul; a feminine is prusva (TS. ppsva, AV. pnifva); with unionTowel are made saciva companion, amiva disease, and vidhava widov.
a.

pakva

Thus:

ripe,

b. The words in

va

exhibit only in

sporadic cases resolution of the

ending into ua..

1191. ff

ri.

With

this suffix are

formed, directly or

with preceding u, a small number of derivatives.

a. Thus:

-dri weariness,

vadhri

eunuch,

anghri or anhri foot, a9ri edge, usri dawn, tandri or

bhuri abundant, vankri rib, surf patron, -takri quick,

qubhri

beautiful,

sthuri

jasuri exhausted, da^uri pious, bhaguri

(or

anguli)

single (team);

n. pr.,

and, with uri,

sahuri mighty; angiiri

finger.
"

This suffix makes a few adjectives and

neuter nouns, either directly or with a preceding vowel.
1192.

ru.

29*

XVII. PRIMARY DERIVATION.

1192]
a. Thus:

a^ru

452

earn dear, dharu sticking, bhiru timid;

araru inimical, pataru flying, vandaru praising,

tear,

with preceding a-vowel

with preceding e, tameru relaxed,

scoffing, 9araru harming,maderii rejoicing, saneru obtaining, himeru chilly, the evidently secondary mitreru ally, and peru (of doubtful meaning).

pfyftru

b. The secondary suffix lu (see

1227b)

is

apparently added to certhat hare a

a from conjugation-stems, making derivatives

primary aspect: thus, patayalu flying, sprhayalu desiring.

tain nouns in

1198.

this suffix are

By

fif vi.

made:

a. Two or three derivatives from reduplicated roots: jagyvi awake,

dadhfvi sustaining, dldivi shining; and a very few other words; ghrvi
elsewhere jfvri) ; -pharvl is
lively, dhruvi firm, jirvi worn out (AV.
;

doubtful.

b. Here may be mentioned cikitvit (RV., once), apparently

with a suffix vit from a reduplicated root-form.

1194.

vowel, are
also

With

snu.

made

this suffix,

made

with or without a union-

a few adjective derivatives from roots, hut

from causative stems.

a.

From simple

sthasnu

roots

danksnu

victorious,

biting,

bhusnu

with union-vowel

fixed;

ksesnu

direct,

-glasnu sick, jisnu

ni-satsnu sitting down,

perishable,

thriving,

karisnu, kaqisnu, ksayisnu, ga-

i,

mif^u, grasisnu, grahienu, cari^nu, -janisnu, jayifnu, tapisnu,

-trapisnu, -patisnu, -bhavisnu, bhraji^nu, madienu, -mavisnu,
yajisnu, yacisnu, -vadisnu, vardhifnu, -sahisnu.
b. From secondary conjugation-stems: kopayifnu, ksapayisnu,
cyavayisnu, janayisnu, tapayisnu, namayisnu, patayisnu, posayi^nu, parayi?nu, bodhayisnu, madayisnu, yamayisnu, ropayif nu,
-varayi^nu, -9ocayinu; and jagarisnu. An anomalous formation is
ulbanisnu.
c. These derivatives are freely compounded with prefixes:
nisatsnu, prajanifnu, abhi^ocayisnu, samvarayisnu.

d. It

is

not unlikely that the

stem, to which

nu

is originally that

g.

of a

Such a character is still apparent in kra(kravis) ; and also in vadhasmi, vrdhasnu (?) r

was added.

vif nu craving raw flesh

and prathasnu (?).

1195.

a of this suffix

e.

Extremely few words have

sna.

this ending,

sharp, and perhaps in ^lakgna, -ruksna,

mfirtsna; and in gefna and desna (usually trisyllabic: daifna) gift.
Unless in the last, it is not found preceded by i; but it has (like snu,

a. It is seen

above)

before it in

difna skilled seems

sna moonlight.

tiksna

in

vadhasna

to

deadly weapon,

be secondary.

karasna fore-arm; na-

Feminines are

mytsna

loam, jyot-

STEMS IN ru,

453

1196.

vi, snu, sna, tnu, sa, asi,

tnu. This suffix

(^

is

abha, ETC

[1201

used in nearly the same way

^ snu

with

(above, 1194).
As used with simple roots, the

t is generally capable of being

considered the adscititious t after a short root-final, to which nu is then

a.

added

thus,

krtnu

and,

ing,-

but also

ning,

active,

gatnu

from reduplicated

ing;

dartnu

dayitnu

(?

roots,

bursting.

RV.), hatnii deadly, -tatnu (?) stretch-

jigatnu

hasting,

LS.)-

(?

b. With causative stems: for example,

itnu

and jighatnu harmdravitnu run-

Also, with union- vowel,

dravayitnu

hasting,

posay-

madayitnu intoxicating, tanayitnu and stanayitnu

sudayitnu flowing, -amayitnu sickening.

nourishing,

thunder,

c. With preceding a, in plyatnu scoffing, mehatnu. a river, a-rujatnii breaking into; and kavatnii miserly (obscure derivation).

1197. H sa. The words ending in suffixal H sa, with or

without preceding union-vowel, are a heterogeneous group, and in
considerable part of obscure derivation. Thus
:

With sa simply

a.

1148J), -dyksa

bhlsa

looking,

grtaa

ruksa

mahisi)

mighty,

manisa

f.

tarusa

jesa winning

shining,

(rather,

ruksa rough; utsa

aoristic

8P

n. fountain;

fear (or from the secondary root bhis).

f.

b. With preceding i-vowel:

c.

clever,

bharie a

devotion';

tavi^a

(?) seeking

tavisi) strong,

(f.

booty; rjisd rushing,

and compare rayisin

With preceding u-vowel: arusa

(?

mahisa

puriea

(f.

rubbish,

SV.).

red, a^usa ravenous,

purusa and<1n&nd$a (-UB-&?)\man; piyusa biestingt.
5rf^ asi. A few words in the oldest language are made
(f.

arusl)

overcomer,

1198.
with a suffix having this form (perhaps produced by the addition of
i to as).
a.

Thus,

dhasi m.

drink,

atasf vagabond, dharnasf

f. station,
sarasf (?) pool.

firm,

sanasi winning; and

1199. EfH abha. A few names of animals, for the most part
of obscure derivation, show this ending.

vrsabha and rsabha lull, 9arabha a certain fabulous

animal, 9erabha a certain snake, gardabha and rasabha ass,- further,
kanabha, karabha and kalabha, latabha, 9alabha; and, with other
union-vowels, tundibha, nundibha, and kukkubha. The feminine, if
occurring, is in 1; and ka^abhi is found without corresponding masculine.
AV. has the adjective sthulabha, equivalent to Bthula.
a. Thus,

1200. A few words ending in the consonants t, d, j, etc., and

most part of doubtful root-connections, were given above, at
383k (3 - 5,7) it is unnecessary to repeat them here. Certain of those
in at are perhaps related to the participles in ant (1172).
for the

1201.

number of other primary

suffixes are either set

up by

XVII. SECONDARY DERIVATION.

1201]

454

the grammarians and supported with examples of questionable value,

or are doubtfully deducible from isolated words traceable to known
roots, or from words of obscure connection.
a.

randa and

few such may be mentioned here: arnja in karanda and vacertain unquotable words (prakritized a-forms from the present

participle); era and ora in unquotable words, and elima (above,

perhaps a further derivative with secondary ima from era); mara

man

with secondary ra added) in

matsara, kara

ghasmara, srmara, etc.;

puskara and other obscure words, pa

in

stupa, stupa, and a number

Words

sara in
in

piispa,

of other obscure words; and so on.

Secondary Derivatives.

B.

1202.

966 d:
(ma or

of secondary derivation are

made by the

addition of further suffixes to stems already ending in evi-

dent suffixes.
a.

But

also, as pointed out

above (1137b),

to

b. Further, in exceptional cases, to indeclinables,

to

e.

phrases:

g.

trika, aikadhya,

pronominal roots.
to case-forms,

and

antarvant, apitva, paratastva, sahatva, sarva-

mamaka, amusmika, amusyayana,

apsumant,

apsavya, kimcanya, kimkartavyata, kvacitka, naatika, akimcin-

maya.
1203.
the suffix

The stem

Changes of the stem.

is

added

is liable to

to

which

certain changes of form.

Before a suffix beginning with a vowel or with y (which in this

respect is treated as if it were i), final a- and i-vowels are regularly lost
altogether, while a final u-vowel has the guna-strengthening and bea.

comes av; r and o and au

(all

ance with usual euphonic

rule.

b.

An u-vowel

c.

final

is

also

of rare occurrence) are treated in accord-

sometimes remains unstrengthened

see

1208 e.

variously treated, being sometimes retained,

and

even along with a preceding a; and sometimes an a

is lost, while the n remains
thus, vrsanvant, vrsana, v^sa, vr^ atva,
vysnya, from v^saii. Of a stem ending in ant, the weak form, in at,
sometimes

lost,

is

regularly taken: thus, vaivasvata (vivasvant).

d. In general, the masculine form of a primitive stem is that from

which a further secondary derivative is made. But there are not very rare
cases in which the feminine is taken instead
examples are satitva,
;

bharyatva, pranitatva, bharativant, raksavant, priyavant. On the

other hand, a final long vowel
generally of a
1, much more rarely a
feminine stem,

is

sometimes shortened in derivation:

thus,

yajyavant,

praqakhavant, gosatama, vac,atama, sadhanitva, jaratika, anna-

CHANGES OF STEM.

455
ditama

(cf.

47 1

b),

[1204

rohinitva (TB.; -nitva

B.),

pfthivitva, prati-

patnivat, earasvativant.
As was pointed out above (lllc, d), the combination of

e.

sec-

ondary suffix with a stem is sometimes made according to the rules of

external combination.
Such cases are pointed out under the suffixes lya

(1215 e\ ka (1222m), maya (1225 a), min (1231 b), vin (1232 c),
vant (12331), van (1234c), mant (1235fj, tva (1239c), taya
(1245 a\ tya (1245 c), tana (12451).

1204.
is

The most frequent change

in secondary derivation

the vyddhi-strengthening of an initial syllable of the stem

which a

to

suffix is added.

The strengthened

a.

of a prefix, or of the
(ac, vin),

may be of any character

member of a compound: thus,

saumya soma
(

),

syllable

first

parthiva (prthivi

),

radical,

ftQvina

amitra (amitra), sam-

rajya (samraj), saukytya (sukyta), maitravaruna (mitravaruna),

As to the accompanying accent,
auccaihQravasa (uccaihqravas
;.

see the next paragraph.

y or v, the semisometimes vriddhied, as if it were i or u, and the resulting Si

has y or v further added before the succeeding vowel.

b. If a stem begins with a consonant followed by

vowel
or

au

is

most frequent where the

0. This is

ni, vi,

BU

altered

from

nyaya
sauva^vya

(as

if

before

following

or

initial

as

belongs to a prefix

vowel: thus, naiyayika

niyaya), vaiyaqva from vya^va

(as

if

viyagva),

from sva^va (as if suvaqva); but it occurs also in other

cases, as sauvara from svara, gauva from qvan, against svayambhuva
(svayambhu), and so on. AV. has irregularly kaveraka from kiivera
(as if

from kvera, without the euphonic

inserted).

d. This strengthening takes place especially, and very often,

the suffixes

and

later

a and ya;

also regularly before

i,

before

ayana, eya (with Ineya),

lya; before the compound aka and ika, and

ena, ra, and tva

in single sporadic examples before, na,

various suffixes below.

later

aki; and,

(?):

see

these

Sometimes an unstrengthened word is prefixed to one thus strengthif the composition were made after instead of before the strengthe.
g. indradfilvatya having Indra as divinity (instead of ainening:
e.

ened, as

dradevatya), caramaQairsika with head

longing

to

the

to

the west,

jivalaukika

be-

antarbhauma within the earth, somatamasam gunalaksanam M. xii. 35).

word, is of numeral value: as ^at^arada

world of the liriny,

raudra, gurulaghava
But especially when the

(cf.
first

hundred years, panca<jaradlya, trisamvatsara, bahuvarsika,

aftavarsika, anekavarsasahaara, dasasahasra, trisahasri, tripaurusa, caturadhyayi or -yika of four chapters, etc. etc.
of a

XVII. SECONDARY DERIVATION.

1204]
f.

Mere

456

members of a compound word have the initial

saumapfiusna, kaurupancala, caturvaidya,
Such
aikabhautika, traistubj agata, yajurvaidika.

often,
e.

strengthening:

aihalaukika,

both

g.

cases are not rare.

g. The guna-strengthening (except of a final u- vowel: 1203 a) is

only in the rarest cases an accompaniment of secondary derivation.
Exceptions

dvaya aud traya and nava (12001), bhefaja and deva

are

(1209 j), drona (1223 g), Qekhara (1226 a).

1205. Accent, a. The derivatives with

initial vyddhi-strengthening always have their accent on either the first or the last syllable.
And usually it is laid, as between these two situations, in such a
way as to be furthest removed from the accent of the primitive; yet,
not rarely, it is merely drawn down upon the suffix from the final of

much less often, it remains upon an initial syllable without

Only in the case of one or two suffixes is the distinction
between initial and final accent connected with any difference in the
meaning and use of the derivatives (see below, suffix eya: 1216).
b. No other general rules as to accent can be given. Usually
the suffix takes the tone, or else this remains where it was in the
primitive quite rarely, it is thrown back to the initial syllable (as in
derivation with initial vrddhij; and in a single case (ta: 1237) it is

the latter

change.

drawn down

to the syllable preceding the suffix.

1206. Meaning, a. The great mass of secondary suffixes are

adjective-making: they form from nouns adjectives indicating appurtenance or relation, of the most indefinite and varied character. But,
as a matter of course, this indefiniteness often undergoes specialization
so, particularly, into designation of procedure or descent, so
that distinctive patronymic and metronymic and gentile words are the
Moreover,
result; or, again, into the designation of possession.
:

while the masculines and feminines of such adjectives are employed

as appellatives, the neuter is also widely used as an abstract, denoting the quality expressed attributively by the adjective; and neuter
abstracts are with the same suffixes made from adjectives. There
are also special suffixes (very few)
rectly, from adjective or noun.
b.

few

suffixes

by which

make no change

abstracts are

in the part of

made

di-

speech of the

primitive, but either change its degree (diminution and comparison),

or make other modifications, or leave its meaning not sensibly altered.

1207. The

suffixes will be taken up below in the following

the general adjective-making suffixes, beginning with
those of most frequent use (a, ya and its connections, i, ka); then,
those of specific possessive value (in, vant and mant, and their con-

order.

First,

nections); then, the abstract-making ones (ta and tva, and their connections)
then, the suffixes of comparison etc. ; and finally, those by
;

which derivatives are made only or almost only from

particles.

STEMS IN

457
a.

For convenience

treated is here added:

of reference,

[1208

a.

list

of

them

in

their

order as

XVII. SECONDARY DERIVATION.

[1208

a, as in pausna, traivj-sni, da<;arajna; and sometimes

brahma, auksa, barhatsama.

times loses
its

its

n, as in

From

d.

tvastra

458

primitives in y: jaitra victorious (jetf or jetf conqueror),

Tvashtar, savitra descendant of the sun (savitf),

relating to

Siidbhetra, pftitra.

From

6.

primitives in

u: usually with guna-strengthening

of the u,

vaaava relating to the Vdsus, artava concerning the seasons (ftu),

danava child of Danu (danu), saindhava from the Indus (sindhu);

as

but sometimes without,

side

(par$u

yadva

of

f.

added

as

pSidva

rib),

madhva
to

belonging

full

Pedu,

of sweets (madhu), pSr9va

tanva of the body (tanti),

Yadu.

From

aindragna

1, which vowels are supplanted by the

(pythivf), sarasvata of the Sarasvati,

primitives in i and

parthiva

suffix:

belonging

to

earthly

Indra and Ayni (indragnl); pankta five- fold

to Nfrtti, parthurasma of Prthwacmi, pS-

(pankti), nairj-ta belonging

^upata of
g.

of

the

child

(kanina
h.

in a, of

usual

Pafupati.

From primitives in a, which in like manner disappears: yarnund

Yamuna, saragha honey etc. (saragha bee), kanina natural

girl).

large

number (more than

whirh the

final

shift of accent,

vaiqvadeva

replaced

amitra

belonging

ness

is

to all

all

the rest together) from primitives

for example, with the

by the suffix:

(amitra enemy), varuna of Vdruiia,

gods (vi9vadeva), nairhasta handlessdesetndant of Vybcva; gardabha asinine

inindcal
the

(nirhastal, vaiya^va
daiva divine (deva), madhyamdina meridional (madh(gardabha
yamdina), pautra grandchild (putra son), saiibhaga good fortune (BU,

bhaga), vadhrya^va of Vadhryacvas race ; with unchanged accent (commaitra Mitrffs,

few), vasanta vernal (vasanta spring),
atithigva of Atithigvas race, daivodasa Dfvodctsa's. In a few instances,
ya is replaced by the suffix: thus, saura, paua, yijnavalka.

paratively

i.

The

derivatives of this last form are sometimes regarded as

internal change,
final

also

without added

suffix.

Considering,

however,

made by

that other

vowels are supplanted by this suffix, that a disappears as stem-final

other suffixes of secondary derivation, and that no ex-

before various

amples of derivation without suffix are quotable from primitives of any

other final than a, it seems far too violent to assume here a deviation from
the whole course of Indo-European word-making.
j.

Adjectives of this formation

1209.

The

derivatives

make

their feminines in 1 (see

made by adding

?T

332 a).

a without

vyddhi-change of the initial syllable are not numerous, and

are in considerable part, doubtless, of inorganic make, results

of the transfer to an a-declension of words of other finals.

STEMS

459
a.

number

of

[1210

IN a, ya.

examples of stems in a made by transfer were nocases of such transition occur most frequently in

The

ticed above (399).

composition (1315): thus, further, apa- (for

etc. ; from stems in an, -aha, -vrsa, etc,,

ap

or 6p water), -yea, -nara,

but also -ahna and -vrsna

and vfsana; from stems in i, -angula, -ratra,

forms of anc-stems (407) ucca, nica, paraca,

from the weakest

etc.;
etc.

b. Also occurring especially in composition, yet likewise as simple

words often enough to have an independent aspect, are derivatives in a
from nouns in as (rarely is, us): thus, for example, tamasa, rajasa,

payasa, brahmavarcasa, sarvavedasa, devainasa, parusa, tryayusa,

and probably manusa.
Similar

c.

from

derivatives

in

adjectives

grammarians as made with the suffix ina: thus,

d.

number

of words

dent transfers from

the

earliest

hemanta

others occur
said to

polluted,

para-

veganta

later, as

etc.

few of them are found even from

(jvanta (?), vasanta spring,

jivanti a certain healing plant and

draught,

tank,

jayanta, taranta,

madhumanta,

From anc-stems (407)

From stems

in r,

titles of priests;

also

etc.

They

are

final.

are

made

few nouns ending in k-a:

anuka, apaka, upaka, pratika, paraka,

f.

from

panta

thus,

be accented on the

e.

thus,

reckoned by the

formed with the so-called suffix anta are evi-

stems in ant.

period:

winter,

are

malina

441 b).

etc. (see

mes.$h{na

in

etc.

hotra, netra, nes.$ra, potra, praqastra,

dhatra, bhratra, etc.

etc.,

g. Other scattering cases are: savidyuta, avyusa, virudha, kakuda, kakubha, agusa, bhumya, sakhya, adhipatya, jaspatya,
arafva, pandva.
h. The Vedic gerundives in tva (tua), made by addition of a to
abstract
i.

noun-stems in tu, have been already (966 a)

Traya

dvaya come

and

with guna-strengtheiiing from numeral

stems; nava new in like manner from

from antar.
j.

probably

Bhesaja

deva

medicine

nu

now; and antara apparently

and
from bhisaj healer, with guna-change
in like manner from div sky, heaven
;

heavenly, divine, god,

(there is no "root

1210.

is

fully given.

div

ya.

class of words,

shine" in the language).

With

this suffix are

made a very

both in the old language and

large

later.

a. The derivatives in ya exhibit a great and perplexing variety of

form, connection, and application; and the relations of the suffix to others

are
iya, iya, eya, ayya, eyya, enya
containing a ya-element
also in part obscure and difficult
In the great majority of instances in
the oldest language, the ya when it follows a consonant is dissyllabic in

1210

XVII. SECONDARY DERIVATION.

460

Thus, in RV., 266 -words (excluding

compounds) have ia, and only 75 have ya always; 46 are to be read now
with ia and now with ya, but many of these have ya only in isolated
metrical value, or is to be read as ia.

As might be

cases.

is more frequent after a heavy

188 examples of ia and 27 of ya after
and 78 of ia and 96 of ya after a light syllable (the
that is to say, ia
being, as is pointed out below,

expected, the value ia

thus, in RV., there are

syllable:

such a syllable,

ya

circumflexed

12121, more

liable to the resolution than

ya or ya).
ya are not

further researches to decide whether in the

one

It

must be

left for

included more than

with different accent, and different quantity of the i-element;

It is also matter for
to a final i of the primitive.

suffix,

a added

or with an

question whether there is a primary as well as a secondary suffix ya; the

suffix at least comes to be used as if primary, in the formation of gerundives and in that of action-nouns:

the derivatives into

them

fore to treat

\/

two such

but

quite impossible to separate

has seemed preferable there-

it is

and

classes,

it

together here.

ail

do
those which do not Bhoy
*yd
increment of the initial syllable.

ftp

^hfch

C. Adjectives

regularly in

ya.

in ya, of both these divisions, make their feminines

But in a number of cases, a feminine in I is made,

either alone or beside one in

ya:

e. g.
cattirmasi, agnive^i, qandili,
daivya), saumi (and saurnya); dhirl,

arl (and arya), da(vi (and

(jirsani, svari, etc.

1211. Derivatives in

ening follow quite

of those in
less

ya with^ujtLal/ vfddhi-strengthin form and meaning, the analogy

TJ

closely,

a (above, 1208).

common than

many)

the latter

They

are,

however, decidedly

Veda, ahout three

(in

fifths as

a.

are

Examples

with

the usual

shift

(deva), palitya grayness (palita), graivya

priestly

ace(flflnaUYiT> ff

office

(rtvij),

garhapatya

of

householder's

sarhgr&majitya

accent,

cervical

in

dsivya

divine

(grlva), artvijya

(gr-hapati),

janarajya

battle

(samgramajit),
eauvaqvya wealth in houses (sva<jva), aiipadras^rya witness (upadrastf); aditya Aditya (aditi), saumya relating to s6ma, atithya hospitality (atithi), prajftpatya belonging to Prajapati, vftimanaaya mindkingship

(janaraj),

victory

with accent
(vimanas), sahadevya descendant of S aha deva;
final upon the ending, laukya of the world (loka),
kfivya of the Kavf-race, artvya descendant of Riti't, vSyavya belonging
with unchanged acto the wind (vSyu), r&ivatya wealth (revant);
lessness

thrown forward from the

cent

(very

few),

adhipatya

(frttfha), vfif9ya belonging

manliness

(puma).

lordship

(adhipati),

the

class

to

third

9ra{sthya

(vi^ people),

excellence

paumsya

STEMS

461

[1212

IN ya.

b. The AV. has once

an

nairbadhya, with circumflexed final; if not

made through nairbadha; vaisnavyau (VS. i.
be dual fern, of vaifnavi.

doubtless

error, it is

12) appears to

Derivatives

1212.

in

ya

TJ

without

strengthening are usually adjectives,

or,

much

in UT yS, feminine) abstract nouns.

initial

vyddhi-

less often (neuter,

They

are

made from

every variety of primitive, and are very numerous (in Veda,

three or four times as

many

as the preceding class).

a. The general mass of these words may be best divided accord1. Words retaining the accent of the priming to their accent, into
itive; 2. Words with retracted accent; 3. Words with acute ya (ia);
:

Words with circumflexed ya (fa). Finally may be considered the

words, gerundives and action-nouns, which have the aspect of primary

4.

derivatives.
1.

in

ya retaining the accent of their

angya of the limbs anga mukh(mukha moutfi), avya ovine (avi), gavya bovine (g6),
people (vfy), durya of the door (diir), narya manly (nf),

b. Examples of derivatives

primitives are

aqvya

equine (a$va) t

i,

ya foremost
vfyya of the
vffnya virile (vffan), svarajya autocracy (svaraj), euvlrya wealth in
retainers (suvira), vi9vajanya of all men, vigvadevya of all the gods
(viqvadeva), mayuraqepya peacock-tailed.
o. In the last words,

(like

1222h:

ka,

as

a suffix

madhuhastya, daQam&sya,
samanodarya.
suhasta),

2.

Examples with

d.

ya

appears to be used
to

simply helping

and so further suhastya

compound:

possessive

and in a few others, the

1212m)

<jf.

(beside

the

make

equivalent

migradhanya, anyodarya,

retraction of the accent to the first syllable (as

in derivation with

skandhya

vyddhi-increment) are: kan^hya guttural (kaitfha)*

humeral (skandha), vrdtya of a ceremony (vrata), meghya

the Fathers (pitf ), pratijanya adverse

of
gold
(pratijana). Hiranyaya
(hiranya), is anomalous both in drawing tlie accent forward and in retaining the final a of the primitive ; and

in the clouds

(megha), pitrya of

gavyaya and avyaya

(also

avyaya)

are to

be compared with

it

as

to

formation.
3.

e.

Examples with acute accent on the suffix are: divya heavenly

true (Bant), vyfighrya tigrine (vyfighra), kavy& wise

(div), Baty&

(kavi),

gramyd

anenasya
4. f.

of the village (grama),

inlessne*8

Of

as follows:

all the three

fit

relating

for

to

the

stma,

dak^ina.

yk (which in the Veda are

preceding classes together),

derivatives ending in circumflexed

considerably more numerous than

examples are

somya

(anenae), adaksinyd not

1212

From consonant-stems:

g.

of

XVII. SECONDARY DERIVATION.

the he.irt

the

clan (RV.

the

vi9ya of

(hfd), vidyutya of

462
hydya

vfq),

(vidyutl, rajanya

liyhtning

of

the

arm (dosan), Qireanya of the head

(qirfan), karmanya active (karman), dhanvanya of the plain (dhanvan), namasya reverend (namas), tvacasya cuticular (tvacas), barhisya of barhts, ayusya giving life (ayus), bhasadya of the buttocks

royal class (rajan),

dosanya

fbhasad', pracya

eastern

of the

(pranc), etc. Of exceptional formation is arwith which doubtless belong satmya (sat-

yamya intimate (aryaman),

man) and saksya saksin).
i

h. From u-stems
to

(f?u),
lo

pa9avya

Vayfi,

.),

madhavya

rajjavya of rope

The

boaf).

hanavya
to

of

rattle

the

jaws (hanu),

vayavya

belonging

arrows

relating to

(paqu), i^avya

of the sweet

may be added navya

nau

relating

(madhu), apsavya of the waters (apsu

(rajju); QaravyS f. arrow (^aru, do.); and there

navigable (especially in

11V. has

fern.,

navya

navigable stream:

partaken of (pra+)/a9), withand also urjavya rich in nourish-

to be

pr&9avya

out any corresponding noun pr&QU;

ment (urj), without any intermediate urju.
i.

Under

this head belong,

called gerundives in

as

tavya,

was pointed out above (964), the so-

as

made by

the addition of

ya

to the infinitive

wanting in the oldest language, and hardly

found in later Vedic, although still later tavya wins the value of a primary suffix, and makes numerous verbal derivatives.

noun in tu.

j.

has

They

From

i-

dundubhya

are wholly

and i-stems hardly any examples are

from dundubhi.

k. From a-stems:
a

svargya

to

be quoted.

devatya

heavenly (svarga),

VS.

relating to

(prapatha), budhnya fundamental (budhna), jaghanya hindmost (jaghana), varunya Varuna'a,

(devatai, prapathya guiding

deity

virya might (vira), udarya abdominal *(udara), utsya of

(utsa); and from a-stems,
relating to the exclamation
1.

urvarya

fountain

svahya

svaha.

The circumflexed ya

other forms of the suffix:

the

of cultivated land (urvara),

is

more generally resolved

thus, in

RV.

it

is

(into ia) than the

never to be read as ya after

a heavy syllable ending with a consonant; and even after a light one
becomes a in more than three quarters of the examples.

m. There
make

1212 c):

udapya
in voc.).

masya

are

a few cases

in which

appears to be used to help

ya

compound with governing preposition (next

thus,

apikaksya

about the arm-pit,

chapter,

in

each

month,

abhinabhya up

to

the

clouds,

of.

the sides,

antahpa^avya

adhigartya on the chariot sent; of unknown

haatya, anuprsthya, anunasikya, anuvangya.

\\1

1310:

upapaksya upon

up-stream; and perhaps upatrnya lying in the grass (occurs only

But, with other accent, anvantrya through the entrails, upa-

between the

it

ribt,

1213.

The

derivatives in

ZT

ya

as

to

which

accent,

it

adhi-

may

be

STEMS

463

[1213

IN ya.

questioned whether they are not, a least in part, primary

derivatives from the beginning, are especially the gerundtogether with action-nouns

ives,

form

coincident with these in

in the later language, the gerundive- formation '(above,

963) comes to be practically a primary one.

RV. occur about

a. In

ably accordant form

instances of gerundives in ya, of toler-

forty

the root usually unstrengthened (but cetya,

bhavya,

-havya, marjya, yodhya; also -madya, -vacya, bhavya); the accent

on the radical syllable when the word is simple, or compounded with prepositions

pra9asya, upasadya, vihavya (but usually on the final

thus, anapya, anapav^jya)
exceptions are

thus,

after the negative prefix:

only bhavya and the doubtful akayya; the ya resolved into ia in the
a final short vowel followed by t (in
very great majority of occurreno.es
-ftya, -kytya, -^rutya, -stutya, and the reduplicated carkftya, beside
carkyti: not in navya and -havya), and a changed to e (in -deya
;

If regarded as secondary, they might be made with ya, in accordance with other formations by this suffix, in part from the root-noun, as

only).

anukyt-ya,

in part from derivatives in a, as

b. The AV. has

bhavya

(from bhava).

somewhat smaller number (about

words of a like formation; but also a considerable group

ya

atives in

ya

be

to

with, the

c/one,

nlvibharya

same value: thus,

aamapya

to be carried

to

be

for

example,

obtained,

in the apron,

twenty-five) of
(fifteen) of deriv-

adya
to

atitarya

prathamavasya

eatable,

kar-

be overpassed,

to

be

first

worn.

and especially such forms

not to be gotten rid of, where

These seem more markedly of secondary origin:

as

parivargya

to

be avoided,

the guttural reversion clearly

c.

avimokya

indicates primitives

in

ga and ka (21 6 h).

Throughout the older language are of common occurrence neuter

of the. same make with the former of these classes.
They

abstract nouns

are rarely found except in

simple), and

are often

composition (in AV., only citya and steya as

after the manner of a dative

used in the dative,

Examples are: brahmajyeya, vaaudeya, bhagadheya,

purvapeya, qataseya, abhibhuya, devahuya, mantra9rutya, karmakftya, vytraturya, hotrvQrya, ahihatya, sattrasadya, <jirsabhidya, brahmacarya, nrijahya. Of exceptional form are rtodya (^vad)
And AV.
and saha9eyya (1/91); of exceptional accent, sadhastutya.
infinitive.

has one example,

ranya, with circumflexed

final.

d. Closely akin with these, in meaning and use, is a smaller class

in ya: thus, kr^ya, vidya, itya, agnicitya, vajajitya,

of feminines

muatihatya, devayajya,

etc.

e. There remain, of course, a considerable number of less classifiable

words, both nouns and adjectives, of which a few from the older language

may be mentioned, without

discussion of their relations

thus,

surya

(with

1213

XVII. SECONDARY DERIVATION.

fem. surya), ajya, piisya,

nabhya; yujya, gfdhya,

rya, arya and

madhya.

arya, marya,

The

454

suffixes

apparently most nearly akin with

ya may

best be

next taken up.

This suffix

1214. ^J iya.

is

virtually

identical with

the preceding, being but another written form of the same

It

thing.

used only after two consonants, where the

is

ya would

direct addition of TJ

cult utterance.

It

create a combination of diffi-

has the same variety of accent with ya.

Thus:
With accent {ya

: for
example, abhriya (also abhksatriya having authority (kfatra),
yajniya reverend (yajna), hotriya lilational (hotra ), amitriya inimical

a.

riya) from

the

clouds

(=

ia or ya)

(abhra),

(amitra).
b. With accent iya
foremost (agra),
field

(ksetra).

(also

rtviya)

c.

ia or y&)

(=

indriya Indra's

(later,

With accent on the primitive

for

example, agriya (also agriya)

sense:

Indra), kfetriya of

the

qrotriya learned (Qrotra), ftviya

in season (rtu).

1215.
^T iya. This suffix also is apparently by origin a ya
of which the first element has maintained its long quantity by the
interposition of a euphonic y. It is accented always on the I.
ia;

a. In RV. occur, of general adjectives, only arjikiya and gyhamedhiya, and examples in the later Yedic are very few: e. g. parvatiya
mountainous (AY., beside RY. parvatyaj. In the Brahmanas are found
a number of adjectives, some of them from phrases (first worda of verses

and the like): thus, anyarastriya, pancavatlya, xn&rj&llya, kaya9ubhiya, svaduskiliya, apohi^^hlya, etc.
b. It was pointed out above (966) that derivative adjectives in Iya
ana begin in later Yeda and in Brahmana to be

from action-nouns in

used gerundivally,
classical

language.

are also

common.

are

But

adjectives

Derivatives in

c.

the

and

later

language:

e.

recognized formation as gerundives in the

in anlya without gerundive character

Iya with
g.

initial

p&rvfttiya,

vyddhi

are sometimes

paitaputrlya,

made

in

aparapaksiya,

vairaklya.
d. The pronominal possessives madly a etc. (6 16 a) do not occur either
in Veda or in Brahmana; but the ordinals dvitfya etc. (487 b, c: with
fractional tftlya and tliflya: 408 a) are found from the earliest period.
e.

The

the primitive

possessives

made

bhagavadiya and bhavadiya,

with the final of

sonant, have probably had their form determined by the

pronominal possessives in -diya.

STEMS

465
1216.

With

eya.

T^TI

increment of an

initial

this suffix,

syllable,

accompanied by vyddhi-

are

made

adjectives, often

having a patronymic or metronymic value.

sometimes used

is

usually on

as

abstract

the final in

Their neuter

The accent

noun.

rests

and on the

adjectives of descent,

syllable in others.

first

a.

are:

Examples

of Janacruti,

son

[1217

IN iya, lya, eya, eyya, enya.

arseya descendant of a

sage (*si),

Sardma's race,

sarameya of

jana9ruteya

gfttavaneya fatovani's

descendant, rathajiteya son of Rathajft; asneya of the blood (aean),

vasteya of the bladder (vastf), pauruseya coming from man (purusa),
paitysvaseya of a paternal aunt (pitfsvasr), etc.

b.

more than usual propoition of derivatives in eya come from

primitives in i or i; and probably the suffix first gained its form by addition
of ya to a gunated i, though afterward used independently.
c.

The gerundive

etc.

derivatives in

end in eya; and, besides such, RV.

ya

(above,

1213) from

S-roots

have sabheya fxom sabha, and

didrk^eya worth seeing, apparently from the desiderative noun didrksa,
after their analogy.
M. has once adhyeya as gerund of )/i.
d.

Derivatives

in

the

so-called

kanisthineya

jyaisthineya,

etc.

suffix

are

ineya
made

doubtless

as

bhagineya,

upon proximate

derivatives in -ini (fern.).

e.

(above,
istic

In eyya
1213 c),

s added to

(i.

e.

eyia) end, besides the neuter abstract sahaceyya

the adjective ofgerundival meaning stu^eyya (with aorthe root), and 9apatheyya curse-bringing (or accursed"),

from cjapatha.

origin,

^rj enya. This suffix is

made by the addition of U ya

sufnx

but, like others of similar origin,

1217.

doubtless secondary in
to derivatives in a nait is

applied in some

measure independently, chiefly in the older language, where

it

as

has nearly the value of the later anlya (above, 121 5 b),

making gerundival
a.

The y

of this

adjectives.

suffix, is

the accent is (except in

almost always to be read as vowel,

the e: thus, -enia.

and

varenya) on

b. The gerundives have been all given above, under the different
conjugations to which they attach themselves (966 b, 101 9 b, 1038). The
RV. has also two non-gerundival adjectives, virenya manly (vira), and
kirtenya famous (klrtfj, and TS. has anabhi9astenya (abh^asti);

vijenya (RV.)

is a

found in a Sutra;

word of doubtful connections

pravreenya of

Whitney, Grammar.

2. eel.

9iksenya

instructive is

the rainy season occurs later.

30

XVII. SECONDARY DERIVATION.

1218 -]

466

1218. M1<LU ayya. With this suffix are made gerundival adjecalmost only in RV.
They have been noticed above (9660).
The ending is everywhere to be read as ayia.
tives,

a.

and neuter

few adjectives -without gerundival value,

abstracts,

bahupayya protecting many, nypayya men-guarding

kundapayya, and purumayya, proper names purvapayya first drink,
and rasayya ncrcoua, and uttamayya summit,
mahayayya enjoyment;
contain no verbal root.
Alayya is doubtful; also akayya, which its accent refers to a different formation, along with prahayya (AV.
|/hi)
messenger, and pravayya (AV.), of doubtful value.
also

occur:

thus,

1219. *IIUH ayana.

nymics made by
stems

In the Brahmanas and

later,

patro-

They come from

not rare.

this suffix are

and have vrddhi-strengthening of the

and accent on the final.

in, 5f

syllable,

first

a,

a. In RV., the only

kanva); AV.

example of

kanvayana

this formation is

(voc.

daksayana and

has in metrical parts

tbe fern, ramftyani;

prose; $B. has raja-

and amusyayana son of o-and-o (516) in its

stambayana beside -bSyana. The RV. name uksanyayana

is

of

make, elsewhere unknown.

different

Only a very few words are made with

1220. ?Tnfi ayi.

this

namely agnayl (agni Agni's wife, vpf akap&yi wife of Vrishskapi; and later putakratayi, and manayi Manu's wife (but manavi <JB.).
a. They seem to be feminines of a derivative in a made with vyddhisuffix,

increment of the

1221. ^

final i of

i.

the primitive.

Derivatives

made with

this suffix are patro-

nymics from nouns in a. The accent rests on the

syllable which has the vyddhi-strengthening.

initial

a. In

RV.

are found half-a-dozen patronymics in i

for example,

ag-

nive^i, paurukutsi, pratardani, samvarani; AV. has but one, prahradi; in the Brahmanas t,b.ey are more common: thus, in AB., sauyavasi,
sarathi
janamtapi, aruni, janaki, etc. A single word of other value
charioteer

is found from RV. down.

(saratham)
with
the so-called suffix aki
made
-

b. The words

as

vaiyEsaki

descendant of Vyasa
are doubtless properly derivatives in i from others in
ka or aka. That the secondary suffix ika is probably made by addition
of

ka

to a derivative in i is pointed out

C.

and the

below (1222 j).

RV. has tapusi, apparently from tapus with

n. pr.

1222.

(jucanti;

efj

ka.

class of suffixes

bhuvantf

This

is

is

a secondary i added,

found in B., and jlvanti

doubtless originally

later.

one of the

forming adjectives of appurtenance.

And

STEMS

467

IN ayya, ayana, ayi,

i,

[1222

ka.

has in actual use; yet only in a small

minority of occurrences. It has been, on the one hand,
specialized into an element forming diminutives; and, on
that value

still

it

much more

the other hand, and

widely, attenuated into an

added

element without definable value,

nouns and adjectives

this last

to

even in

is,

make

to

many

great

same meaning
the Veda, and still more in the
others of the

later language, its chief office.

a.

ka

Hence,

atives to which

an integral

easily associates itself with the finals of derivattached, and comes to seem along with them

is

it

and is further used as such. Of this origin are

was seen above (1180, 1181), the so-called primary suf-

suffix,

doubtless, as

uka and aka; and

fixes

The accent of

likewise the secondary suffix ika (below;

derivatives in

ka

j).

apparently without
rule, save that the words most plainly of diminutive character have
the tone usually on the suffix.
b.

varies

c. Examples (from the older language) of words in which the suffix,

has an adjective-making value are: antaka (anta) end-making, balhika

andika (anda)

(balhi) of Balkh,

urvaruka

fruit

sucika

egg-bearing,

(flucl)

stinging,

gourd (urvarii), paryayika (pary&ya) strophic;

ekaka, dvaka, trika, antaka; tftiyaka of the third

of

the

from numerals,
day; from pronoun-stems,

asmaka

ours,

yusmaka

mamaka

yours,

mine

(516d); from prepositions, antika near, anuka following, avaka a plant

(later adhika, utka); and, with accent retracted to the initial syllable
(besides astaka and tftiyaka, already given), rupaka (rupa) with form,

babhruka (babhru

brown) a certain

has an anomalous initial

d.

lizard.

Bhavatka

your worship's

vyddhi.

Of words in which

a diminutive

meaning

is

more

or less probable

aqvaka nag, kanlnaka and kumaraka boy, kaninaka or kaninika

girl, padaka little foot, putraka little son, rajaka princeling, <jakuntaka birdling. Sometimes a contemptuous meaning is conveyed by such
a diminutive: for formations

with this value from pronominal stems,

examples are anyaka (RV.)> alakam (RV.

alamj, and even the verb-form yamaki (for yami: KB.).

above,

e.

521;
The

primitives

other

derivatives in

ka

with unchanged meaning

are

see

from

made from

and compound, and have the

the adjective derivatives (with which they are at

of every variety of form, simple

same variety

of accent as

bottom identical).

Thus:

From simple nouns and adjectives: astaka home, nasika nostril,

mak^ika fly, avika ewe, isAika arrow, duraka distant, sarvaka all,
dhenuka (dhenu) cow, nagnaka (nagna) naked, baddhaka (baddha)
captive, abhinnataraka by no means different, anastamitake before sunf.

30*

XVII. SECONDARY DERIVATION.

1222]
vamraka

set,

ejatka
noun

arbhaka small, qiquka young, anlyaska

abhimadyatka intoxicated, patayisnukd flying.

ant,

trembling,

derivatives

the later language are innumerable

in

468

may be made an

or adjective

finer,

Such

from almost any given

equivalent, ending in

ka

ka

or

(accord-

ing to the gender).

From compound

g.

viksmaka

ward,

h. In the

svalpaka

primitives:

removing wrath, viksinatka

very small,

vimanyuka

pravartamanaka moving

destroying,

for-

destroyed.

Brahmanas and

later,

ka

is

often

added

to

a possessive

compound (1307), sometimes redundantly, but usually in order

to obtain a more manageable stem for inflection: thus, anaksika eyeless,
atvakka skinless, aretaska without seed, vyasthaka bonelext, saqiraska
adjective

along with the head, ekagayatrika containing a single gftyatri-vewe,

grhitavasativanka one who has taken yesterday's water, sapatnika with
his fpouse, bahuhastfka having many elephants, sadiksopasatka with
diksa and upasad, ahitasamitka with his fuel laid on, abhinavava-

yaska of

angusthamatraka

youthful age,

The vowel by which the ka

i.

and

character;
culine in

aka

other only

aka:

its

regular correspondent (as is the case with the

1181). In RV. are found beside one an-

above,

iyattaka and iyattika; but AY. has

Two

j.

be

as to

aka and ika

suffixes
are

size.

preceded has often an irregular

a feminine in ika is so common beside a mas-

especially,

so-called primary

of thumb

is

made up

ka

of

several examples.

and a preceding vowel

given by the grammarians

namely,

as

independent secondary
Both of
suffixes, requiring initial v^ddhi-strengthening of the primitive.
them are doubtless originally made by addition of ka to a final i or a,
though coming to be used independently.
k. Of vyddhi-derivatives in

aka no examples have been

mamaka

the older language (unless

are not common in the later:
old age,

ramamyaka

thus,

mine

is to

noted from

be so regarded); and they

ava^yaka

necessary,

varddhaka

delightfulness.

Of vyddhi-derivatives

in ika, the Veda furnishes a very few

varsika of the rainy season, halmantika wintry
(none of them in RV.); AV. has kairatika of the Kiratas, apparent fern.
to a masc. kairataka, which is not found till later.
Examples from a
more recent period (when they become abundant) are: vaidika relatiny to
the Vedas, dharmika religious, ahnika daily, vainayika well-behaved,
dauvarika doorkeeper, naiySyika vewd in the Nyaya.
1.

vasantika

cases

istic

of external rather than internal

m.

vernal,

Before the suffix ka, some finals show a form which is characterfinal sonant mute,
combination.

becomes surd, and an aspirate loses its aspiration (11 7 a, 114):

-upasatka, -samitka, above, h. So also a palatal becomes guttural

of course,
cf.

(as

before

etc.:

217):

e.

g.

-srukka, -rukka, -tvakka, anrkka.

s remains after &, and becomes 8

sadyaska, jyotiska, dirghayuska.

after an alterant

But the other

vowel (180):

sibilants take the

e.

g.

form

STEMS IN ka, aka, ika, am, ma, na, ima.

469
they

would have in composition:

-tvi$ka (fa?

rutka

etc.).

(Apast.), if

1223. Several

*T

(die.),

ana

in

satka, -vi$ka,
and so is pa-

anomalous;

as consonantal element,

few derivatives in

am

is

occurrence and questionable

suffixes, partly of rare

character, contain a
together here.
a.

adikka

thus,

AnfiQlrka (TS. ac.is)

it comes from parue.

1224

and may be grouped

RV. were given above (11 75

a).

perhaps the corresponding feminine) are made

(which
a small number of words, chiefly wife-names: thus, indrani, varunani
(these, with iKjinaram, purukutsani, mudgalam, urjam, are found
b. With

is

in RV.), rudrftnl, matulam maternal uncle's wife, Qarv&nl, bhavani,

i9&nanl, c.akrani, upadhyayam, mr>dam, brahmanl; and yavanl.
and kni from masculine stems in ta have
0. The feminines in

From pati master, husband the

above (1176d).
feminine is patnl, both as independent word, spouse, and as final of an
adjective compound: thus, devapatm having a god for husband, smbeen already noticed

dhupatni
is

having the Indus as master.

And

the feminine of

panifa

rough

in the older language sometimes parusni.

d.

With ina

words with

final

are

made

a full series of adjective derivatives from the

anc (407 ff.)

they are accented usually upon the penult,

and the same word has sometimes both ac-

but sometimes on the final;

cents: for example, apacina, mcina, pracina, arvacina and arvaclna, pratlcina and praticina, samicina. Besides these, a number of
other adjectives, earlier and later: examples are samvatsarina yearly,

pravj-sjna of

the rainy

season,

visvajanlna of

all people,

jnatakulina

of known family, adhvanina traveller (adhvan way), aqvlna day's

RV. has once xnakina mine.
journey on horseback (a$va /torse).
e. With ena is made samidhena (f. -ni), from samidh, with initial
strengthening.
f.

As
TT,

to a

few words in ina, compare 1209c.

^mi

m^| T^h
pS| fall partly under another head
1245f); here may be noted Qiirana heroic (?), phalguna, Qma^runa, dadruna, and, with vrddhi-strengthening, etraina woman's (its
g.

f .a^Ariva.

ff

(below,

paumsna, occurs late) and cyautna inciting. If drona comes

dru wood, it has the anomaly of a guna-strengthening.

correlative,

from

1224.

Certain suffixes

containing a

*T

may be

similarly

grouped.
a.

With ima

tra: thus,

arc

made

a small

khamtrima made

number

by digging,

of adjectives

krtrima

from nouns in

artificial,

dattrima,

paktrima, putrima; in other finals, ku^ima, ganima, talima, tulima,

pakima, udgarima, vyayogima, samvyiihima, nirvedhima, asangima, all late. In agrima (RV.) foremost the ma has perhaps the ordinal value.

ma

in forming superlatives (474) and ordinals

b. The uses of simple
e) have been already noticed, and the words thus made specified.

(487 d,

Q-& V\A"& Y^

1224]
A

C.

nrmna
The

XVII. SECONDARY DERIVATION.

few neuter abstracts end in

manliness; and, from particles,

man

comes perhaps from

suffix

signifying

ing in, that

min,

which

is

dyumna brightness,
sumna welfare.

see below,

1231.

formed adjectives
consisting of, also abound-

this suffix are

or composed or

The accent

a.

With

TO maya.
made

thus,

depth and

with an added a.

d. For the words showing a final

1225.

mna:
nimna

470

denoted by the primitive.

always on the ma, and the feminine is regularly

In the oldest language (V.), final as remains un-

is

and usually in mayi.

changed before the suffix: thus, manasmaya, nabhasmaya, ayasmaya ;

but d is treated as in external combination: thus, mrnmaya; and in the

Brahmanas and

later, finals in

general have the latter treatment:

e.

g.

te-

jomaya, adomaya, apomaya, jyotirmaya, yajurmaya, etanmaya,

aspimaya, vanmaya, ammaya, pravrnmaya. RV. has aqmanmaya
(later

aqmamaya).

nya)

is peculiarly

maya made

b.

In

hiranmaya

(B.

RV. has

mutilated.

and later) the primitive (hiraof good make, and kixn-

aumaya

of what ?
very few examples

of a feminine in

ya

occur in

the later

language.

few derivative adjectives are made with

Accent and treatment of the primitive are va-

1226. ^ ra.
this suffix.

rious.
a.

With simple

of ra are made, for example

pansura
aqrira ugly, dhuxnra dusky (dhuma smoke),
In an example or two, there appears to be accom-

addition

dusty, -Qrlra (also -glfla) in

madhura
panying

(late) sweet.

initial

9ankura

strengthening: thus,

stake-like

(9anku); and

agnidhra of the fire-kindler (agnidh),

9ekhara (also qikharaj, a guna-

in

strengthening.

b. With an inorganic vowel before the ending are made, for example,

xnedhira wise, rathira in a chariot; karmara smith; dantura (late)

tusked; acchera (? MS.), ^ramanera, samgamanera.
c. The use of ra in forming a few words of comparative meaning was
noticed above (474), and the words so made were given.

1227.

This and the preceding suffix are really

la.

but two forms of the same.

with one another, and
later

In some words they exchange

but not always, the

^f la is usually,

form in use.
a.

Examples

madhula

sweet,

wretched; with a,

are
bahula abundant, madhula (later madhura) and
bhimala fearful, jlvala lively, aqina (and aqrlra)
:

vacala

talkative (late);

with

i,

phenila foamy

(late:

STEMS

471

IN

mna, maya,

phena); with u, vatula and vatula windy

maternal uncle

somewhat

is

[1230

ra, la, va, ^a, in.

(late:

vata); and matula

irregular formation from

matf

mother,

language are found a few adjectives in lu, always

preceded by a; examples are: krpalu and dayalu compassionate, irsyalu jealous, usnalu heated, Qayalu and svapnalu sleepy, lajjalu modb. In

the later

ef, lalalu

Qraddhalu

drooling,

two such derivatives having

1228.

va.

5f

Examples

anjiva

slippery,

rajiva

jewelless,

krodhalu

number of

small

ending (accented, added

a.

trusting,

passionate.

primary aspect were noticed

to

arnava

at

One

adjectives have

an unaltered

or

1192b.
this

primitive).

kegava hairy; rasnava girded;

^antiva tranquillizing, 9raddhiva credible, amaniva
are:

billowy,

striped.

b. There are a very few adjectives in vala and

vaya which may

be

krsivala peasant (kyi ploughing), urnfivala wooly,

rajasvala, urjasvala, payasvala, ^advala, nadvala, gikhavala, dantavala; druvaya wooden dish, caturvaya fourfold.
noticed here

c.

With

thus,

vya

are

pftyvya

ship: thus,

1229.

51

made two

or three

paternal uncle,

9a.

words from names of relation-

bhratyvya nephew, enemy.

very few adjectives appear to be made

by an added ending of this form.

a. Thus, r omasa or lomaQa hairy, eta$a
arvacja or arvasa hasting,

kysnacja

maga

blackish,

(?) n.

pr.

yuva^a

youthful,

and giri^a, vari^a

same character (not containing the root

kasmasa, kald9a

is

(also

eta$a) variegated,

babhru^a and kapi9a brownish,

bali9a childish, karka^a harsh, kar-

babhluqa

or

(?),

91).

vykf acja

are doubtless

The character

of

of the

harin^a,

doubtful.

Many of the adjective derivatives already treated have sometimes a possessive value, the general meaning of being concerned with,
b.

having relation to being specialized into that of being in possession of.

But there are also a few distinctively possessive suffixes; and some
of these, on account of the unlimited freedom of using them and
the frequency of their occurrence, are Very conspicuous parts of the
general system of derivation. These will be next considered.
in
Possessive adjectives of this ending may
^j
be formed almost unlimitedly from stems in 9 a or 5Tr 5,
and are sometimes (but very rarely) made from stems with

1230.

other

finals.

a.

final

vowel disappears before the

suffix.

The accent

is

on

to the inflection of these adjectives, see above, 438 ff.

are to be counted by hundreds in the older language, and are

the suffix.

They

As

equally or more numerous in the later.

XVII. SECONDARY DERIVATION.

1230]

Examples from a-stems are:

b.
wealthy,

paksin

balm

winged,

ing the thunderbolt,

9ikhandin

strong,
crested,

aqvm possessing horses, dhanin

bhagm fortunate, vajrln wieldhastin

possessing

of sixteen, gardabhanadin having an ass's voice,

eminent sanctity, sadhudevm having luck at play,

hands,

sodaqin

brahmavarcasin

of

kucidarthin having
from a-stems, manisin wise, Qikhfn crested, rta-

errands everywhither^

yin

472

pious.
c. Derivatives

from other stems are very few in comparison: thus,

(?), abhimatm, arcm,

atjanin, urmin, kalanemin, khadm, -panin, mancin, maunjin, maulin, -yonin, venin,
samdhin, samrddhin, surabhin (of those found only at the end of a

from i-stems, atithin

compound the

possessive

since case-forms of i- and

character is doubtful,

from u-stems, gurvin, (jatagvm

from stems in an, varmin,
of the u);

in-stems are not seldom exchanged);

(?), venavin (with guna

karmin, carmin, -chadmin, janmin, dhanvin, -dharmin, namin,
In 'as, retln rich in seed,
brahmin, yaksmin, <jarmin, and 9vanin ;
and probably varcin n. pr. also (perhaps through stems in -sa) gavasm
and sahasin, manasin, -vayasin ;
isolated are parisrajin garlanded,
;

and

hiranm

(hiranya).

d. It was pointed out above (1183) that derivatives in in have assumed on a large scale the aspect and value of primary derivatives, with the
significance of present participles, especially at the end of compounds. The
properly secondary character of the whole formation is shown, on the one
hand, by the frequent use in the same manner of words bearing an unmis-

takably secondary form,

praQnm, garbbin, jurnm, dhumin, sna-

as

nin, hornin, matsarm, paripanthin, pravepanin, samgatin; and,

on the other hand, by the occurrence of reverted palatals (216) before the
in, which could only be as in replaced a: thus, arkin, -bhangin, -Bangin, -rokm.
e. In a

of

few cases, there appears before the in a

preceded by an

dhanvayin, tantrayin, ^vetayin,

srkayin, atatayfn, pratihitayin, marayin, ytayin, svadhayin (VS.
TB. -vin). The y in all such words is evidently the inserted y after a
character:

inorganic

thus,

(258 a), and

f. The
of ^B.,

is

to

assume

them

for

a suffix

yin

is quite needless.

accentuation pravrajin, prasyandin, in the concluding part

doubtless false; and the same is to be suspected for $akl, sari,

ri (RV., each once).

g.

very few words in in have not suffered the possessive specialitree, hermit, kapotin dovelike, andin scrotum-

Such are vanfn

zation.

ike (cf.

1233f).

1231.

small

pR

number

min.

With

made an extremely

of possessive adjectives.

a. In the old language,

atives in

this suffix are

in from nouns in

the words

ma,

in T*"T\ have the aspect of derivismin

although in two or three cases

STEMS IN

473

min, vin, vant.

in,

[-1233

and ygmin in RV., vagmrn in B.

no such nouns are found in actual
use beside them. In the later language, rain is nsed as independent element in a very few words thus, gomin possessing cattle, svamin
:

and

lord

later) waiter,

(Sutras

(sva own),

kakudmin

b. The two words {groin and

humped.

vagmin show

not only reversion but

an original palatal.

also sonantizing of

The

1232. ftFT vin.

made with

Adjectives

this

suffix

are also not numerous.

those in

The RV. has

a.

mon

They have the same meanings with

The
accent is on the suffix.
3fHn.
Though

later.

ten adjectives in

for

vin; they become

them may be suspected a similar

yin and rain (above), signs of it are much less clearly

b. The great majority have vin added after as:

rather

more com-

origin to those in

traceable.
e.

namasvm

g.

tejasvin brilliant, yac.asvn beautiful, and

so retasvm, enasvin, harasvin, etc.; and qatasvin, ^rotrasvin, rupasvin have an inserted s, by analogy with them. Most others have a
reverential,

tapasvm

heated,

by lengthening): thus,

(sometimes,

medhavm, mayavm,

glSvin,

sa-

obedient to the goad, dvayavin double-minded, ubhaof both kinds, dhanvavin, tandravin, amayavm,

bhavin, as^ravin

ySvfn

possessing

atatavin.

More

rarely,

vin

is

added

after another consonant than s: thus,

v&gvfn, dhyfadvfn, atmanvfn, kumudvin, sragvin, yajvin, ajvin.

The doubtful word vya9nuvfn (VS., once: TB. vya$niya) appears to add
the ending (or in, with euphonic v) to a present tense-stem.

An

0.

dhrsadvin
1233.
are

external form of combination

(both Vedic), with the

is

seen only in

adjectives

from noun-stems of every form,

language and in the later.

this -suffix,

both in the earlier

The accent generally remains upon

a.

vagvin and

reversion of a palatal in sragvin.

Very numerous possessive

^rj^vant.

made hy

common

the primitive, without

but an accent resting on a stem-final, if this be anything but

a or a, is in the majority of cases thrown forward upon the suffix.
As to inflection, formation of feminine, etc., see 452 if.

change

is in many words
ofteuest a, very rarely u
b. A final vowel
lengthened in the older language (247) before this ending, as in compoNouns in an more often retain the n.
sition.

c.

Examples

of the

normal formation

are:

with unchanged accent,

keqavant hairy, putravant having a son, prajananavant procreative,

pundarlkavant rich in lotuses, hiranyavant rich in gold, apupavant
having cakes, rajanyavant allied with a kthatriya; prajavant having progeny, urnavant wooly, daksinavant rich in sacrificial gifts; sakhivant
having friends, saptarsfvant accompanied
powerful, tavifivant vehement,

patnivant

by

the

seven sages;

with spouse,

9aclvant
dhivant devoted,

XVII. SECONDARY DERIVATION.

1233]

474

dyavapythivivant (94 b) with heaven and earth; vfanuvant accompanied

by Vishnu,- haritvant golden, avytvant hither turned, aglrvant mixed
with milk, avarvant splendid, garadvant full of years, pumavant having a
rich, tamasvant dark, brahmanvant accompanied with
romanvant hairy (but also romavant, lomavant, vytraha^ith accent on the
vant, etc.), kakubhvant containing a kakubh;
suffix, agnivant having fire, rayivant wealthy, n^vant manly, padvant

payaavant

male,

worship,

having feet, nasvant with nose,

headed (also glrsavant).

With

d.

agvavant)
of

virile

final

stem-vowel lengthened

possessing horses,

having axes,

having a mouth, giraanvant

for

example,

sutavant having soma

ghfnivant

hot

agvavant (beside
vrsnyavant

expressed,

such cases occur in V.);

force (about thirty

avadhitlvant

asanvant

gaktivant

mighty,

viaiivant dividing (vfau

e. Certain special irregularities are as follows

apart).

an inserted a in

m-

drasvant, mahiavant; inserted n in vananvant, budhanvant, vadhanvant, gartanvant, mansanvant ; shortening of a final of the primitive
in mayavant,
yajyavant, puronuvakyavant, amikaavant,
sarasvativant ; abbreviation in hiranvant; inserted a in gavasavant,
sahasavant, and the odd mahimavant ; anomalous accent in krgana-

vant

(if

from

kfgana

derivation

peart);

from particles in antarvant

pregnant, viftivant (above, d).

f.

one of

Instead of the specialized meaning of possessing, the more general

to, resembling is seen in a number of words, especially in the

tike,

derivatives

from

ivant, kivant).
nestlike,

tavant

pronominal stems, mavant like me etc. (517: add

Other examples are fndrasvant like Indra, nidavant

nilavant

nyvant manly, pfsadvant

later paravant dependent.

blackish,

out above (1107) that the adverb of comparison in

neuter of a derivative of this class.
g. In
atives:

speckled,

princely; compare the

a few words,

vivasvant

vant

lias

(or

h. For the derivatives in

is

kai-

was pointed

the accusative

the aspect of forming primary deriv-

vfvasvant) shining,
dasvant, arvant, pipisvant (?), yahvant.
thus,

vat

It

vat from

prepositions,

also

n.

pr.,

which appear

anupato

have

nothing to do with this suffix, see 1245J.

i.

vVhile this suffix is generally

added

to a primitive according to the

(see examples above, c), treatment also as

combination begins already in RV., in pfgadvant (pftfat),

rules of internal combination

in external

and becomes more common

later
thus, tapovant, tejovant, angirovant
tapasvant etc.) vidyudvant (beside vidyutvant), byhadvant,
jagadvant, sadvant, etc. tris^ubvant (against kakubhvant), samidvant, vimydvant vagvant (against ykvant) ; avaradvant ; havyavadvant; agirvant.

(beside

j.

01

None

to u.

of the suffixes beginning with

show

in the

Veda

resolution

STEMS IN vant, van, mant.

475

[1235

1234. eRvan. The secondary derivatives in this suffix belong

and are a small number, of which extremely
few have more than an occurrence or two.
to the older language,

a.

van

ened before the

is

and secondary vant.

suffix.

The accent

The feminine

of the stem.

1169f)

of "being produced under the joint influence

They have the aspect

of primary

A
is

final short

vowel

is

usually length-

various, but oftenest on the penult

that of the derivatives in primary

(like

van

in varl.

from a-stems, rnavan or rnavan, rtarghavan, dhitavan, satyavan, sumnavari, and

b. The Vedic examples are

van (and
maghavan;
f.

-varl),

from a-stems, sunftavari,

svadhavan

(and

f.

-varl); from

amatlvan, arativan, (jru^ivan, muslvan, and krsivan (only

in the further derivative karsivana); dhlvan; from consonant-stems,
atharvan, samadvan, sahovan (bad AV. variant to RV. sahavan);
hardvan (TA. also hardivan). Somewhat anomalous are sahavan,
fndhanvan (for Indhanavan?), and samtvan (for sanitivan ?). The
i-stems,

only

words of more than

sporadic occurrence are

rtavan, maghavan,

atharvan.
c.

Sahovan

(see

b)

is

the only example of external

combination

with this suffix.

1235. HrT mant.

This

is

a twin-suffix to

^T

vant (above,

have the same value, and are to

1233);
some extent exchangeable with one another. But possesstheir derivatives

mant

much

ives in

JTrT

guage,

about a third as many), and are only very rarely

are

less

frequent

(in

the older lan-

made from a-stems.

a. If the accent of the primitive word is on the final, it is in
the great majority of instances (three quarters) thrown forward upon
final
the added suffix otherwise, it maintains its place unchanged.

vowel before the

suffix

is

in only a

few cases made long.

Exam-

ples are:
b. With the accent of the primitive unchanged

kanvamant, yavavibhavamant n. pr. (these alone from a-stems,

and the first only occurring once); avimant possessing sheep, a^animant
I/earing the thunderbolt, osadhimant rich in herbs, vaqimant carrying an
axe, vasumant possessing gocd things, madhumant rich in sweets, tvastrmant accompanied by Tvashtar, hotrmant provided with priests, ayusmant long-lived, jyotif mant full of brightness
ulkuslmant accompanied with meteors, pilumant (?), prasumant having young shoots, gomant
rich in kine, ganitmant winged, vihutmant with libation, kakudmant

mant

rich in

barley,

and

humped, vidyiinmant (with irregular assimilation of t: VS. has also ka-

kunmant) gleaming, virukmant

vipru^mant with drops.

shining,

havismant

with

libations

'

XVII. SECONDARY DERIVATION.

1235]
With

c.

knives,

the accent thrown forward

agnimant

sessing cattle,

having

vayumant

476

upon the ending: asimant with

with a quiver, pa<jumant pos-

isudhimant

fire,

pitpnant (AV. pitrmantj accom-

with wind,

panied by the Fathers, matrmant having a mother; no long final vowels

are found before the suffix in this division, and only once a consonant, in

dasmat

(RV., once).

d. Protraction of a final vowel

is seen in
tvifimant, dhrajimant,
hirimant; in jyotisimant is irregularly inserted an I (after the analogy
in Qucismant, mahismant, an B; susumant (RV.,
of tavislmant)
;

once) appears to be primary.

The adverb a<jumat appears

mant to vant.

e.

to

be related

to

adverbs in

vat

as

the suffix

By the

f.

side of derivatives

made with

internal combination appears

vidyunmant even in RV. and other like cases occur later: thus, parisrunmant, kakunmant, ksunmant, puroninmant, vanmant, kakum;

mant, gudalinmant, yaQomant.

1236. It has been seen above (especially in connection with the
suffixes a and ya) that the neuter of a derivative adjective is frequently used as an abstract noun. There are, however, two suffixes
which have in the later language the specific office of making abstract
nouns from adjectives and nouns; and these are found also, more
sparingly used, in the oldest language, each having there one or two
other evidently related suffixes beside
a. For derivatives of the

above,

11681

it.

same value made with the

suffix

iman,

see

k.

With

1237. rH ta.
tract nouns,

both adjectives and nouns.

a. The form of the primitive

is

uniformly on the syllable preceding the

of being so

and

so,

abs-

from

unchanged, and the accent

is

suffix.

b. Examples (from the older language) are

purusata human

made feminine

this suffix are

denoting the quality

agmta

devata

divinity,

vlrata

apaQuta cattle-lessness, bandhuta relationship, vasuta wealth; nagnata nakedness, suvlrata wealth in retainers, anapatyata lack of descendants, agota poverty
manliness,

in cattle,

doubtless

nature,

firehood,

abrahmata

lack of devotion, aprajasta absence of progeny ; also

sunfta (from sunara), although the word is a few times used

as an adjective (like

^aihtati and satyatati: see next paragraph).

Of special formation are mamata selfishness, treta triplicity, astita

RV. l\as avirata, with exceptional accent. In ekapatuita is
actuality.
c.

seen a shortened final vowel of the primitive.

crete

meaning, people, folk; also

1238. fTT%
the latter

is

gramata

Janata

has acquired a con-

(once) villages collectively.

These suffixes are Vedic only, and

tati,
rTTr^tat.
limited to RV. Their relationship to the preceding is

STEMS IN mant,

477

tft,

tati, tat, tva,

evident, but opinions are at variance as to its nature.

as in the derivatives with ta.

The quotable examples

a.

in

tati

[1240

tvana.

The accent

is

aristatati uninjurediKss,

are:

grbhitatati the being seized, jyesthatati supremacy, devatati divinity, vasutati wealth, qamtati goodfortune, sarvatati completeness; and, with exceptional accent, astatati
home, and daksatati cleverness; civatati and Qubhatati occur (once

ayaksmatati freedom from

disease,

each) in the later language.

Two words

in tati are used adjectively

by apposition?): (j&mtati (RV., twice; and AV.

in manuscripts), and satyatati (RV., once: voc.).
organically,

(in-

xix. 44. 1,

b. The words in tat (apparently made by abbreviation from tati)

occur in only one or two cases-forms they were all mentioned above (383k. 2).
;

1239.

(3*

of the same

With

tva.

made neuter nouns,

this suffix are

value as the feminines in

rTT

ta (above, 1237).

a. The neuter abstracts in tva are in the older language considerably more common than the feminines in ta, although themThe accent is without exception on
selves also not very numerous.
the suffix.

amrtatva
ahamuttaratva

b. Examples (from the older language) are

devatvd

divinity,

precedency,

subhagatva

qucitvd

purity,

good-fortune,

patitva husbandship, taranitva

immortality,
struggle for

energy, dir-

ghayutva long life, qatrutva enmity, bhratftva, brotherhood, vysatva

satmatva scul fulness, maghavattva liberality, raksastva sorcery.

virility,

anagastva and -prajastva there is a lengthening of the final syland in sauprajastva (AV., once) this appears to
be accompanied by initial vrddhi (saubhagatva is doubtless from saiibhaga, not subhaga) and in these and pratyanastva there is an apparent insertion of s.
In sadhanitva (RV.), vasativaritvfc (TS.), rohinitva (TB.), there is shortening of final feminine I before the suffix. Of
The apparent
peculiar formation are astitva actuality and sahatva union.
In

lable of the primitive;

feminine datives yuthatvayai and ganatvayai (KS.) are doubtless false

forms.
c. Besides the

we have

external

usual guttural reversions in

combination

in

samittva

samyaktva, sayuktva,
and purvava^tva

(-idh-)

(-vah-).
d. In isitatvata (RV.,

human quality, appears

suffixes tva and ta.
twice)

e.

The

of

tva

is to

1240. (^T tvana.

once) incitedness, and purusatvata (RV.,

be a combination of the two equivalent

to

be read in Veda as

The

derivatives

like those in tva, neuter abstracts.

only once (raks astua).

made with

this suffix are,

They occur almost only

in

RV.,

except in a single instance (martyatvan&), have beside them

The accent is on the final, and the
equivalent derivatives in tva.
tva is never resolved into tua.
and,

XVII. SECONDARY DERIVATION.

1240]

473

a. The words are: kavitvana, janitvana, patitvana (also JB.),

martyatvana, mahitvana, vasutvana, vrsatvana, sakhitvana.
1241. A few suffixes make no change in the character as part
of speech of the primitive to which they are added, but either are
merely formal appendages, leaving the value of the word what it was
before, or make a change of degree, or introduce some other modi-

fication of

meaning.

The

comparison and ordinal suffixes

have for the most part been treated already, and need only
a reference here.
1242.

suffixes of

tara and rFF tama are the usual secondary suffixes of

a.
cP[
adjective comparison: respecting their use as such, see above, 471
473 respecting the use of tama as ordinal etc. suffix, see 487 8 ;
;

respecting that of their accusatives as adverbial suffixes to prepositions etc., see 1111 e.
b. In vrtratara
iu

mrdayattama,

it

often in composition

and
is

purutama

drawn forward

the, accent

(RV.)
to

the final

of

is

anomalous;

the participle, as
the ordinal accent;

(1309); 9a(}vattama (RV.) has

is an ordinal; dfvatara (RV., once: an

samvatsaratama (B.)

error?)

an ordinary adjective, of the day; surabhistama and tuvis^ama insert

a s; karotara and kaulitara are probably vrddhi-derivatives in a.
In
vatsatara (f. -ri) weanling, agvatara mule, and dhentistari cow losing

is

the application of the suffix is peculiar

of a certain sdman.

her milk,

and obscure;

in

so also

rathamtara, name
c.

^ ra and

superlative value

1J
;

ma,

like tara

and the

and tama, have a comparative and

them forms ordinals see above,

latter of

474, 487.
d.

rals: see

tha, like

487 c;

tama and ma, forms

ordinals from a few

nume-

also (with fern, in -thi; from tati, kati, yati, iti:

thus, tatitha so-many-eth etc.

e.

Apparently by false analogy with tatitha

quasi-ordinals tavatitha,
suffix

titha

(also

yavatitha, bahutitha

katititha,

words meaning a number or

late, for

collection,

katitha) ; and,
as 'gana,

etc.

(above,

d),

the

are made, as if with

it is

said,

from other

puga, samgha ; but none

such are quotable.

1243. Of diminutive suffixes there are none in Sanskrit with

meaning and use. The occasional employment of
ka, in a somewhat indistinct way, to make diminutives, has been
noticed above (1222).
clearly developed

1244. Of the ordinary adjective-making suffixes, given above,

some occasionally make adjectives from adjectives, with slight or
imperceptible modification of value. The only one used to any considerable extent in this way is ka: as to which, see 1222.

JN tara, tama, tha, taya, ta, na, tana ETC.

STRMS

479

1245.

1245

few suffixes are used to make derivatives from certain

Thus

limited and special classes of words, as numerals and particles.

rHT taya makes a few adjectives, meaning of so many divi(used in the neuter as collectives), from numerals:

a.

or kinds

sions

ekataya (MS.), dvitaya, tritaya, catu^aya (AV.), sa^taya (KB.:

with external combination), Baptataya (B.), astataya (AB.), da<jataya
Their fern, is in -yl.
(KV.), bahutaya (TS.).

thus,

b. rU tya makes a class of adjectives from particles: e. g. nitya

own, nistya foreign, amatya companion, etc. As the examples show,
the accent of the primitive is retained. The fern, is in -tya.
c. The other quotable examples are apatya, avitya, sanutya,
antastya, anyatastya-, tatastya, kutastya, atratya, tatratya, yatratya, kutratya, ihatya, upatya, adhitya, pratastya, dakainatya
(instead of which, the regular form, is generally found daksinatya, appa-

rently a further vrddhi-derivative from it:

as if belonging to the southern-

and paQcattya and p aura sty a (of a similar character: these three
last are said by the grammarians to be accented on the final, as is
proper
for vyddhi-derivatives)
aptya and aptya perhaps contain the same suffix.

ers^

In antastya and pratastya

The

d.

of

tya

seen external combination.

is

in IIV. always

is

to

be read as

after

heavy

syllable.
e.

cf

ta forms ekata, dvita, and trita, also

and apparently avata well

With

f.

perhaps

?T

na

samana
With

are

(for

muhurta moment,

water).

made pur&na

ancient,

visuna

various,

and

like,

FR

tana or

tna are made adjectives

pratna ancient, ntitana
or nutna present, sanatana or sanatna lasting, divatana of the day,
Qvastana of tomorrov, hyastana of yesterday. The accent is various.
g.

(in

a few cases)

from adverbs, nearly always of time:

The feminine

e.

g.

is in ni.

The other quotable examples are: agretana, adyatana, adhunatana, idamtana, idaniratana, etarhitana, ciramtana, tadanimtana, dosatana, puratana, praktana, prfttastana, sadatana, sayamtana; from adverbs of place, adhastana, arvaktana, uparitana,
with tna, parastattna, purastattna. A further vrddhikutastana ;
h.

equivalent meaning, nautana (cf. above, c), occurs

once found tvattana belonging to thee.

derivative, with

In PB.

is

Besides the obvious cases

i.

suffix,

we have

j.

cf^vat

makes from

mentioned above (383k.

k.

cfi

of

an assimilated

external combination in

final

before

late.

this

pratastana.

particles of direction the feminine nouns

1).

ka$a, properly a noun in composition,

is

reckoned by the

1245]

XVIII. COMPOSITION.

430

grammarians as a suffix, in utka^a, nikata, praka^a, vika^a (RV.,

once, voc.), and Baibka^a (all said to be accented on the final).

1.

suffix

vana

is

perhaps to be seen in nivana,

pravana;

and ala in antarala.

m. Occasional derivatives made with the ordinary suffixes of

primary and secondary derivation from numerals and particles have
been noted above: thus, see ana (1160n), ti (1157h^, ant(1172a),
u (11781), a (1209 i, ka (1222 c), mna (1224 c), maya (1225a),vant
(1233 e.

CHAPTER

XVIII.

FORMATION OF COMPOUND STEMS.

1246.

THE

frequent combination of declinable

stems

with one another to form compounds which then are treated

as if simple, in respect to accent, inflection,
tion,

is

conspicuous feature

and construc-

of the language,

from

its

earliest period.
a.

There

and the

is,

however, a marked difference between the earlier

and intricacy of the

later language as regards the length

combinations allowed. In Veda and Brahmana, it is quite rare that

more than two stems are compounded together
except that to some
much used and familiar compound, as to an integral word, a further
element is sometimes added. But the later the period, and, especially,
the more elaborate the style, the more a cumbrous and difficult aggregate of elements, abnegating the advantages of an inflective language,
takes the place of the due syntactical union of formed words into
sentences.

1247.
classes
I.

the

Sanskrit

compounds

fall

into

three

principal

a.

Copulative

members

or aggregative compounds, of

are syntactically coordinate

which

a joining together

which in an uncompounded condition

would be -connected by the conjunction and (rarely or).
into one of words

b.
truth

[1247

CLASSES OP COMPOUNDSI

481

indravartmau Indra and Varuna, satyanrte

krtakrtam done and undone, devagandharvama-

are:

Examples

and

falsehood,

gods and Oandharvas and

nusoragaraksasas

men and

serpents

and demons.

The members of such a compound may obviously be of any numNo compound of any other class can contain
ber, two or more than two.
of which, however, either or both may be commore than two members
c.

pound, or decompound (below, 1248).

Determinative compounds, of which the

former member is syntactically dependent on the latter, as
d.

II.

its

determining or qualifying adjunct: being

noun

(or

pronoun) limiting

A.

classes:

And, according as it is
be distinguished the two subit.

and B. Descriptive
not an absolute one.

Dependent compounds;

compounds.
e.

1.

in a case-relation, or, 2. an

it

adjective or adverb describing

the one or the other, are to

either,

Their difference

Examples

are:

is

of ^dependent

amitrasena army of

compounds,

ayurda life-giving, haetakr-ta

made with the hands; of feescnptrvefom pounds, maharei great sage, priyasakhi dear friend, amftra enemy, sukrta well done.
enemies,

padodaka

water

for the

feet,

f. These two classes are of primary value

they have undergone
no unifying modification in the process of composition; their character as parts of speech & determined by their final member, and they
are capable of being resolved into equivalent phrases by giving the
proper independent form and formal means of connection to each
member. That is not the case with the remaining class, which accordingly is more fundamentally distinct from them than they are from
one another.
;

HI.
of which

g.
is

Secondary adjective compounds,

the value

not given by a simple resolution

into their

component parts, but which, though having as final member

a noun, are themselves adjectives. These, again, are of two
A. Possessive compounds, which are nouncompounds of the preceding class, with the idea of possessing added, turning them from nouns into adjectives

sub-classes:

B. Compounds in which the second

tactically

dependent on the

first:

member

namely,

1.

is

noun syn-

Prepositional
noun

compounds, of a governing preposition and following

31
Whitney, Grammar. 2. ed.

f-^jk-

XVIII. COMPOSITION.

1S47-]

Vedic), of a present par-

2.

Participial compounds (only

ticiple and its following object.
h.

The sub-class B.

(participial

is

compounds)

482

is comparatively small, and its second division

hardly met with even in the later Vedic.

virasena possessing a hero-army, prajikama

i. Examples are:
having desire of progeny, tigma9j*nga sharphorned, haritasraj wearing
green

atim&tra

garlands;

y&vayaddve$as

excessive;

driving

away

enemies.
j. The adjective compounds are, like simple adjectives, liable to be
used, especially in the neuter, as abstract and collective nouns, and in the
accusative as adverbs; and out of these uses have grown apparent special

classes of

compounds,

marians.

The

reckoned and named as such by the Hindu gram-

relation of the classification given above to that presented in

the native grammar, and widely adopted from the latter by the European
grammars, will be made clear as we go on to treat the classes in detail.

1248.

member
and

A compound

may,

like a simple word,

and

in another compound,

without definite

so on,

this in yet

limit.

The

a. Thus, the dependent

then this into

l/jfifi)

this,

its

of any

copulative),

compound purvajanmakj-ta done in a prekrta and the descriptive purvajanman,

divisible into

elements ;

the dependent aakalaniti^&atratattvajila

books of behavior has first the root-stem jna (for

knowing separated from the rest, which is again dependent; then
divided into tattva essence and the remainder, which is descriptive ;

knowing
this is

first

another

analysis

compound, of whatever length (unless it be a

must be made by a succession of bisections.
vious existence is

become

the essence

all

sakala all and nitiqaatra books of behavior, of

dependent compound and the former a possessive (sa

divides into

again,

which the

of

latter is a

and kalft having

1249.

a.

its

parts together").

The

final of a

of another stem in

stem

composition

rules for external combination

is

combined with the

initial

according to the general

they have been given, with

their exceptions, in chap. III., above.

b. If a stem has a distinction of strong

and weak forms,

composition as prior member in

has a triple distinction (311), in

ft regularly enters into

its

weak form;

its

or,

middle form.

if it

FORM OF PRIOR MEMBER OF COMPOUND.

483

[1250

is, especially, stems in p or ar, at or ant, ac or anc, etc.,

composition the forms in y, at, ac, etc.; while those in an
and in usually (exceptions sometimes occur, as vpsana^va, vF?an-

That

c.

show

in

vasii) lose their final n,

proper

and are combined

as

if

a and

were

their

finals.

d. As in secondary derivation (1203d), so also as prior member of

a compound, a stem sometimes shortens its final long vowel (usually I, rarely a): thus, in V., rodasfpra, pfthivi^na, ppthivisad, dharaputa,

dharavaka; in
nigramanyau;

B.,

ppthivi-da, -bhaga, -loka, sarasvatikfta, sena-

in

S.,

garbhiniprayaqcitta, samidhenipraisa, vasekada9inilinga, prapharvida, devatalakana,

atlvaripariharana,

devatapradhanatva

later,

devakinandana, lak^mivardhana, ku-

maridatta, muhurtaja, i$akacita,

etc.

e. Occasionally, a stem is used as prior member of a compound which

does not appear, or not in that form, as an independent -word: examples
are maha great (apparently used independently in V. in accusative), tuvi

mighty (V.), dvi two.

f.

cial

Not infrequently, the

final

member

of a

compound assumes

a spe-

form: see below, 1315.

1250. But a case-form in the prior member of a compound

no means rare, from the earliest period of the language. Thus

by

an accusative, especially before a root-stem, or a deriv-

a. Quite often,

ative in

is
:

meaning: for example, patamga going by flight,

dhanamjaya winning wealth, abhayamkara causing absence of danger,
pu^imbhara bringing prosperity, vacaminkhaya inciting the voice; but
also

of equivalent

sometimes before words of other form,

as

aqvamif^i

horte-desiring,

<jubhamyavan going in splendor, subhgganikarana making happy,

bhayamkartr causer of fear. lu a few cases, by analogy with these, a
word receives an accusative form to which it has no right: thus, hrdamsani,
maksumgama, vasumdhara, atmambhari.
Much more rarely, an instrumental for example, giravf dh increasvacastena stealing by incantation, kratvamagha gladly
bestowing, bhasaketu bright with light, vidmanapaa active with wisdom.
b.

ing by praise,

C. In a very

asmehiti errand

few instances, a dative thus, nare$ha serving a man,

and perhaps kiyedha and mahevfdh.
:

to us,

d. Not seldom, a locative;

or a-derivative
in the sky,

for

vanef ah

prothe9aya

and this

also especially

example, agrega going at

lying

the head,

with a root-stem

divikeft dwelling

anges^ha existing in the limbs,

sutekara active with the soma, divi-

prevailing in the wood,

on a

couch,

cara moving in the sky; arec,atru having enemies far removed, sumnaapi near in favor, maderaghu hasting in excitement, yudhif$hira firm
in battle, antevasin dwelling near; apsuja born in the waters, hftsvas
hurling at hearts.
e.

Least

often,

genitive

thus,

rayaskama

desirous

31*

of

wealth,

1250]

XVIII. COMPOSITION.

akasyavid knowing no

484

But the older language has a few examples

one.

of the putting together of a genitive with its governing noun, each

ber of the combination keeping its

own accent:

mem-

1267 d.

see below,

f. Ablative forms are to be seen in balatkara violence and balatkrta, and perhaps in paratpriya. And a stem in y sometimes appears in a
copulative compound in its nominative form
thus, pitaputrau father and
:

hotapotarau

son,

the

invoker

and

Anyonya

purifier.

one another

is

fused phrase, of nominative and oblique case.

g. In a very few words, plural meaning is signified by plural form
thus, apfluj" etc. (in derivation, also,

nrnhpranetra

hanukampa

conducting

men,

apsu

is

rujaskara

used as a stem), hrtsvas,

causing

pains,

(and dual)

trembling of the two jaws.

h. Much more often, of words having gender-forms, the feminine is

used in composition, when the distinctive feminine sense is to be conveyed
e. g. gopmatha master of the shepherdesses, daslputra son of a female
:

mrgidf9

slave,

gateUe-eyed,

pramtapranayana vessel

1261. The accent of compounds

is

for consecrated water.

very various, and liable to

considerable irregularity even within the limits of the same formation;

and it must be left to be pointed out in detail below. All possible
varieties are found to occur.
a.

This

is

Thus:

Each member of the compound retains its own separate accent.

the most anomalous and infrequent method.
It appears in certain

Vedic copulative compounds chiefly composed of the names of divinities

(so-called devata-dvandvas : 1265ff.), and in a small number of aggregations partly containing a genitive case-form as prior

member (1267 d).

b. The accent of the compound is that of its prior member.

This is
but also in
especially the case in the great class of possessive compounds
determinatives having the participle in ta or na as final member, in those
;

beginning with the negative

or

an, and in other

less

numerous and im-

portant classes.
C.

The accent

of the

compound

is

that of the final

member.

This

is

not on so large a scale the case as the preceding; but it is nevertheless

quite common, being found in many compounds having a verbal noun or

member, in compounds beginning with the numerals dvi

and tri or the prefixes su and due, and elsewhere in not infrequent ex-

adjective as final

ceptions.

d.

The compound takes an accent of

its

own, independent of that of

(not always, of course, to be

This method is largely followed :
distinguished from the preceding case).
especially, by the regular copulatives, and by the great mass of dependent
and descriptive noun-compounds, by most possessives beginning with the

either of its constituents, on its final syllable

negative prefix; and by others.

e.
its

The compound has an accent which

members.

This

is

is

altered from

that of one of

everywhere an exceptional and sporadically occurring

COPULATIVE CNMPOUNDS.

485
case,

and the instances of

it,

[1253

noted below under each

formation,

do not

Examples are: medhasati (medha), tilamisra (tila), khadihasta (khadf), yavay&ddvesas (yavaya&t);
tjakadhuma (dhuma), amrta (mrta), suvira (vira), tuvigriva
A few words
as vfyva, purva, and sometimes sarva
(griva).
take usually a changed accent as prior members of compounds.
require to be assembled here.

I.

1252.

Two

ives, and, in

Copulative Compounds.

much

more nouns

or

less

an instance or two, adverbs

often adject-

having a coord-

inate construction, as if connected by a conjunction, usually

combined

and, are sometimes

a.

This

is

into

the class to which the

compounds.
Hindu grammarians give the

name of dvandva pair, couple ; a dvandva of adjectives, however, is

not recognized by them.
b. Compounds in which the relation of the two members is alternative instead

of copulative,

examples are

nyunadhika

though only exceptional,

are

not very rare:

defective or redundant,

jayaparajaya
on hand, kas^halos^asama

or defeat, kritotpanna purchased or

log or clod, paksimygata the condition of being bird or

beast,

victory
like

trii^ad-

vinga numbering twenty or thirty, catuspancakrtvas four or five times,

dvyekantara different by one or two. A less marked modification of the
copulative idea is seen in such instances as priyasatya agreeable though
true, prarthitadurlabha sought after but hard to obtain; or in 9rantagata arrived weary.

1253.

The noun-copulatives

flective form, into

a.

1.

its

final

as

regards

their

in-

two classes:

The compound has

member, and
s

fall,

is

in

the gender

and declension of

number a dual

or a plural,

//

to

its logical
value,
according
than two individual things.

as denoting two or more

Examples are praijSpanau inspiration and expiration, vrlhiand barley, yksame verse and chant, kapotolukau dove
and owl, candradityau moon and sun, hastyacjvau the elephant and
horse, ajavayas goats and sheep, devasuras the gods and demons,
atharvangirasas the Atfiarvans and Angirases, sambadhatandryas
anxieties and fatigues, vidyakarman! knowledge and action, hastyac/vas
elephants and horses ; of more than two members (no examples quotable
from the older language), qayyasanabhogas lying, sitting, and eating,
brahmanaksatriyavi^udraa a Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaicyo, and udra,
b.

yavau

rice

XVIII. COMPOSITION.

1253]

rogacjokaparitapabandhanavyasanSni
and misfortune.
2.

486

disease, pain,

The compound, without regard

c.

noted, or to the gender of

grief, captivity,

to the

number de-

constituents, becomes a neuter

its

singular collective.
d. Examples are: is^apurtam what is offered and bestowed, ahoratram a day and night, krtakrtam the done and undone, bhutabhavyam past and future, ke<ja9ma<}ru. hair and beard, osadhivanaspati
plants and trees, candratarakam moon and stars, ahinakulam snake

and ichneumon, c^irogrlvam head and neck, yukamaksikamatkunam

and bugs.

lice, Jlies,

1254.

a. That a stem

in

as

b.

stem as

make a neater

final

member

collective: thus,

is

member sometimes
1250f.

prior

nominative form, in a, was noticed above,

takes

its

sometimes changed to an a-form to

umbrella and a shoe.

chattropanaham an

C. The grammarians give rules as to the order of the elements composing a copulative compound: thus, that a more important, a briefer, a
vowel-initial member should stand first; and that one ending in a should

be placed

Violations of

last.

them

all,

however, are not infrequent.

1255. In the oldest language (BV.), copulative compounds such

as appear later are quite rare, the class being chiefly represented
by dual combinations of the names of divinities and other personages,

and of personified natural

objects.

name has regularly and usually

the dual form, and its own accent; but, in the very rare instances
(only three occurrences out of more than three hundred) in which
In these combinations, each

a.

other

only

than the nom.-acc.-voc.

cases

are formed, the final

member

is inflected.

b. Examples are indrasoma, fndravisnu, mdrabfhaspati, agnlsomSu, turva^ayadu, dyavaprthivi, usasanakta (and, with intervening words, nakta... uaasa), suryamasS. The only plural is indra:

xnarutas

The

(voc.).

cases

of

other than

varunabbyaxn and mitravarunayos

indravarunayos (each once only).

(also

nominative

form are mitra-

mitrayor varunayoh), and

c. From dyavapythivi is made the very peculiar genitive divasprthivyos (4 times AV. has dyavaprthivlbhyam and dyavapfthivyos).
:

d. In one compound, parjanyavata, the

does not have the dual ending along with the

satya,

voc.,

wanting,

is

doubtful as to

while yet

indrapusnos

the

(beside

accent).

member (RV., once)

double accent (indrana-

first

In several,

double designation

of

the

number

double accent
is

present:

is

thus,

mdrapusana), somapusabhyam (somapuaana

vataparjanya, suryacandramasa, and indragni

(with indragnfbhyam and indragnyos): somarudrSu is accented only
occurs only

as voc.),

COPULATIVE COMPOUNDS.

487
in

^B.

And

in one,

indravayu, form and

[1257

accent are both accordant with

the usages of the later language.

e. Of other copulatives, like those made later, the RV. has the plural
ajavayaa, the duals rksame, satyanrte, saqananaqane also the neuter collective is^apurtam, and the substantively used neuter of a copulative adjective, nilalohitam.
Further, the neuter plurals ahoratrani
nycthemtra, and uktharka praises and songs, of which the final members
as independent words are not neuter. No one of these words has more than
;

a single occurrence.

1256. In the later Vedic (AV.)> the usage is much more nearly
accordant with that of the classical language, save that the class of
neuter singular collectives is almost wanting.
a.

The words with double dual form

are

quarter, instead of three quarters, as in RV.);

a single accent, on the final:

bhavac,arvau; agnavienu,
ber of copulatives

only a small minority (a

and half of them have only

thus, besides those

voc.,

is

bhavarudrau,

in RV.,

The whole num-

of anomalous form.

more than double that in RV.

is

b. The only proper neuter collectives, composed of two nouns, are

kec.aQinac.ru hair and heard, anjanabhyanjanam salve and ointment, and
kac,ipupabarhanam mat and pillow, unified because of the virtual unity
of the two objects specified.

Neuter singulars, used in a similar collective

kptakr-tam what

way, of adjective compounds, are (besides those in RV.)

is done and undone
(instead of what is done and what

kutam
past

and

thought and desire,

is

evil,

undone],

citta-

bhutabhavyam

future.

1257.

which

good and

bhadrapapam

Copulative compounds

composed of

retain their adjective character are

manner, but are in comparison

made

adjectives

in the

same

rare.

Examples are quklakysna light and dark, sthalajaudaka terand aquatic, dantarajatasauvarna of ivory and silver and gold,
used distributively and vr^ttapina round and plump, qantanukula
tranquil and propitious, hrsitasragrajohlna wearing fresh garlands and
free from dust, nisekadi9inac,ananta beginning with conception and
a.

restrial

ending with burial, used cumulatively;

hot,
lost,

nS

'ticltofna not over cold or

used alternatively; ksanadrstanas^a seen for a moment and then

cintitopasthita at hand as soon as thought of, in more preg-

nant sense.
b. In the Veda, the only examples noted are the cumulative mlalohita and is^apurta etc., used in the neut. sing, as collectives (as pointed out above), with tamradhumra dark tawny; and the distributive
daksinasavya riyht and left, saptaiaaB^ama seventh and eighth, and

bhadrapapa

good

Such combinations

and bad (beside the corresponding neut. collective).

satyanrte truth and falsehood, priyftpriyani things

as

1257]

XVIII. COMPOSITION.
and

agreeable

disagreeable,

488

where each component

is

used substantively,

are,

of course, not to be separated from the ordinary noun-compounds.

c.

special case is that of the

compound

pragdaksina
compare 1291b.

uttarapurva
west, etc.:

north-east,

adjectives

south-cast,

of direction: as

dakinapa<jcima

south-

1258. In accentuated texts, the copulative compounds have uniformly the accent (acute) on the final of the stem.
a. Exceptions are a case or two in AY., -where doubtless the reading
is false:

vataparjanya

thus,

QB.

(once:

-sya),

(once:

beside -nyayos),

brahmarajanyabhyam

(also

VS.);

devamanuigyas
further, vako-

pavakya

(QB.), a9anayapipase (8.).

1259. An example or two are met with of adverbial copulatives:
thus, ahardivi day by day, sayampratar at evening and in the morning.
They have the accent of their prior member. Later occur also bahyantar,
pratyagdaksina, pratyagudak.

1260. Repeated words.

and pronouns and adjectives and

In

all

ages of the language, nouns

particles are not infrequently repeat-

ed, to give an intensive, or a distributive, or a repetitional meaning.

Though these are not properly copulative compounds, there is no

connection in which to notice them than here.
They are, as the

a*

better

older language shows, a sort of compound, of which the prior

own independent accent, and the other is without accent:

member

its

are

has

hence they

most suitably and properly written (as in the Vedic pada-texts) as

Thus jahy esarn varam-varam slay of them each beat man ;

compounds.

dyavi-dyavi from day to day; angad-angal lomno-lomnah parvani-parvani from every limb, from every hair, in each joint;
pra-pra yajnapatim tira make the master of the sacrifice live on and on;
bhtiyo-bhuyah 9vah-9vah further and further, tomorrow and again tomorrow; ekayai-'kaya with in each case one; vayam-vayam our very
dive-dive

or

selves.

b. Exceptional and rare cases are those of a personal verb-form repeated:

(?

piba-piba (BV.),

thus,

SB.);

yajasva-yajaava

and of two words repeated: thus,

yatame va-yatame va

($8.),

veda-veda

yavad va-yavad va (B.),

($B.).

In a few instances, a word is found used twice in succession without that loss of accent the second time which makes the repetition a virc.

thus, ntl nu (RV.), sam sam (AV.), ihe Ti4 (AV.),

anaya- 'nayft (^B.), stulif stuhf (RV., ace. to pada-text).
d. The class of combinations here described is called by the native
grammarians amredita added unto (?).
tual composite:

1261. Finally may be noticed

ekadaqa

11,

dvaviA^ati

22,

in passing

on (476 ff.), ,as a special and primitive

accented on the prior member.

so

the

compound numerals,

trfyata 103, catuhsahaara

class

of copulatives.

1004,

They

and
are

DETERMINATIVE COMPOUNDS.

489

Determinative Compounds.

II.

1262.

[_i264

noun

or

is

adjective

often

combined into a

compound with a preceding determining or qualifying word

a noun,

or adjective,

conveniently called
1263. This

is

or adverb.

Such a compound

is

determinative.
the class of compounds which

general and frequent occurrence in

all

is

of

most

branches of Indo-

two principal divisions have been

European language.
already pointed out: thus, A. Dependent compounds, in
Its

which the prior member is a substantive word (noun or pronoun or substantively used adjective), standing to the other

member in the relation of a case dependent on it; and

B. Descriptive compounds, in which the prior member is
an adjective, or other word having the value of an adjective, qualifying a noun; or else an adverb or its equivalent,
qualifying an adjective.

Each of

these divisions then falls

two sub-divisions, according as the final member, and

therefore the whole compound, is a noun or an adjective.
into

a. The whole class of determinatives is called by the Hindu

grammarians tatpurusa (the term is a specimen of the class, meaning his man); and the second division, the descriptives, has the

name

of karmadharaya (of obscure application: the literal

something like office-bearing}. After their example, the two
divisions are in European usage widely known by these two names

special

sense

is

respectively.

A. Dependent Compounds.
1264.

Dependent Noun-compounds.

vision, the case-relation of the prior

member

In

this di-

other

to the

may be of any kind but, in accordance with the usual relations of one noun to another, it is oftenest genitive, and
;

least often accusative.

a.

Examples

yamaduta Yamas

are:

of

genitive

messenger,

relation,

jlvaloka

devasena army of

the icorld

of

the

living,

gods,

indra-

1264]

XVIII. COMPOSITION.

490

dhanus Indra's bow, brahmagavi the Brahman's cow, visagirf poiscnmount, mitralabha acquisition of friends, murkha<jatani hundreds of
Virasena's son, rajendra chief cf kings, asmatfools, virasenasuta
of dative, padodaka water for
putraa our sons, tadvacas his words;
the feet,

maaanicaya

accumulation for a month;

of instrumental,

masad^ya likeness with self, dhanyartha wealth acquired

dharmapatm lawful spouse, pitybandhu paternal relation
;

by

at-

grain,

of ablative,

apaarahsambhava descent from a nymph, madviyoga separation from

"
of locative, jalakrida sport in the
me, caurabhaya fear of
thief;
abode
in
the village, puruaanrta untruth about a man;
gramavaaa
water,
of accusative, nagaragamana going to the city.

D e p en de nt Ajj ec t

1265.

v e- c om p o u nds.

In

this division, only a very small proportion of the

have an ordinary adjective as

or a

participle,

which

is

compounds
member; but usually a

derivative of agency with the

The

participle.

final

member

prior

possible

value of a

stands in any case-relation

in the independent construction

of such

words.
of
a.. Examples are:
ac.vakovida knowing in
in

steadfast

best
ial

like his

words,

in

of instrumental,
beautiful in body;
of dative, gohita good for cattle;
of
than you, garbhaatama eighth from birth,

(i.

e. invisible)

dvijottama

accusative

tanupana

eating,

other

other than vuible

the Bharatas,

of

mother;

bhavadanya

ablative,

dr9yetara

sthalipakva cooked in a pot,

alike in age, yudhiathira

vayahsama

tami<jubhra

battle,

matraadr^a

locative relation,
hortes,

of genitive,

foremost of Brahmans

relation,

body-protecting,

bharata^re^ha

with particip-

vedavid Veda-knowing, annada foodaatyavadin truth- speaking, pattragata

committed to paper (lit. gone to a leaf);

in instrumental, madhupu
cleanning with honey, svayamkrta self-made, (ndragupta protected by

vidyahina
hrdayavidh

Indra,
tive,

deserted

pierced

by
in

(i.

the

e.

destitute of)

heart,

ptvij

knowledge;

in loca-

in

due season,

sacrificing

divicara mot?m^
the

in the
in ablative, rajyabhraata fallen from
ky;
in dative, 9aranagata come
kingdom, vrkabhita afraid of a wolf;

for refuge.

1266.
alities

We

take up now some of the principal groups of comunder these two heads, in order to notice their speciof formation and use, their relative frequency, their accentuation,

pounds

falling

and so on.
1267. Compounds having as final member ordinary nouns (such,
namely, as do not distinctly exhibit the character of verbal nouns,
of action or agency) are quite common. They are regularly and usually accented on the final syllable, without reference to the accent of
either constituent.

Examples were given above (1264 a).

DEPENDENT COMPOUNDS.

491

[1270

a. A principal exception with regard to accent is pati master, lord

(and its feminine patni), compounds with which usually retain the accent
of the prior member: thus, prajapati, vasupati, atithipati, gopati,
etc. etc. (compare the verbal nouns in ti, below,
1274). But
few words pati retains its own accent: thus, viqpati, rayipati,
pa<jupati, vasupatnl, etc.; and the more general rule is followed in

grhapatnl,
in

apsar&pati and vrajapati (AV.), and nadlpatf

citpatf (MS.;

(VS.),

elsewhere citpati).
b. Other exceptions are sporadic only: for example, janarajan, devaand ^akadhdma (but

varman, hiranyatejas, prtanahava, godhuma

dhuma); vacastena.
c. Tlie

are

appearance of a case-form in such compounds

divodasa,

vacastena,

is rare:

examples

uccaihQravas, uccafrghoea, durebhas

(the three last in possessive application).

A number

of compounds are accented on both members: thus,

sadaspati,
bfhaspati, vanaspati, rathaspati, jaspati (also
(jacipati,

d.

jaspati), naraqansa, tanunaptr, tanunapat (tanu as independent word),

qunahcepa. And B. has a long list of metronymics having the anomalous accentuation

kautsiputra, garglpiitra,

etc.

1268. The compounds having an ordinary adjective as

ber are

(as

mem-

So far as can be gathered from the scanty examples occurring in

a.

the

final

already noticed) comparatively few.

older

language,

they

retain

the accent of the prior member:

thus,

gavisthira (AY. gavisthira), tanu^ubhra, maderaghu, yajfiadhira,

samavipra, tilami^ra (but tila); but kr-stapacya ripening in cultivated

soil.

1269. The adjective dependent compounds having as final memor, if it end in a short vowel, generally with

ber the bare root

an added t
are very numerous in all periods of the language, as
has been already repeatedly noticed (thus, 383f h, 1147). They are
accented on the root.
a. In a very few instances, the accent of words having apparently

conjecturally this origin is otherwise laid

or

anaatra, anarvi9, svavrj,

pratyaksadnj, puramdhi, ogadhi, aramis, uc;adagh, vatsapa, abda.
:

thus,

b. Bofore a nnal root-stem appears not very seldom a case-foiin:

for

patamga, giravrdh, dhiyajiir, aksnayadruh, hrdispfv,

divisp^, vanesah, divisad, anges^ha, hr-tsvas, prtsutiir, apeuja.
example,

C.

ample,

The root-stem has sometimes

manoyuj

pitrced to

yoked

middle or passive value:

(yoking themselves)
the heart, manuja born
of A/anu.

by

the

will,

1270. Compounds made with verbal derivatives

in

for

ex-

hrdayavidh
a, both

of

action and of agency, are numerous, and take the accent usually on
their final syllable (as in the case of compounds with verbal prefixes
:

1148m).

XVIII. COMPOSITION.

1270]
a.

praising,

havirada

the

devavanda godbhuvanacyava shaking the

hand-grasping,

offering,

one's self

calling

utterance

play,

angajvara pain

hastagrabha

devouring

vratyabruva
vasatkara

world,
at

are:

Examples

492

a vratya

of vasha^,

aksaparajaya
goposa prosperity in
;

failure
cattle,

in the limbs.

b. In a few instances,

the

accent

is (as

in

compounds with ordinary

1268) that of the prior member:

sutekara, divfcara (and other more questionable
adjectives: above,

milking, yielding is so accented as final

thus,

marudvrdha,
And dugha
madhudugha, kamadugha.

c. Case-forms are especially frequent in the prior

thus,

words).

members of compounds

a showing guna-strengtheuing

with adjective derivatives in

of the root:

abhayamkara, yudhimgama, dhanamjaya, puraihdara, vigvambhara, divakara, talpegaya, divi$ambha.

1271. Compounds with verbal nouns and adjectives in ana are

thus, fox example,

verv numerous, and have the accent always on the radical syllable
(as in the case of compounds with verbal prefixes: 1150e).
a.

Examples are:

life-lengthening,

pumsuvana
b.

kegavardhana hair-increasing, ayuspratarana

tanupana body-protecting ; devahedana hatred of the gods,

giving birth to males.

very few apparent exceptions as regards accent are really cases

lost its verbal character: thus, yamasadana Yama's

where the derivative has

achadvidhana means

realm,

An

of protection.

sometimes found before a derivative in ana:

sarupaihkarana, ayaksmaihkarana, subhagarhkarana, vanainkarana.
c.

accusative-form

is

thus,

1272. a. The action- nouns in ya (1213j are not infrequent in

composition as final member, and retain their own proper accent (as
Sufficient examples were given above
in combination with prefixes).
(1213).
b. The same

is

true of the equivalent feminines

in

ya: see

above,

1213d.
in

c. The gerundives in ya (1213) hardly occur in the older language

combination with other elements than prefixes. The two nivibharya

and

prathamavasya

(the

latter a

descriptive)

have the accent of the

balavijnaya and
independent words of the same form
are inconsistent with these and with one another.
;

a<j

vabudhya

(?)

1273. Compounds made with the passive participle in ta or na

have the accent of their prior member (as do the combinations of the
same words with prefixes: 1085 a).
a.
hero,

Examples

are:

hastakrta made

ghosabuddha awakened

devatta given by

the

gods;

with the hand, virajata born of a

by noise, prajapatisrsta created by Prajapati,

and, of participles combined with prefixes,

indrapraauta incited by Indra, bfhaspatipranutta driven away by

Brihaspati, ulkabhihata struck by a thunderbolt, vajravihata, samvat-

DEPENDENT COMPOUNDS.

493

sarasammita commensurate
samQita

[1276

AV. has the anomalous apsii-

with the year.

quickened by the waters.

A number

of exceptions occur, in which the final syllable of the

for example, agnitapta, indrota, pitrvitta,
accent:
has
the
compound

b.

rathakrita, agnidagdha (beside agnfdagdha), kaviqasta (beside kavf(jasta),

gone

kaviprasastd.

c.

One

to,

as

two special usages may be noticed. The participle gata,

compound, is used in a loose way in the later lan-

or

final of a

guage

to express relation of various

world,

tvadgata

gata

belonging to

putragatam sneham

in a picture,

participle

bhuta

been, become

darkness}; tarn

this

creation,

affection

toward a son,

The

give it an adjective form: thus, idarh.

darkness (existing in the condition of

to

being

ratnabhutam lokasya

being the pearl of the world;

her,

nan bijabhutah smrtah puman

ksetrabhuta smrta

etc.

used in composition with a noun as hardly

is

more than a grammatical device

tamobhutam

kinds: thus, jagatigata existing in the

relating to a friend, citra-

sakhigata

thee,

woman

is

regarded as a field; a man, as seed; and so on.

The other

d.
thus,

only seldom occur as finals of compounds

participles

not knowing the text-books,

and bow, aqastravidvans

arjunadarsivans having seen Arjuna, apriya-

prasakarmukabibhrat

gansivans announcing what

bearing javelin

is

disagreeable,

gautamabruvana

calling

himself Gautama.

1274. Compounds with derivatives in ti have (like combinations

with the prefixes: 1157e) the accent of the prior member.
a.

Examples

drinktng,

are

devahuti

dhanasati winning of wealth, somapiti somanamaiikti utterance of homage,

of offerings; and so tokasati, devahiti, rudr&huti,

invocation of the gods,

havyadati presentation

suktokti, svagakrti, divis^i.

nem&dhiti, xnedhasati, van&dhiti

member is changed from penult to final.

b. In
the prior
c.

Where

the verbal character

rule of final accent

(1267)

is

devasumati
vajyanf

(as

of

brahmaciti Brahman-pile.
is

that of

a. Thus,

ukthaqansfn
bullock-giving,

gods,

Also in sar-

compounds with ordinary nouns.

psalm-singing,

satyavadin

the general

devaheti weapon of the

1275. Compounds with a derivative in in as

in all other cases) the accent on the fn,

rsabhadayin

RV.), the accent of

derivative is lost,

the

followed: thus,

favor of the gods,

entire ruin, the accent

(all

final

member have

vratacarfn vow-performing,

truth-speaking,

qronipratodfn

thigh-poun ling.

1276. There is a group of compounds with derivatives in

having the accent on the penult or radical syllable.
a.

Thus, pathiraksi road-protecting,

atmadusi

scul-harming.

pathisadi

i,

havirmathi sacrifice-disturbing,
sahobhari strength-

sitting in the path,

1276]

XVIII. COMPOSITION.

494

vasuvani winning good-thing*, dhanasani gaining wealth, manophalagrahi setting fruit; and, from reduplicated root,
urucakri making room. Compounds with -sani and -vani are especially
bearing,

mugi

mind-stealing,

frequent in Veda and Brahmana; as independent words, nouns, these are

In many cases, the words are not found in
accented eani and vani.

independent use.

numbers

Combinations with prefixes do not occur in sufficient

but they appear to be oftenest accented

to establish a distinct rule,

on the suffix (1165f).

From /han

made

in composition -ghni and -ghni, with

sahasraghni, ahighni, 9vaghni; -dhi from
ydha, (1155g) has the accent in its numerous compounds: thus, isudhf,

b.

are

accent on the ending: thus,

garbhadhi, pucchadhi.
1277. Compounds with derivatives

van have

in

tions with prefixes: 1169c) the accent of the final

on the radical syllable.

(like

combina-

member: namely,

baladavan strength-giving,
a. Thus, somapavan so-ma-drinking,
papakftvan evil-doing, bahusuvan much-yielding, talpa9ivan lying on
a couch, rathayavan going in a chariot, drusadvan sitting on a tree,
agretvan f. going at the head. The accent of the obscure words matariqvan and mataribhvan is anomalous.
b. The few compounds with

van:

as those with

man

final

svaduksadman

thus,

appear to follow the same rule

sharing out sweets,

&c,uheman

steed-impelling.

1278. Compounds with other derivatives, of rare or sporadic occurrence,

may be briefly noticed: thus, in u, ras^radipsu, devapiyu, govindu,
in nu or tnu, lokakrtnu, suruvanargu (?): compare 1178e;
in tr, nrpatr, mandhatf, haskartf (vasupakrtmi compare 1 196;
dhataras, AV., is doubtless a false reading). The derivatives in as are
:

of infrequent

composition (as in combination with prefixes

occurrence in

1151k), and appear

above,

to

be treated as ordinary nouns: thus, yajna-

vacas (but hiranyatej as, AY.).

B. Descriptive Compounds.
1279. In this division of the class of determinatives,

the prior
relation,

member

stands to the other in no distinct case-

but qualifies

ing as it (the final'

a.

Examples

priyasakha

are

mlotpala

dear friend,

punarnava

b. The prior

or adverbially, accord-

adjectively
is

member)

ajnata unknown, sukrta

praised,

it

noun

blue lotus,

or adjective.

sarvaguna

xnaharsi

great -sage,

well done,

duskft

all

rajatapatra

good quality,
silver

cup;

ill-doing,

purus^uta much

adjective

before a noun,

renewed.

member

is

not always

an

or

DESCRIPTIVE COMPOUNDS.

495

[1280

an adverb before an adjective; other parts of speech are sometimes used

adjectively and adverbially in that position.
c. The boundary between descriptive and dependent compounds is not
an absolute one; in certain cases it is open to question, for instance, whether
a prior noun, or adjective with noun-value, is used more in a case-relation,

or adverbially.

d. Moreover, where the final

member

is

a derivative having both noun

not seldom doubtful whether an adjective compound is to be regarded as descriptive, made with final adjective, or possessive, made with final noun. Sometimes the accent of the word determines

and adjective value,

its

it

is

character in this respect, but not always.

e.

satisfactorily

simple and perspicuous classification of the descrip-

compounds is not practicable we cannot hold apart throughout the compounds of noun and of adjective value, but may better group both together,

tive

as they appear with prefixed elements of various kinds.

The

1280.
final

member

simplest case

is

is

that in

which a noun

as

preceded by a qualifying adjective as prior

member.
a. In this combination, both noun and adjective may be of any
kind, verbal or otherwise. The accent is (as in the corresponding
class of dependent noun-compounds: 1267] on the final syllable.

ajnatayakfma unknown disease, mahadhana great wealth,

kppiaQakunf black bird, daksinagnf southern
fire, uruksiti wide abode, adharahanu lower jaw, itarajana other folks,
sarvatman whole soul, ekavira sole hero, sap tar 91 seven sages, trtiyasavana third libation, ekonavmqati a score diminished by one, jagratsvapna waking sleep, yavayatsakha defending friend, apakjiyamanapak?a waning half.
b. Thus,

ksiprasyena

C.

swift hawk,

There are not a few exceptions as regards accent.

Especially,

pounds with vfyva (in composition, accented vtyva), which

the accent

words in

thus,

ti,

vrijfakapi,

com-

itself retains

viQvadevas all the gods, viQvamanusa every man. For

1287d.
Sporadic cases are madhyamdina,

see below,

both

of which

member; and a few

show an

irregular

shift

of tone in

the prior

others.

d. Instead pf an adjAfttiva, ftp prior member is in a few cases

a noun used appositionally, or with a quasi-adjective value. Thus,

rajayaksma

brahmargi priest-sage, rajarfi king-sage,

devajana god-folk, duhitfjana daughter-person,
qamllata creeper named cami, nm^ikakhya the name "mouse", jaya$abda the word "conquer", ujhita^abda the word "deserted" ; or, more

rajadanta

king-disease,

king-tooth,

figuratively,

gr/hanaraka house-hell (house which

is

hell

qapagni

curse-fire (consuming curse).

e. This group is of consequence,

inasmuch

as in possessive application

XVIII. COMPOSITION.

1280-]
it

is

greatly

pounds

and forms a numerous

extended,

see below,

496
class

of appositional

com-

1302.

This whole subdivision, of nouns with preceding qualifying adjecnot uncommon; but it is greatly (in AV., for example, more than
times) exceeded in frequency by the sub-class of possessives of the
f.

is

tives,
five

same form

1281.

1298.

see below,

The

adverbial words which are most freely and

commonly used as
the final member,

prior

members of compounds, qualifying

are the verbal prefixes

and the words of

and the inseparable prefixes,

These are combined not
(1121).

direction related with them,

a or an, su, dus, etc.

only with

adjectives,

but

also,

in

quasi-adjectival

value,

with nouns; and the two classes of combinations will best

be treated together.
1282.

adverbs.

Verbal adjectives and nouns with preceding

As

the largest and most important class under this head

might properly enough be regarded the derivatives with preceding
verbal prefixes.
These, however, have been here reckoned rather
as derivatives from roots combined with prefixes (1141), and have
been treated under the head of derivation, in the preceding chapter.
In taking up the others, we will begin with the participles.

1283. The participles belonging to the tense-systems

those
are only rarely compounded with
ant (or at), mana, ana, vans
any other adverbial element than the negative a or an, which then

in

takes the accent.

Examples are anadant, adadat, anaQnant, asravant, alubhadasyant, aditsant, adevayant; amanyamana, ahinsana,
achidyamana; adadivans, abibhlvans, atasthana; and, with verbal
a.

yant,

prefixes, anapasphurant, anagamisyant, anabhyagamisyant, aviradhayant, avicacalat, apratimanyuyamana.

b. Exceptions in regard to accent are very few arundhati, ajaranti,

(RV., once: doubtless a false reading; the simple participle is
codant); AV. has anipadyamana for RV. anipadyamana (and the
:

acodant

published text has

asamyant, with

a part of the manuscripts);

B.

has

akamayamana.
Of other compounds than with the negative prefix have been noted
Veda -punardiyamana (in apunard-) and suvidvans. In alala-

c.

in the

bhavant and janjanabhavant (RV.),

as in

astamyant and astamesyant

(AV.), we have participles of a compound conjugation (1091), in which,

as has been pointed out, the accent is as in combinations with the verbal
prefixes.

DESCRIPTIVE COMPOUNDS.

497

[1285

1284. The passive (or past) participle in ta or na is much more

variously compounded and in general (as in the case of the verbal
prefixes: 1085 a) the preceding adverbial element has the accent.
;

a. Thus, with the negative a or an (by far the most common case)
akrta, adabdha, arista, anadhrsta, aparajita, asarhkhyata, ana:

with su, sujata, suhuta, susambhyarudha, aparimitasamrddha

with dus, du^carita, durdhita and diirhita,
Qita, svaramkrta;
-- with other adverbial words, dansujuta, navajata, sanaduh^rta;
aramkrta and kakaj akrta are
<jruta, svayaihkyta, tripratisthita
;

rather participles of a

compound

conjugation.

b. Exceptions in regard to accent are

with a or an, anagasta, apra-

c,asta, and, with the accent of the participle retracted to the root,

amrta,

adrsta, acitta, ayuta myriad, aturta (beside aturta), asurta (? beside

with su (nearly half as numerous as the regular cases), subhuta,
surta);
sukta, supra<jasta, svakta, sukrta and sujata (beside sukrta and
sujata), and a few others;

with

dus

(quite as

numerous

as the regular

cases),
(also durita), durukta, duskrta (also duskrta), durbhuta; with sa, sajata; with other adverbs, amotd, aristuta, tuvijata,
pracinopavita, tadammdugdha, pratardugdha, etc., and the compounds with puru, purujata, puruprajata, purupra^asta, purustut&,
and with svayam, svayamkrta etc. The proper name asadha
etc.,
stands beside asadha; and AY. has abhinna for UV. abhinna.

durita

1285. The gerundives occur almost only in combination with

the negative prefix, and have usually the accent on the final syllable.
a.

Examples

are

anapya, anindya, abudhya, asahya, ayodhya,

amokya; advisenya; ahnavayya;

cases

are

and, along with verbal prefixes, the

asamk'hyeya, apramrsya, anapavyjya, anatyudya, ana-

dhrsya, avimokya, ananukrtya

sarhkhyeya etc.).

(the accent of the

b. Exceptions in regard to accent are:

simple word being

anedya, adabhya, agohya,

ajosya, ayabhya. The two anavadharsya and anativyadhya (both AV.)

belong to the ya-division (1213b) of gerundives, and have retained the
accent of the simple word.

And aglinya and aghnya

The only compounds

in V. are siiyabhya (accented
c.

(which retains the

like its

final circumflex),

twin

ayabhya) and prathamavasya

and perhaps ekavadya.

d. The neuter nouns of the same form

retain their

own

occur together.

of these words with other adverbial elements

(1213 c: except sadhastutya)

member thus, purvapayya,

accent after an adverbial prior

purvapeya, amutrabhuya and sahageyya. And the

negatived gerundives
instanced above are capable of being viewed as possessive compounds with
such nouns.
;

Some of the other verbal derivatives which have

own as to accent etc. may be next noticed.

e.

their

Whitney, Grammar.

2. ed.

32

rules

of

XVIIL COMPOSITION.

1286]

498

1286. The root-stem (pure root, or with t added after a short

vowel 1147d) is very often combined with a preceding adverbial
word, of various kinds and in the combination it retains the accent.
final

a.

Examples

not giving

are

aruc

birth,

not shining

sukft

adruh

well-doing,

asu

not harming,

BU^rut

hearing well

dudaq (199 d) impious; sayuj joining together samad

with other
sahaja boin together, sahavah carrying together;
amajur growing old at home, uparispipc, touching upward,

duskft

ill-doing,

conflict;

adverbs,

punarbhii appearing
the

with Inseparable prefixes,

same day,

again,

prataryuj harnessed

sakamvfdh

viguvft turning

growing up

to both sides,

early,

vj-thasah

easily

sadyahkri

bought

sadamdi

ever-binding,

overcoming;

with ad-

together,

jectives used adverbially,

uruvyac wide-spreading, prathamaja first-born,

raghusyad swift-moving, navasu newly giving birth, ekaja only born,
dvija

twice born,

9ukrapi<j

brightly adorned,

ruling;

with nouns used adverbially,

trivft

triple,

svaraj

self-

qambhu beneficent, Buryaqvit

lord, svayambhu self-existent;

shining like the sun, isanakrt acting as

and, with accusative case-form, patamga yoing by

flight.

a root-stem is already in composition, whether

wtih a verbal prefix or an element of other character, the further added
negative itself takes the accent (as in case of an ordinary adjective below,

b. When, however,

1288 a):

anaksit not abiding, anavft not turning back,

avidvis not showing hostility, aduskrt not ill-doing, ana<jvada not giving
a horse, apa^uhan not slaying cattle (anagas would be an exception, if
it contained |/ga: which is very unlikely).
Similar combinations with su
seem

to

Bvavfj
C.

thus, for example,

the

retain
is

radical

accent:

thus,

supratur, avabhu, svayioj

an unsupported exception.

few other exceptions occur,

mostly of doubtful

character,

pratipr&Q, sadhastha, adhrigu, and the words having anc

as

as

final

if this element is not, after all, a suffix)

member (407 ff
compare 1269 a.
1287. Other verbal derivatives, requiring to be treated apart
from the general body of adjectives, are few and of minor impor.

tance.

Thus

a. The

derivatives in a are in great part of doubtful character, became

of the possibility of their being used with substantive value to make a possessive

compound.

present-stems (1

The

least

ambiguous, probably, are the derivatives from

the accent on the suffix
thus, asunva,

148 j), which have

apa$ya, aksudhya, avidasya, anamrna, sadaprna, punarmanya;

and with them belong such cases as atfpa, avf dha, aramgama, urukrama,
evavada, satrasaha, punahsara, purahsara; and the nouns eayambhava, sahacara, prfitahsava, mithoyodha. Differently accented, on
the

other hand, although apparently of the

same formation, are such as

anapasphura, anavahvara (compare the compounds noticed at 1286b),

sadav^dha, subharva, nyagrodha, puroga^a, sadhamada, sudugha,
supaoa, suhava, and others. Words like adabha, durhana, eukara,
suyama, are probably possessives.

DESCRIPTIVE COMPOUNDS.

499
b. The

in

derivatives

on the root

member,

van

(compare

[1888

keep in general the accent of the

1160C, 1277):

thus,

final

a<jupatvan and

raghupatvan swift- flying, puroyavan going in front, sukftvan welldoing and Butarman and suvahman and raghuyaman are probably to
;

be classed with them.

But the negative

prefix,

has the accent even before

ayajvan, aravan, aprayutvan; and satyamadvan

be not possessive) has the accent of its prior member.
these:

thus,

c.

few words in

seem

to

have (as in dependent compounds

the accent on the radical syllable:

d.

The

thus,

1276)
durgfbhi, rjuvani, tuvifvani.

derivatives in ti are variously treated

the negative prefix has

abhuti, anahuti; with au and

now on the prefix and now on the final, and
(auniti and aunitf , duB^uti and duB^utf) ; with

always the accent before them:

dus, the compound is accented
in some words on either

(if it

as,

acitti,

other elements, the accent of the prefix prevails

thus, flahuti,

sadhastuti,

purohiti, purvapiti, purvyaatuti.

The derivatives in in have, as in general, the accent on the suffix

purvasfn, bahucarin, sadhudevin, savasin, kevaladfn. But,

e.

thus,

with the negative prefix,

anamin, avitarin.

Other combinations are too various in treatment, or are represented

by too few examples in accentuated texts, to justify the setting up of rules
respecting them.
f.

1288. Of the remaining combinations, those made with the insepsome measure a class by themselves.

arable prefixes form in

a.

1.

the

word

The negative

to

which

it is

prefix a or an, when it directly negatives

added, has a very decided tendency to take

the accent.
b.

We

have seen above (1283) that

it

does so even in the case of

present and perfect and future participles, although these in combination

with a verbal prefix retain their own accent (1085: but there are exceptions,

avadant, apaqyant, etc. B.); and also in the case of a root-stem, if

be already compounded with another element (1286 b). And the same

as

this
is

true of its other combinations.

c. Thus,

with various adjective words

atandra, adabhra, adacuri,

anrju, adevayu, atrsnaj, atavyans, anamin, advayavin, apracetaa,

anapatyavant, anupadasvant, apramayuka, amamri, aprajajni,

avididhayu, anagnidagdha, akamakarQana, apaqcfiddaghvan. Further, with nouns, apati, akumara, abrahmana, avidya, a^raddha,
avratya.
d.

the

final

member:

But there are a number of exceptions, in which the accent

syllable,

thus,

without regard

for

example,

to the original accentuation of

ajarayii,

and avira unmanly, there

is a retraction of

member

on

acitra, a^rlra, avipra, ayajniya, anaanamayitnu ; and in amitra enemy,

emaka, asthurf, ana<ju,

of the final

is

the final

the accent from the final syllable

to its penult.

32*

XVIII. COMPOSITION.

1288]
e.

2.

The

less degree,

on the

590

prefixes BU and dus have this tendency in a much

their compounds are very variously accented, now

and

now on

prefix,

the final syllable,

now on

the accented syllable

member; and occasionally on either of two syllables.

Thus, for example, subhadra, suvipra, supakva, subrahmana,

of the final
f.

subhisaj; sutirtha, suvasana, susarathi, supa9a, sucitra; su9eva,

Buhotr : suvira is like avira;
durmitra, dusvapnya ; and ducchuna

(168b), with irregular retraction of accent (<juna).

3. g. The compounds with sa are too few to furnish occasion for
and those with the interrogative prefix in its various
separate mention
;

extremely rare in the Veda:

examples are kucara, katpaya, kabandha, kunannama, kumara, kuyava, kusava,

forms

are also

1289. The verbal prefixes are sometimes used in a general adverbial way, qualifying a following adjective or noun.
a. Examples of such combinations are not numerous in the Veda.
Their accentuation

is

various,

though the tone rests oftenest on the pre-

aparupa mis-form, pratisatru opposprapada fore part of foot, pranapat great-grandchild, vipakva
done, sampriya mutually dear upajihvika side tongue (with retraction

position.

Thus, adhipati over-lord,

ing foe,
quite

of the accent of

jihva) ; antardega intermediate

direction,

pradiv forward

prapitamaha (also prapitamaha) great-grandfather, pratijana

These compounds are more frequent with
opponent, vyadhva midway.
heaven,

possessive value (below, 1305).

b. This use of the verbal prefixes is more common later, and some of
them have a regular value in such compounds. Thus, ati denotes excess,
as in atidura very far, atibhaya exceeding fear, atipuruaa (B.) chief

man; adhi, superiority, as in adhidanta upper-tooth, adhistri chief woman;

abhi is intensive, as in abhinamra much incliving, abhinava span-new,
abhirucira delightful; a signifies somewhat, as in akutila somewhat crooked,
anila

bluish

purana

upa

denotes

additional Purana;

something accessory or secondary, as in upapari, excess, as in paridurbala very weak;

as in pratipakaa opposing side, pratipustaka copy;

vi, variation or excess, as in vidtira very far, vipandu greyish, viksudra

prati, opposition,
respectively small;

sam,

completeness, as in

1290. Other compounds with

sampakva

adverbial prior

quite ripe.

members

are quite irreg-

ularly accented.

Thus, the compounds with puru, on the final (compare the participles
puru, 1284b): as, purudasma, purupriya, puru<jcandra ; those
with punar, on the prior member, as punarnava, punarmagha, punaryuvan, punarvasu (but punahsara etc.) those with satas, satlnd,
satya, the same, as satomahant, satinamanyu, satyamugra; a few
with

combinations of nouns in tr and

on the

vana

final syllable,
;

ana

with adverbs akin with the prefixes,

as

puraetf, purahsthatr, upariqayana, pratahsaand miscellaneous cases are mithoavadyapa, hari^candra, alpa-

9ayu, sadhvaryd, yacchrestha and yavacchrestha, jyogamayavin.

SECONDARY ADJECTIVE COMPOUNDS.

501

[1293

1291. One or two exceptional cases may be noted, as follows:

An adjective is sometimes preceded hy a noun standing toward it

a.

in

quasi-adverbial relation expressive

9ukababhru
priya dear
hidden

like

(VS.) parrot-brown,

as

jof

comparison or likeness

urnamydu

e.

g.

(TB.) soft as wool, prana-

ku$e9ayarajomfdu soft as lotus-pollen, bakalina

mattamatangagamin moving like a maddened elephant.

life,

a heron,

b. An adjective is now and then qualified by another

adjective: e. g.
krsnaita dark-gray, dhumrarohita grayish red: and compare the adjectives of intermediate direction, 1257c.
C.
final

The

adjective

member

of a

purva

is

in the later language frequently used as

compound in which

its logical

member (which is said to

dyftapurva previously seen, parinltapurva
tapurva not before known, somapitapurva
stripurva formerly a woman,
qualifying the other

III.

1292.

a.

value

is

retain its

that of an adverb

own

accent).

already married,

Thus,

aparijna-

having formerly drunk soma,

Secondary Adjective Compounds.

compound having

noun

as

its

final

mem-

ber very often wins secondarily the value of an adjective,

being inflected in the three genders to agree with the noun

which

it

qualifies,

and used in

all

the constructions of an

adjective.
b. This class of

(1247.

III.),

falls

compounds, as was pointed out above

the two divisions of A. Possessives,

into

having their adjective character given them by addition of

the idea of possessing;

member
prior

is

and B, those in which the

syntactically dependent

final

on or governed by the

member.
A. Possessive Compounds.
1293.

The

possessives are

ceding class, determinatives, of

to

which

is

noun-compounds of the preall its

various subdivisions,

given an adjective inflection, and which take

on an adjective meaning of a kind which is most conveor posniently and accurately defined by adding having
sessing to the
a.

meaning of the determinative.

Thus: the dependent suryatejas suns

brightness

becomes the

1298]

XVIII. COMPOSITION.

5Q2

possessive suryatejas possessing the brightness of the sun

yajnakfima
becomes yajnakama having desire of sacrifice; the
descriptive bfhadratha great chariot becomes the possessive bj-hadratha having great chariots ahasta not hand becomes ahasta handless ;
durgandhi ill savor becomes durgandhi of ill savor; and so on.

desire

of

sacrifice

b.

copulative

any more than

suffix or other

is

is

compound

not convertible into an adjective directly,

a simple noun, but requires, like the latter,

means

e. g.

a possessive

vagghastavant, dosagunin, rajastamaska,

A very small number of exceptions, however,

a<jirogriva, anrgyajus.
found thus, somendra (TS.),

are

(B.), dasiniska (ChU.), and,

ananda, sankhyayoga

(as n.

stomaprstha (VS. TS.), hastyrfjabha

cakramusala, sadananda, saccidpr.j, balabala, bhutabhautika.

later,

The name given by the native grammarians to the possessive compounds is bahuvrihi: the word is an example of the class, meaning possessing much rice.
c.

d.

The name

pound

(as

"relative", instead

an utter misnomer

this class, is

of

since,

any attributive word)

is

of possessive,

sometimes applied

to

though the meaning of such a comeasily cast into a relative

essential character lies in the possessive verb

form, its

which has nevertheless

to

be

added, or in the possessive case of the relative which must be used: thus,

mahakavi and ayurda,

descriptive and dependent, are "relative" also,

a great poet, and that is life-giving, but byhadratha, possessive,
means who has a great chariot, or whose is a great chariot.

who

is

1294.

a. That a noun, simple or compound, should be added to an-

other noun, in an appositive way, with a value virtually attributive, and that

uch nouns should occasionally gain by frequent association and application

is natural enough, and occurs in many languages;

an adjective form also,

the peculiarity of the Sanskrit formation lies in

two things.

First,

that

such use should have become a perfectly regular and indefinitely extensible
one in the case of compounded words, so that any compound with nounfinal

may be turned without

alteration into

an adjective, while to a simple

noun must be added an adjective-making suffix in order to adapt it to

adjective use: for example, that while hasta must become hastin and
bahu must become bahumant, hiranyahasta and mahabahu change

And second, that

to adjective value with no added ending.
the relation of the qualified noun to the compound should have come to be
so generally that of possession, not of likeness, nor of appurtenance, nor of

from noun

any other relation which

that

we may

great arms,

only say,

and not also

mahabahavah <jakhah

is as

naturally involved in such a construction

mah&bahuh purusah man with

mahabahur manih jewel for a great arm, or

for

example,

branches like great arms.

b. There are, however, in the older language a few derivative adjective compounds which imply the relation of appurtenance rather than that
of possession, and which are with probability to be viewed as survivals of
a state of things {antecedent to the specialization of the general class as

POSSESSIVE COMPOUNDS.

503

[-1297

possessive (compare the similar exceptions under possessive suffixes, 1230g,

1233 f). Examples are: vicjvanara of or for all men, belonging to all

(and so visvakrsti, -carsani, -ksiti, -gotra,

vapaQu, saptamanusa), viQvaqarada

bad roads, dviraja

divinity,

bahudevata

-ftyu, and

vipatha

sarfor

of two kings,

[battle]

^vaprstha carried on horseback,

purnamasa at full moon, adevaka for

abiding with heroes,

vlrapaetya
no

-manus,

of every autumn,

or

-tya for many

divinities,

aparisamvatsara

ekadatjakapala for eleven dishes, somendra for

Soma and Indra. And the compounds with final member in ana mentioned
tit 1296b are probably of the game character.
But also in the later language, some of the so-called dvigu-compounds (1312) belong with these:
not lasting a fall year,

meaning worth two cows, dvinau bought for two ships;

devasura [samgrama] of the gods and demons,
narahaya of man and horse, cakramusala with discus and club, guruso

dvigu

itself,

as

also occasional cases like

violating the teacher's bed.

talpa

1295. The possessive compound

strate, the determinative, generally

is

by a

distinguished from its subdifference of accent. This

difference is not of the same nature in all the divisions of the class
but oftenest, the possessive has as a compound the natural accent
of its prior member (as in most of the examples given above).
;

1296. Possessively used dependent

compounds^ or possessive dependents, are very much less common than
those corresponding to the other division of determinatives.
a. Further examples are

agnitejas having

cocks,

the

mayuraroman
of

brightness

fire,

having the plumes

jnatfmukha

aspect of relatives,

a husband,

elephant's feet,

kshatriyas for relatives.

b.
prior

patikama desiring
rajanyabandhu having

The accent

member,

is,

as

compounds with derivatives

e.

for

g.

indrapana
the

gods,

in the examples

and exceptions are

in

rare

ana

being

hastipada

given,

having an

regularly that of the

and of doubtful character.

have the accent of the

serving as drink for Indra,

rayisthana

of peawearing the

source

devasadana

final

few

member:

serving

as seat

of wealth} but they contain

no

implication of possession, and are possibly in character, as in accent, dependent (but compare 1294b). Also a few in as, as nrcaksas menbeholding, nrv&has men-bearing, ksetrasadhas field-prospering,
bably to be judged in the same way.

are

1297. Possessively used descriptive compounds, or

sessive descriptive s,

are extremely

pro-

pos-

numerous and of

every variety of character; and some kinds of combination

which are rare in proper descriptive use are very common

as possessives.
a.

They

will

be taken up below in order, according to the char-

XVIII. COMPOSITION.

1297]
acter of the prior

member

504

whether the noun-final be preceded by

a qualifying adjective, or noun, or adverb.

1298. Possessive compounds in which a noun is preceded by

a qualifying ordinary adjective are (as pointed out above, 1280 f)
very much more common than descriptives of the same form.
They regularly and usually have the accent

a.

anyarupa of
putra having living

thus,

great renown,

pon,

member

sons,

dirgh^magru longbearded, brhacchravas of

mahavadha bearing a great wea-

having

all

having powerful arms,

jiva-

gukravarna of bright color, 9ivabhisatyasamdha of true promises, sarvanga

forms,

of propitious touch,

whole-limbed,

of their prior

/brm,

bhurimtlla many-rooted,

vigvarupa

margana

ugrabahu

other

svaya^as having own

glory,

haritasraj

wearing

yellow

garlands.

b. Exceptions, however,
or eighth of the whole
that of the final

in regard to accent are not rare

Thus, the accent

number, perhaps).

member;

especially with derivatives in as, as

seventh

(a

is

sometimes

tuviradhas,

purupegas, pr-thupaksas, and others in which (as above, 1296b) a

determinative character may be suspected thus, urujrayas beside urujrf,
uruvyacas beside uruvyac, and so on; but also with those of other
as rjuhasta, gitikaksa etc., krsnakarna, citradrqika, tuvifinal,
9usma, rjukratu, prthuparqu, puruvartman, raghuyanian, vidu:

In a very few cases, the accent

patman.
the

first

syllable of the second

member

puruvira, pururupa, tjitibahu

(also

is

thus,

retracted from the final to

anhubheda, tuvigriva,
The

gitibahu).

largest class

is

compounds which take the accent upon their final syllable (in part,
of course, not distinguishable from those which retain the accent of the

that of

final
member): for example, bahvanna, nilanakha, puruputra,
visvanga, svapatf, tuvipratf, p^niparni f., dar^ata^rl, putirajju,
asitajnu, prthugman, bahuprajas.

c.

The

adjective

vfqva

all,

as prior

member

also in derivation), changes its accent regularly to

of a

compound (and
vi^va; sarva whole, all

does the same in a few cases.

1299. Possessive compounds with a participle preceding and

the final noun-member are numerous, although such a
compound with simple descriptive value is almost unknown. The
accent is, with few exceptions, that of the prior member.
qualifying

a.

The

participle is oftenest the passive one,

chinnapaksa with severed wing, dhptara$ra

hatamatr whose mother is slain, iddhagni whose
hasta

with outstretched hand,

gifts;

and, with prefixed negative, aris^avlra

in ta

or

of firmly
fire

prayatadaksina having
whose

is

na.
held

kindled,

Thus,
royalty,

uttana-

presented sacrificial

men

are

unharmed,

ataptatanu of unburned substance, anabhimlatavarna of untarnished

there have been noticed
color. Exceptions in regard to accent are very few
:

only paryastaksa,

vyastakeQi

f.,

achinnaparna.

POSSESSIVE COMPOUNDS.

505

[1300

b. Examples occur of a present participle in the same situation. In

about half the (accentuated) instances, it gives its own accent to the com-

pound

vatsa

dyutadyaman, dhysadvarna

thus,

bhrajajjanman

etc.,

isti; in

etc.,

the accent

the others,

is

etc., gucadratha, rugadsamyadvira, stanayadama, sadhad-

drawn forward

to

the

the participle (as in the compounds with governing participle

thus, dravatpani etc. (dravat also occurs as adverb),

final syllable
:

of

1309)
rapgadudhan,
below,

svanadratha, arcaddhuma, bhandadi^i, krandadi^i. With

these last

agrees in form

jaradasti attaining old

make-up,

in view of

meaning,

its

is

age,

long-lived;

but

its

anomalous.

The RV. has two compounds with the perfect middle participle as
member: thus, yuyujanasapti with harnessed coursers (perhaps rather
c.

prior

having harnessed their coursers), and dadrganapavi (with regular accent,

dadrgana, as elsewhere irregularly in this participle) with conspicuous wheel-rims.
instead of

d. Of a nearly participial character

is

the prior element in

grutkarna

(RV.) of listening ear; and with this are perhaps accordant dldyagni and
stharagman (RV., each once).

1300. Possessive compounds having a numeral as prior member

common, and for the most part follow the same rule of
accent which is followed by compounds with other adjectives: excepted are those beginning with dvi and tri, which accent in general
the final member.
are very

a. Examples with other numerals than dvi and tri are: ekacakra,
ekaglraan, ekapad, caturanga, catuspaksa, pancanguri, pancaudana, sa<Jagva, atpad, saptajihva, saptamatr, astapad, asfcaputra,

navapad, navadvara, dagagakha, dagagirsan, dvadagara, tringadara, gataparvan, gatad'ant, sahasranaman, sahasramula.
b. Exceptions in regard to accent are but few, and have the tone on
the final syllable, whatever may be that belonging originally to the final
member; they are mostly stems in final a, used by substitution for others
in an,

i,

sadaha
etc.

or a
etc.

thus, caturaksa etc. (aksan or aksi: 431),

ahar: 430 a), dagavrsa etc. (vfsan), ekaratra

consonant:

(ahan

or

(ratri or ratri),

ekarca

etc.

(fc); but also a few others,

yoga, astayoga, gatargha, sahasrargha, ekapara

as

a(J-

(P).

The compounds with dvi and tri for the most part have the acmember: thus, for example, dvijanman, dvidhara,
dvibandhu, dvivartani, dvip4d; tritantu, trinabhi, trigoka, trivarutha, tricakra, trigirsan, tripad. A number of words, however, follow
c.

cent of their final

the general analogy, and accent the numeral

thus, for example,

dvipaksa,

dvigavas, dvy&sya, trfsandhi, tryara, tryagir, and sometimes dvpad and tripad in AV. As in the other numeral compounds, a substituted stem in a is apt to take the accent on the final
thus, dvivyaa
:

and trivrsa, dviraja, dviratra, tryayufa, tridiva; and a few of other

\4\AWN

-V"

1300]

XVIII. COMPOSITION.

character with

tri

same rule:

follow the

bandhu, tryudhan, tribarhfs,

The

d.

neuter, or

thus,

506
trika<ja,

trinaka, tri-

etc.

the feminine, of numeral compounds

also

is

often

used substaritively, with a collective or abstract value, and the accent

then regularly on the final syllable: see below, 1312.

is

1301. Possessive compounds having as prior member a noun

which has a quasi-adjective value in qualifying the final member are
very frequent, and show certain specialities of usage.
a* Least peculiar is a

noun

of material as prior

member

(hardly to be
is not

reckoned as possessive dependents, because the relation of material

a case: 296): thus, hfranyahaata gold-handed,

hiranyasraj with golden garlands, ayahsthuna having braten supports,
rajatanabhi of silver navel.

regularly expressed by

1302. Especially common

is

the use of a noun as prior

member

other appositionally, or by way of equivalence (the

occasional occurrence of determinatives of this character has been noto qualify the

ticed above, 1280 d).

These may conveniently be called appoaitional posseaaivea. Their accent is that of the prior member,
like the ordinary possessive descriptives.
a.
(said

are:

Examples

of a chariot),

or having horses as wings

having the earth as house, indrasakhi

ac.vaparna horse-winged,

bhumigrha

having Indra for friend, agnihotr having Agni as priest, gandharvapatni

havinj a Gandharva for spouse, <juraputra having hero-sons, jaramrtyu
having old age as mode of death, living

tadanta

ending with

manfiman named
tvaduta having
tions

in

Vishnucarman

and,

old age,

till

caracaksus

thee as messenger,
to

regard

formation

that,

with

tadapas

accent occur here,

agnivasas

using spies for eyes,

as in

pronoun instead

having

this

fire-clad,

visnuqar-

for work.

of

noun,

Excep-

the more regular descriptive

agnijihva, vrsana<?va, dhumaQikha, pavinaea, asau-

thus,

naxna, tatkula,

etc.

b. Not infrequently, a substantively used adjective is the final member

compound: thus, indrajyeftha having Indra as chief, manah-

in such a

faf^ha having

ekapara of

the

mind as

which the ace

larger part, chiefly of bone,

somaqres^ha of which soma is lest,

having bone as the
('?), asthibhuyas
of worthy
composed
abhirupabhuyis^ha chiefly
sixth,

is highest

daqavara having ten as the lowest number, cintapara having

meditation as highest object or occupation, devoted to meditation, nih^vasa-

persons,

parama much

addicted to sighing.

C. Certain words are of especial frequency in the

scribed,

and have in part won a peculiar

d. With adi beginning or

adika

or

application.

adya

first

compounds here deThus:

are

made compounds

signifying the person or thing specified along with others, such a person or

thing
first,

et
i.

For example,
gods Jndra etc.,

cetera.
e.

the

deva indradayah the gods having Indra as

maricyadin munin Marlci and the other

POSSESSIVE COMPOUNDS.

507

svayambhuvadyah aaptai

sages,

Svayambhuva

Or the qualified noun

etc.,

fuel,

liberality,

'te

manavah

the

sacrifices

agnif^om&dik&n

etc.,

[1303
those

seven

Manus,

Agnishtoma and

so on.

annapanendhanadmi /bod, drink,

danadharmadikam caratu bhavan let your honor practise
is

omitted, as in

religious rites,

and

the like.

The

evam

particles

and iti are

also

sometimes used by substitution as prior members

thus, evaxnadi vacanam words to this and the like effect; ato 'ham bravimi kartavyah
:

samcayo nityam ityadi

Used

e.

much

in

hence I say "accumulation

ever to be

is

the same -way, but less often,

is

made"

prabhrti

etc.

begin-

ning: thus, visvavasuprabhrtibhir gandharvaih with the Gandharvas

Vicvavasu etc. ; especially adverbially, in measurements of space and time,
as

tatprabhrti

or

tatahprabhyti thenceforward.

Words meaning forcgoer, predecessor, and the like

purva, purvaka, purahaara, puraskrta, purogama
f.

employed in a similar manner, and especially adverbially, but

part to denote accompaniment, rather than antecedence,

namely,
are
for the

often

most

of that which

is

designated by the prior member of the compound: e. g. smitapurvam

with a smile, an&mayapra(jnapurvakam. with inquiries after health,
pitamahapurogama accompanied by the Great Father.

The noun matra measure stands

g.

as final of a

compound which

is

used adjectively or in the substantive neuter to signify a limit that is not

exceeded, and obtains thus the virtual value of mere, only: thus, jalamfitrena vartayan living by water only (lit. by that which has water
the

measure or

it?

for

garbhacyutimatrena

limit),

womb, pranayatrikamatrah syat

not exceed the preservation of life;

let

him

by merely issuing from

be one possessing what does

uktamatre tu vacane

but

the

words

being merely uttered.

h.

The noun artha

in the adverbial

yajnasiddhyartham

thus,
(lit.

a manner having

in

damayantyartham
i.

thus,

object,

purpose

accusative neuter,

in order to

the

is

used

at the

end of a compound,

to signify for the take

the

accomplishment of the

the

sacrifice

sacrifice as its object),

DamayantTs sake (with Damayantl

for

of or the like:

accomplishment of

Other examples are abha, kalpa, in the sense of

as object).

like,

approaching :

hemabha gold-like, mrtakalpa nearly dead, pratipannakalpa a/most

vidha,

accomplished;
thy sort,

often,

puruaavidha

in the sense of fcind,

of

human

kind;

sort: thus,

pray a,

tvadvidha of

in the sense of mostly,

and the

ing in grass,
neuter),

in

like: thus, duhkhapraya full of pain, tpjapraya aboundantara (in substantive

nirgamanapraya often going out ;

the

deqantara another region (lit. that

jaumantarani other existences, qakhantare

sense of other: thus,

which has a difference of region),

in another text.

1303. In appositional possessive compounds, the second member, if it

designates a part of the body, sometimes logically signifies that part to which
what is designated by the prior member belongs, that on or in which it is.

1303]

XVIII. COMPOSITION.

5Q8

a. Thus, ghrtaprs^ha butter-backed, madhujihva honey-tongued,

niskagrlva and manigriva necklace-necked, patrahasta vessel-handed,
vajrabahu lightning-armed, asrnmukha blood- faced, kilalodhan meadvaspakantha with tears in the
uddered, vajajathara sacrifice-bellied,

with

9raddliamanas

throat,

dhumaksl

in

faith

the

heart;

with

irregular accent,

smoke-eyed, a9rumukhi f. tear-faced,- and khadihasta

ring-handed (khadi). In the later language, such compounds are not infrequent with words meaning hand : thus, (jastrapani having a sword in
the

f.

lagudahasta

hand,

carrying a

staff.

1304. Of possessive compounds having an adverbial element as

prior member, the most numerous by far are those made with the
inseparable prefixes. Their accent is various. Thus:
a. In

compounds with the negative Mgflx a

or

an

(in

which the

latter

imported idea of possession), the accent is prevailingly

syllable, without regard to the original accent of the final member.

logically negatives the

on the

final

For example

ananta

without

chariot,

without

foe,

atejas without

timana

avarman

abala

faithless,

not possessing strength,

without ornament,

amani

adant

not cuirassed,

anarambhana not
aducchuna bringing

brightness,

incomparable,

without sides or

having no end,

agraddha

toothless,

to be gotten

no harm,

apad

aratha

a$atru
footless,

hold of,

apra-

apaksapuccha

tail.

b. But a number of examples (few in proportion to those already in1288 a):

stanced) have the prefix accented (like the simple descriptives
thus, aksiti indestructible, agu kineless, agopa without shepherd, ajivana
:

lifeless,

less,

anapi

without friends,
without priest,

abrahman

a^vi

f.

avyacas

without young,

amytyu

death-

without extension,

ahavis

without

A very
B. aprajaa.
oblation, and a few others; AV. has aprajas, but
few have the accent on the penult: namely, a^esas, ajani, and avira
(with retraction, from vira), aputra (do., from putra); and AV. has
abhraty, but RV. abhratf.
of
BIT and
C. In compounds with
thepreflxe8_ jraiseanddispraiafl,
due, the accent is in the great majority of cases that of the final member:

thus,

sukalpa

propitious

star,

of easy make, subhaga

suputra having excellent

well portioned,
sons,

sugopa

sunaksatra of
well-shepherded,

sukirti of good fame, si^gandhi fragrant, subahii well-armed, suyaxhtu

of easy control, sukratu of good capacity, suhard good-hearted, susraj
well-garlanded, suvarman well-cuirassed, suvasas well-clad,
well guiding ; durbhaga ill-portioned, durdrQika of evil aspect,

supramti
durdhara

to restrain, durgandhi ill-savored,

duradhl of evil designs,
dhartu hard to restrain, dus^ritu'/iard to excel, duratyetu 'hard to
durdhur ill-yoked, durnaman ilC-named, durvasas ill-clad.

hard

d. There are,

however,

*durcross,

number of instances in
thus,
upon the final syllable

a not inconsiderable

which the accent of these compounds

is

svapatya of good progeny, susamkaga of good aspect,

8U9ipra
svanguri well-fingered, svisu having good arrows, supivas well fatted;
well-lipped,

POSSESSIVE COMPOUNDS.

509

[1305

and compounds with derivatives in ana,

as suvijnana of easy discernment,

supasarpana of easy approach, dugcyavana hard to shake; and AV. has
suphala and subandhu against RV. suphala and subandhu. Like

avlra, suvira shows retraction of accent.

Only dura^ir has the tone on

the prefix.

On

e.

minative

is

less

distinction by accent of possessive from detershown in the words made with su and dus than

the

the whole,
clearly

in any other body of compounds.

thus,

form,

(less often) saha is treated like an

the accent in a possessive compound:

TheassQciative jpieflx sa or

f.

adjective

element,

and

takes

itself

sakratu of joint will, sanaman of like name, sarupa of similar

sayoni having a common origin, savacas of assenting words, satoka

having progeny along, with one's progeny, sabrahmana together with the
Brahmans, samula with the root, santardesa with the intermediate directions ;
with the shepherd,

sahagopa

patnl having
g. In

sahavatsa accompanied by
sahapurusa along

her husband with her,

RV.

(save in a doubtful case or two), only

one's young,

saEa-

with our men.

saha

in such com-

pounds gives the meaning of having with one, accompanied by; and, since
saha governs the instrumental, the words beginning with it might be of the
prepositional class (below, 1310). But in AV. both sa and saha have this
value (as illustrated by examples given above); and in the later language,
sa are much the more numerous.

the combinations with

h. There are a few exceptions, in which the accent is that of the final
member: thus, sajosa, sajosas, sadf^a, saprathas, sabadhas, samanyu
and AV. shows the accent on the final syllable in sanga (QB. sanga) and
the substantivized

(1312) savidyuta.

Possessive compounds with the exclamatory prefixes ka etc. are

too few in the older language to furnish ground for any rule as to accent:
i.

kabandha

is

perhaps an example of such.

1305. Possessive compounds in which a verbal prefix is used \J\QjP

member with adjective value, qualifying a noun as final
member, are found even in the oldest language, and are rather more ^
common later (compare the descriptive compounds, above, 1289; and
as prior

the prepositional, below,

1310).

They

usually have the accent of

the prefix.
Most^ common jire those made_ with pra, yi, and B am ; thus, for

a.

example,

pramahas

vfgrlva of wry
wifeless,

neck,

having exceeding might, pra$ravas widely famed;

having limbs away or gone, limbless, vijani

vyanga

viparva and vfparus

jointless,

both of wide mind and mindless,

vyadhvan

vivacas of

having one's husband along,

sammanas

accompanied by a thousand,

samokas

are

atyurmi

vimanas
sampatni
mind, samsahasra

of wide ways,

discordant speech;

of accordant
of joint abode. Examples of others
surging over, adhivastra having a garment on, adhyardha

with a half over,

adhyaksa

overseer,

apodaka

without water,

abhlrupa

1305]

XVIII. COMPOSITION.

avatoka

of adapted character,

udoj as
guile,

nfrhasta

that has aborted,

nimanyu

of exalted power,

510

amanas

of assuaged fury,

of favorable mind,

mrmaya

free

from

handless.

number

of cases, the accent is otherwise,

avake<?a,

upamanyu, vi$apha, vi9ikha

b. In a comparatively small

and generally on the

final:

thus,

(AY. v^ikha), vikarna, sammatr, etc. in an instance or two, that

the final member: thus, Bamc^vari having a common young.
;

of

ally

1306. Possessive compounds with an ordinary adverb as prior

are also found in every period of the language. They usuhave the accent which belongs to the adverb as independent word.

the

gods,

member
a.

Examples

are

bringing near help,

antyuti

itauti helping on

this

side,

avodeva

ihacitta with mind

calling

down

directed hither,

dakeinataskaparda wearing the braid on the right side, nanadharman

of various character, purudhapratika of manifold aspect, vie, vatomukha
with faces on all sides, eadyauti of immediate aid, visurupa of various
form, smadudhan with udder, adhastallaksman with mark below, ekatomukha with face on one side, tathavidha of such sort.
b.

An

instance or two of irregular accent are

ratha whose

chariot

is

evamkratu

foremost,

met with

thus,

puro-

so-minded.

1307. a. It was pointed out in the preceding chapter (1222h)

that the indifferent suffix ka is often added to a pure possessive
compound, to help the conversion of the compounded stem into an
especially,

adjective;

manageable

where the

final

of the stem

is

less

usual or

in adjective inflection.

b. Also, the compound possessive stem occasionally takes further a posthus, ya9obhagm, suQiprin, varavarnin, dirgbapunyavagbuddhikarmin, sutasomavant, tadrgrupavant,
trayoda9advipavant, narakapalakundalavant, amrtabuddhimant.

sessive-making suffix

sutrin,

C. The frequent changes which are undergone by the final of a stem

occurring at the end of a compound are noticed further on (1316).

1308. The possessive compounds are not always used in the

language with the simple value of qualifying adjective; often
they have a pregnant sense, and become the equivalents of dependent clauses; or the having which is implied in them obtains virtually the value of our having as sign of past time.

later

a. Thus, for example,

_pr apt ay auvana possessing attained adolescence,
;
anadhigata^fistra with unstudied books,

i.e. having arrived at adolescence

i.

e.

who

i.

e.

on

whom

sight

of

the ring as termination,

has

neglected study;
effort is

krtaprayatna possessing performed effort,

anguliyakadarqanavasana having the

expended;

i.

uddhrtavieada9alyah having an

e.

destined to end

on

sight

extracted despair-arrow,

i.

e.

of

the ring;

when I

shall

kriyatam let him be

made with heard details, i. e. let him be informed of the details dr^aviryo
me ramah llama has seen my proves*, bhagnabhando dvijo yatha like
have extracted the

barb

of despair; grutavistarah

PARTICIPIAL AND PREPOSITIONAL COMPOUNDS.

511
the

Brahman

that broke the pots,

ukhanrtam r^im yatha

like

[1310
a sage that

has spoken falsely.

Compounds with Governed

B.

Final

Member.

1309. Participial Compounds. This group of compounds,

which the prior member is a present participle and the final member its object, is a small one (toward thirty examples), and exclusiindeed, almost limited to the oldest Vedic (of the
vely Vedic
The accent is On the final syllable of the participle,
Rig-Veda).
whatever may have been the latter' a accent as an independent word.
in

Examples are:

a.

vidadvasu winning

good things, kfayadvira

taraddvesas overcoming (tarant) foes, abharadvasu bring ing. good things, codayanmati inciting (codayant) devotion,
mandayatsakha rejoicing friends, dharayatkavi sustaining sages, man-

governing (kgayant) heroes,

hay ddrayi

bestowing wealth.

b. In

sadadyoni sitting in the lap (efidat quite anomalously for sidat

sadat), and spr/hayadvarna emulous of color, the case-relation of the
final member is other than accusative.
In patayan mandayatsakham

or

(RV.

i.

patayat, with accent changed accordingly, represents patay-

4. 7),

atBakham,

the

Vidadacva

is

member being understood from the following word.

be inferred from its derivative vaidadacvi. Of this

final
to

formation appear to be

adasyu

(for

nasapti

is

jamadagni, pratadvasu (prathadP), and trastrasaddasyu ?j. It was noticed above (1299c) that yuyuja-

capable of being understood as a unique compound of like

with a perfect instead of present participle; sadhadis^i, on

character,

account of

its

accent, is probably possessive.

1310. Prepositional

Compounds. By

this

name may be

conveniently called those combinations in which the prior member

is a particle having true prepositional value, and the final member
is a noun governed by it.
Such combinations, though few in num-

ber as compared with other classes of compounds, are not rare, either
in the earlier language or in the later. Their accent is so various that

no rule can be set up respecting

a.

Examples

are:

atyavi passing through the wool, atirfitra overadhiratha lying on the chariot, adhi-

night,

atim&tra

gava

belonging to the cow;

the axle;

ceding,

down

exceeding measure;

anupatha

adhaspada under the feet, adhoak^a below

anupurva following the one preanuatya m accordance with truth, anukula

following the road,

one after another,

antaspatha (with anomalously changed accent of antar),

antardava within the flame (?), antarhasta in the hand ;

stream, etc.

within the way,

it.

antigrha near the house ; apiprana accompanying the breath (prana), apivrata concerned with the ceremony, apic.arvara bordering on night, apikarna
next the ear abhijnii reaching to the knee, abhivira and abhisatvan orer;

coming heroes; apathi on

the

road,

adeva

going to

the

gods,

ajaraea

XVIIL COMPOSITION.

1310]
reaching old age,

upottama

pits,

uparimartya

to

advada^a up
next

to

last,

twelve;

penultimate;

rising above mortals;

512

upakaksa reaching
uparibudhna above

the

to

arm-

the bottom,

tirojana beyond people; nihsala cut

paripad (about the feet) snare, parihasta about the hand,

bracelet; paroksa out of sight, paromatra beyond measure, parogavyutf
beyond the fields, parahsahasra (parahsahasra, (^B.) above a thousand ;
puroksa in front of the eyes; pratidosa toward evening, pratiloma
bahihagainst the grain, pratikula up stream, pratyaksa before the eyes
the

of

house;

outside the enclosure;

paridhi

to the
eyes,

bt

vipathi

samaksa

outside the road;

close

in sight.

Compounds

character

of this

are in the later language especially

common with adhi: thus, adhyatma relating to the soul or self, adhiyajna relating to the sacrifice, etc.
c. A sufflxal a is sometimes added to a final consonant, as in upanasa
on the wagon, avyusa until daybreak. In a few instances, the suffix ya
taken (see ahove,

is

panthm

The

d.

and in one word the suffix in: thus, pari-

1212m);

besetting the path.

see below,

prepositional

compounds

are especially liable to adverbial use

1313 b.

Adjective

Compounds as Nouns and as Adverbs.

1311. Compound adjectives, like simple ones, are freely used

substantively as abstracts and collectives, especially in the neuter,
and they are also much used adverbially,
especially in the accusative neuter.

less often in the feminine;

a.

The matter

of combination have

the

is entitled to special notice

become

Hindu grammarians have made out

its

of

them

distinct

com-

classes of

nothing in the older language which

own merits would call for particular remark under this head.

pounds, with separate names.

by

only because certain forms

and because

of special frequency in these uses,

There

is

1312. The substantively used compounds having a numeral as

member, along with, in part, the adjective compounds themselves, are treated by the Hindus as a separate class, called dvigu.
prior

a. The name is a sample of the class, and means of two cows, said
be used in the sense of worth two cows; as also pancagu bought for
five cows, dvinau worth two ships, pancakapala made in five cups, and
to

so on.

b. Vedic examples of numeral abstracts and collectives are:

dviraja

[combat] of two kings, triyuga three ages, triyojana space of three leagues,

tridiva

the triple heaven,

pancayojana
1

days' time,

daQangula

ten fingers' breadth

thousand days' journey.

character,

for

are,

freedom from

guilt,

Others,

space of five leagues,

and, with suffix ya,

sadaha

six

sahasrahnya

not numeral, but essentially of the same

anamitra freedom from enemies, nikilbisa

savidyuta thunderstorm, vihrdaya heartkssness and

example

ADJECTIVE COMPOUNDS AS NOUNS AND ADVERBS.

513
sahydaya

and

beasts

from RV. or AV.

Feminines of like use

such as triqati

pancamuli

aggregate of

it is

more prevailingly on the

three

are not quotable

hundred (481), trilokl

five roots.

As the examples show, the accent

c.

surnrga and suc,akuna

prosperity by day,

birds.

later occur

the three worlds,

but

sudiva

heartiness,

prosperity with

[1313

of words thus used is various;

than in the adjective com-

final syllable

pounds in their ordinary use.

1313. Those adverbially used accusatives of secondary adjeccompounds which have an indeclinable or particle as prior member are reckoned by the Hindu grammarians as a separate class of
compounds; and called by the name avyayibhava.
a. This term is a derivative from the compound verb (1094) made up
tive

of

avyaya

uninflected

and |/bhu, and means conversion

b. The prepositional compounds

use:

and

for

thus,

an

indeclinable.

(1310)

anusvadham by one's own will, abhipurvam

succession, advada9am up to twelve, pratidosam at

example,

parovaram

in

samaksam

evening,

to

are especially frequent in this

Instances

in sight.

given by the grammarians are:

adhihari upon Hari, uparajam with the king, upanadam or upanadi

near the river, pratyagni toward the fire, pratini^am every night, nir-

maksikam

c.

with freedom from

flies.

large and important class is

adverb, especially

yatha,

made up

member. Thus,

as prior

of words having a relative

for

example, yathava9am
yathakytam as done \[before], according to
name, yathabhagam according to several portion,

as one chooses (va<ja wilt),

usage, yathanama by
yathangam and yathaparii

yavanrnatram in some
sabandhu according to

Limb by limb,

measure,
the

yatrakamam

number of

whither one will,

as long as one lives,

yavajjivam

ySvat-

relations.

common in the old language; RV. has

AV. only ten; and no such compound is
used adjectively except yacchrestha RV., yavacchrestha AV. as good as
possible.
(,'B. has yathakarfn, yathacarm, yathakama, yathakratu as
adjectives (followed in each case by a correlative tatha). The adjective use
d. These

with

yatha

compounds

in the later language also

e.

is

quite rare as compared with the adverbial.

Other cases than the accusative occasionally occur

thus, instrumental,

yathasamkhyena, yatha^aktya, yathepaaya, yathapratigunais

as

and ablative,

f.

as

class of adverbs of frequent occurrence

g. Other adverbial
are

common

on

different chariots,

mam

with

later

for

respectfully,

made with sa:

is

sasmitam

rtekarmam

ubhayadyiis two days

without work,

in succession,

pradanapurvam

2. ed.

g.

earlier,

and

nanaratham

citrapadakra-

with accompaniment of

gift; etc.

Grammar.

e.

with a smile, savi-

compounds of equivalent character occur

example,

wonderful progress,

Whitney,

yathaucityat.

sakopam angrily, sadaram

9esam especially.

not

are

four of them,

only

33

13141

XVIII. COMPOSITION.

514

Anomalous Compounds.
1314. As in every language, compounds are now and then met
with which are of anomalous character, as exhibiting combinations
of elements not usually put together, or not after such a method, or
such a purpose. Some of these, especially of those occurring in
the old language, may well be noticed here.
for

Compounds having a particle as final member: as, aprati having

equal, tuviprati mightily opposing, atatha refusing, vitatha false,
a.

no

as

yathatatha

anamutra

it

really

susaha prosperity

is,

having no here and no yonder,

in companionship,

aniha and

etc.

ahammamasatya

b. Agglomerations of two or more elements out of phrases: thus,

purva

eager to be

contest

for possession,

ahamuttara

first,

itihasa legend

and naghariea

naghamara

contest for preeminence,

ha "sa

(iti

surely, dying or

not,

it
was),
harm, kuvitsa

indeed,

thus,

coming

to

that as aim, kucidarthin

having errands in every direction, kacitkara doiny all sorts of things, kuhacidvid wherever found, akuta<jcidbhaya out of all danger, yadbhavisya

some unknown person, tadidartha having just

What-is-to-be, etc.

Agglomerations in which the prior

and paraspara one another,

c.
as,

member

anyonya

retains a syntactic form

avaraspara

inverted.

d. Aggregations with the natural order inverted e. g. pitamaha and

grandfather, putrahata with his sons slain, janvakna and
:

tatamaha

-janvakta

with bended knee,

agrajihva, agranasika,
also

etc.

tip

having groups of

teeth,

gifts,

somapahrta

gojara

of the tongue, of the nose,

etc.

old bull,

Compare

1291c.
e.

(1122e)
f.

like

dantajata provided with

pahktiradhas

deprived of soma,

Aggregations of particles were pointed out above (1 1

cases in which na and
are used in composition.

1 1

a) ; also

ma

In late Sanskrit (perhaps after the false analogy of combinations

as tadanu, with tad as stem instead of neuter accu-

tad anu, viewed

a preposition

sative),

noun governed by

dantantah

it:

is
e.

between the

final member with the

vrksadhastat under the tree,

sometimes compounded as
g.

vrkaadhas

teeth,

or

bhavanopari on

top of the house,

satyavina

without truth.

Stem-finals altered in Composition.

1315. Transfers to an a- form of declension from other less

finals, which are not rare in independent use, are especially
in the final members of compounds. Thus

common
common

a.

stem in
are

an

often

drops

its

final

consonant (compare

429 a,

aksa, adhva, arva, astha, aha, taksa, brahma,

murdha, raja, loma, vrsa, qva, saktha, sama.

437): examples

LOOSE CONSTRUCTION WITH COMPOUNDS.

515
An

b.

i or i is

to

changed

a: examples

are

[1318

angula, anjala,

kuksa, khara, nada, nabha, bhuma, ratra, sakha.

c. An a is added after a final consonant, and sometimes
u-vowel

or

atjra,

after

an

diphthong (compare 399): examples are fca, tvaca; uda,

pada, 9arada; apa; dhura, pura; ahna, a9mana f udhna, rajna;

anasa, ayasa, ayusa, urasa, enasa, tamasa, manaaa, yaju^a, rajaea,
rahasa, varcasa, vedasa, ^reyaea, sarasa; bhruva, diva, gava,
gava, nava.
d.

More sporadic and anomalous cases are such

as

panca-sa (-sas), ajaika-pa (-pad), ^ata-bhisa

(-cit), yatha-pura (-puras).

apanna-da

(-dant),

(-bhifaj), vipaj-ci

Loose Construction with Compounds.

1316. In the looseness of unlimited and fortuitous combination,
it is by no means rare that a word
composition has an independent word in the sentence depending

especially in the later language,

in

upon or qualifying

it

rather than the

alone,

compound of which

it

forms a part.
a.

rayaskamo vi^vapsnyasya (RV.) desirous of

anhor urucakrih (RV.) causing relief from distress ;

are:

Examples

all-enjoyable wealth

mahadhane arbhe
thyakamah (A^S.)

(RV.) in great contest and in small

desiring

superiority

over

his

fellows

svaham 9raisbrahman an
i

chruta9ilavrttasampannan ekena va (AGS.) Brahmans endowed

learning, character,

and

behavior, or with one [of the three] i

with

cittapramathini

bala devanam api (MBh.) a girl disturbing the minds even of the gods ;
vasisthavacanad rsya9fngaBya co *bhayoh (R.) at the words of both
V<isishtha

and

dhasya ca

Rishyacringa,

(M.)

sitadravyapaharane 9astranam

m case of stealing ploughing implements

ausa-

or weapons or medica-

jyotieam madhyacarl (H.) moving in the midst of the stars i dampat rani ca mrnmayam (M.) a wooden and an earthen vessel ; syandane

ment,-

(9.) with eye fixed

on

(KSS.) dead and hanging upon

it.

dattadrs^ih

the chariot;

tasminn ullambitamrtah

APPENDIX.
A. The following text is given (as proposed above, 3) in order
by an example the variety of Sanskrit type in use. It
is given twice over, and a transliteration into European letters follows. The text is a fable extracted from the first book of the Hitoto illustrate

padec.a.

The Hunter, Deer, Boar, and

rlri^lH

MM in

*nr:

^nft

Jacltal.

"51^5

fW

APPENDIX.

517

'TFT oSfrsn
!

QT

c!^ flFT *JJT

{73FTt

5^*

*j*t

msr:

%i

*ii*f*4i*jii

HHt

UVdr<a
ll[

asit

kalyanakatakavastavyo bhairavo nama vyadhah.

sa

mansalubdhah san dhanur adaya vindhyatavimadhyam

tatra tena mrga eko vyapaditah. mrgam adaya gachata

cai 'kada

gatah.

tena ghorakrtih sukaro drstah. tatas tena mrgam bhumau nidhaya sukarah qarena hatah. sukarena *py agatya pralayaghanaghoragarjanam krtva sa vyadho muskade9e hata? chinnadruma
iva papata.

yatah:

jalam agnim visam 9 as tram ksudvyadhi patanam gireh,

nimittam kimcid asadya dehi pranair vimucyate.

APPENDIX.

518

nama jambukah paribhramann aharmrtan mrgavyadhasukaran apa<jyat. alokya 'cintayad

asau: aho bhagyam. mahad bhojyam samupasthitam. athava:
acintitani duhkhani yathai >va "yanti dehinam,
atrantare diugharavo

arthl tan

sukhany api tatha manye daivam atra 'tiricyate.

bhavatu esam mansair masatrayam samadhikam bhojanam
;

me

prathamabubhuksayam tavad imani svaduni mansani vihaya kodandatanilagnam snayubandham khadaxnl

tata<j chinne snayubandhe drutam utpa'ty uktva tatha 'karot.
titena dhanusa hrdi bhinnah sa dirgharavah pancatvaih gatah.
bhavisyati.

tatah

ato 'ham bravimi:

kartavyah samcayo nityam kartavyo na 'tisamcayah

atisamcayadosena dhanusa jambuko hatah.

B. The following text ia given in order to illustrate by a suffiexample the usual method of marking accent, as described
above (87). In the manuscripts, the accent-signs are almost invariably
added in red ink. The text is a hymn extracted from the tenth or
last book of the Rig-Veda it is regarded by the tradition as uttered
cient

by Vftc

voice

(i.

e. the

Hymn

Word

or Logos}.

(X. 125)

from the Rig-Veda.

li

USIHMIU

HT ydHfr} 5t NM^dlH

IT: yiluiir)

II

U f sMjiiiry

WT WT
itnifo

rf

sj^iui-fPrfg

rt

HHMIH^II

HHIIH slJlfiM jn<p.^Tim

APPENDIX.

sFTRT

cTfTT

TO

erun-u

^loihfacjl

HQMM f^WTrTT^

fe f?r"

519
5TT f^ifeT u

ejuftiW

WHIM

aham rudrebhir vasubhiq caramy aham adityair uta

aham mitravaruno 'bha bibharmy aham indragni aham

devaih,

a9vmo Tbha. 1.
aham somam ahanasam bibharmy aham tvas^aram uta pusanam
bhagam, aham dadhami dravinam havismate supravye yajaaham

rastri

ma

tarn

manaya sunvate. 2.
samgamanl vasunam

*deva

cikitusi pratham^ yajniyanam t

vy adadhuh purutra bhuristhatram bhury

aveQayantim.

maya

so

annam

amantavo

atti

mam

ta

vadami.

3.

yo vipa^yati yah praniti ya im 9ynoty uktam,

upa ksiyanti ^rudhl sruta ^raddhivam te
4.

aham eva svayam idam vadami justam devebhir uta manusebhih,

yam kamaye tam-tam ugram krnomi tarn brahmanam tarn f aim
tarn Bume.dham.

6.

aham rudraya dhanur a tanomi brahmadvise ^arave hantava u,

aham janaya samadam krnomy aham dyav&prthivl a viveQa. 6.
aham suve pitaram asya murdhan mama yonir apsv antah samudre, tato vf tisthe bhuvana 'nu vi^vo 'ta 'mum dyam varsmano 'pa spr^ami. 7.
aham eva vata iva pra vamy arabhamana bhuvanani vigva,
paro diva para ena prthivyaf 'tavati mahina sam babhuva. 8.
the next page is given, in systematic arrangement, a
the modes and tenses recognized as normally to be
from every root in its primary conjugation, for the two common

C.

On

synopsis of

made

bhu

all

and kr make (only the precative middle and perimiddle are bracketed, as never really occurring).
Added, in each case, are the most important of the verbal nouns and
of every
adjectives, the only ones which it is needful to give as part

roots

be

phrastic future

verb-system.

520

APPENDIX.

Iff
*

Illll Il

I!

f?

I'

I
a
\

f
I

I *
P

SANSKRIT INDEX.
The references in both Indexes

are to paragraphs.

In this one,

many

but it is believed that they will be found selfw

For example,
pron." is pronunciation; "euph." points out
explaining.
to
anything relating
phonetic form or euphonic combination; "pres.", to
used

abbreviations are

present-system; "int." is intensive; "des." is desiderative

hyphen denotes a suffix; one appended, a prefix.

and

so on.

prefixed

a,

prou. etc., 19
22, combination
with following vowel, 126, 127;

e and o, 135,
175 a; resulting accent, 135 a; not
liable to guna, 235 a; lightened
to i or u, 249; lost in weakened
loss of initial after

syllable, 253.
a, as union-vowel in tense-inflection,
621 c, 631.

-a, primy, 1148; scdry, 1208, 1209;

-a in -aka, 1181;
a-stems,

from rdcl

32634;

dcln,

a-st.,

333, 354; in compsn, 1270, 1287 a.

a- or an-, negative, 1121 a c; in

see 1157g.
-atu, see 1161d.
-atnu, see 1196c.
-atra, see 1185e.
-atha, see 1163 c.
-athu, see 1164.
1/ad, impf., 621 c;
-ad, 383k. 4.
-ati,

adhi,

caus.,

loss of initial,

1087 a.

adhika, in odd numbers, 477 a, 478 b.

Van, euph., 192b; pres., 631.
-an, 1160.
an-, see a-.
-ana, 1150; stems in compan, 1271,

1296 b.

compsn, 1283 ff., 1288a, 1304a, b.

-aka, prmy, 1181 aka-stems sometimes govern accus., 271 c; scdry,

-ana, 1150.

1222J, k.
-aki, see 1221 b.
yaks, pf., 788.

-ani, 1169.
-anl, 1150.
-amya, 962, 965, 1215 b.

aksara, 8.
aksan, ak^i, 343 f, 431.
aghosa, 34 b.

anu, changed

or

Vac

967 c

219 a, 383k.

5.

Vane, see ac.

Vanj, euph., 219

a; pres., 694, 687;

pf., 788; tva-ger'd, 991 d.

-ancla, 1201

and see

-ata, see 1176

e.

to

anu

after

an-,

anudatta, 81.
anudattatara, 90 c.
anunasika, 36 a, 73 a.
anuvrata, with accus., 272.

anustubh,
anusvara,

-ant.

euph., 151 d.
pron. etc., 70

literation,

anehas,

a.

-at, 383k. 3

euph., 224 b; dcln, 404.

-anu, see 1162c.

pf.,

10.
-aj,

anadvah,

1087b.

788 b; pple, 956 b,

stems ending with, 407

anc,

1042 g.

-ant

73

dcln, 419.
of pples,

or -at,
their dcln,

3; trans-

c.

443 ff.

534,

1172;

SANSKRIT INDEX.

522
-anta, 1209

y&h

d.

31, 51 a.

antahsthS,

antara, in compsn, 13021.

-anti, see 1221c.

anya,

dcln, 623.

ap

ap, dcln, 151e, 393.

1087 a.

or

tened to 1 or

abhinihita-circumflex, 84 e.
Yarn, pres., 634; aor., 862.
-am, infin. in, 970 a; gerund, 995.

1/arth, so-called, 104b, 1066, 1067.

artha, in compsn, 1302 h.
aryaman, dcln, 426 a.
arvan, arvant, 456.

atmane padam,

838,

aor'.,

908;

-ftm, sea 1223 b.

-ami, see 1162c.

964 e;

pple,

anunasikya, 36 a.
}/fip, 1087 f; pf., 783d;

968 e; ya-gerM, 992 c.

ava, loss of initial, 1087 a.
-ava, see 1190 a.

862;

8379,

pf.,

847;

788;

aor.,

fut.,

936

y&B

pf.,

eat,

1031;

cans.,

be, pres.,

803 a
1042 n.
636, 621

am,

c;

des.,

1029 b,

e; pf.,

800m;

968 c.

euph. treatment of, 175;

exceptional cases, 176.
-as, 1151; dcln of stems in. 411 ff,
as-stems in compsn, 1278, 1296 b

i,

final,

and see asan.

970 c, 973 a.
asthan, astbi, 343 i, 431.
-asna, sec 1195 a.
-asnu, see H94d.

asrj, euph., 219:

yah

infln.

etc., 19, 20, 22; i and y,

combinations of final, 126,
129, 797f with preceding a-vowel,
127; from ya, 252, 784 c, 769,

pron.

55
;

922

1298 b.
-as, infln. in, 970 a, 971.
asan, asrj, 398, 432.
-asi, 1198.

-ase,

in,

say, pf.,

801

sing, in, 618.

-ayya, 966 c, 1051 f, 1218.

-ara, see 1188 d, 1226 b.
-aru, see 1192 a.
-ala, see 1227 a, 12451.
-alu, see. 1192b, 1227 b.
>/as, pres., 619 c, 628; inf., 968 d;
periph. pf., 1071 c; in ppial periph.
phrases, 1075 c.
as, asan, asya, 398 b, 432.
as final, euph. treatment of, 177.

inf.,

pple, 956 e; inf.,

impv. 3d

-ayl, 1220.

834 b,

in periphr. con.jn, 10702, 1073 d

in ppial periphr. phrases, 1075 d;
in cmpd conjn, 1093, 1094.
I/as throw, pres., 761 c ; aor., 847;

as

847,

amredita, 1260 d.
-ayana, 1219.

968 d.

y&Q

aor.,

1030.

des.,

abha, in compsn, 1302i.

avagraha, 16.
/avadhir, so-called, 104b.
avayaj, avaya, 406.
avyayibhava, 1111 d, 1313.
attain,

529.

stead of mana, 741 a, 752 e, 1043 f

-ana in other derivatives, 1176 a.

aor.,

inf.,

|/ac

260 c;

adi, adika, adya, in compsn, 1302 d.

-ana, in pples, 684, 1176; used in-

alpaprana, 37 d.
l/av,

to a,

-Ska, see 1181 d.

-aku, see 1181d.
-5tu, see 1161d.
atman, used reflexively, 514 a.

343 g.
-aru, see 1192 a.
arf, dcln,

788;

1028 d.

975 b.

1/arh, pres., 613; pf.,

862; desid., 1029 b.
-ala, see 1189b.

250

a, with ablative, 293 c, 983 a.

-a, 1149.
a-stems, dcln, 347 ff.

-ama, see 1166 b.

f,

i,

in pres,, 661 6, 761 f, g; in aor.,

884; in pple, 954 c; in des.,

-abha, 1199.

-aye, infln. in, 970

-ara, see 1188d.

a.

430.

a, pron. etc., 19, 22; combination of

final, 126, 127; elision of initial,
135d; vfddhi of a,236ff.; ligh-

loss of initial,

api,

connectty, 788

ahan, ahar, ahas,

a.

b,

954 b; cases of

loss before

y, 233 a.
i, union-vowel, 254, 555 b; in pres.,
630, 631, 634, 640; in pf., 796
8, 803; in aor., 876 b, 877; in
fut., 934, 935, 943; in pple, 956;
in infln., 968; in des., 1031.
from rdcl Ii-stems, dcln, 335 ff.
1287 c;
st., 354; in compsn, 1276,
sometimes govern accus., 27 If.
;

SANSKRIT INDEX.
783 b, 801 d; fut, 936 a;
992 a, c; int., 1002e,
1021 b; caus., 10421; in ppial
1075 a;
periphr. phrases, 994 e,
periphr. conj., 1071 f; irreg. comb.
with prefixes, 1087 c; in compd
conjn, 1092 b.
yi (in, inv) send, 716 a.
-i, prmy, 1155; scdry, 1221.
-ika, prmy, 1186 c; scdry, 1222 j, 1.
-ika, fern, to -aka, 1181 c, 1222i.
Vich, 608 b, 753 b.
-ij, 219 a, 383k. 5.
-it, 383k. 3; advbl, 1109 a.
-ita, 1176 a, b, d.
1102 a c; peculiar
iti, uses of,

yi

go,

pf.,

I,

ya-ger'd,

construction with,

268 b; abbrev'd

523

pron. etc., 19, 20, 22; combinations of final, 126, 129, 797 f;

with preceding a-vowel, 127 circumflexed, 128; uncombinable in

dual etc., 138; 1 as final of stem
in verbal compsn, 1093, 1094.
union-vowel, 254; in tense-in;

I,

555 b,

flection,

4; of impf.,
aor.,

of pres.,

for

i,

900 b,

I-stems, dcln, 347 ff.

to i before
-i, 1156;

1203d, 1237
compsn, 1249 d.

471

632

6314;
88891; of

880b,

1004 ff.;
968 d, f.

c;

621,

b,

c,

of sint.,

935 a,

added sfx,
1239 b; in

-ika, see 1186c.

1102d.
-iti, see 1157 g.
-itu, see 1161 c.
-itnu, see 1196.
-itra, see 1185 e.

862; desid., 1029b;

I/Iks, aor.,
periph. pf., 1071 c, 1073 a.
yld, pres., 628, 630; pf., 783d.
Ita- for eta-forms in optative, 738 b,

indh, euph., 160 c; aor.,

836, 837, 840 b.
>/in (or inv), 699 b, 709, 716 a,
749 b.

-iti,

-in, 1183, 1230; in-stems, dcln,

438ff.
in compsn, 1275, 1287e;

-iman, see 1168j.

iya, conj.-stem, 1021 b.
-iya, 1215.
-iyas, 46770, 1184;

to ti,

yldh

or

sometimes govern accus., 271 b;

used participially, 960 b.
-ina, see 1177 b, 1209 c, 1223 f.
inaksa, 1029 c.
-ineya, see 121 6 d.

yinv, see

in.

-ibha, see 1199

-ima, 1224 a.

k.

iy in euph. comb'n from an

129 a, e. d, 352 b.

i- vowel,

-iya, 1214.

irajya, iradha, 1021

|/il, caus., 1042b.

yir, pres., 628;

in,

pf.,

783d, 801 d;

pple, 957 b.
-ira, see 1188 e.

yls, euph., 225

see 1197.
j/ih, euph.,

b.
a.

-ila, see 1189b, 1227

iva, euph., 1102.
-iva, see 1190 a.
-ivas, see 1173b.

stems

463 ff.

a.

-istha, 46770, 1184.

-isnu, 1194.
-is, 1153; is-stems, dcln, 411

inf.,

ff.

240

b.

u, pron. etc., 19, 20, 22; u and v,

57; combinations of final, 126,
129; with preceding a-vowel, 127;
from va, 252, 784, 769, 922 b,
954 b, 956 d; cases of loss before
v, 233 a final u gunated in scdry
derivation, 1203 a,
u-stems, dcln, 335 ff.; from rdcl ust, 354; desid. u-stems govern
accus., 271 a.
-u, 1178; -u in -uka, 1180 a.
-uka, 1180; stems sometimes govern
accus., 271 g.
uksan, dcln, 426 b.
|/uch, 608 b, 753 b.
>/ujh, periphr. pf., 1071 c.
;

pres., 608b, 753 b;

968d; desid., 1029 b.
Via send, caus., 1042 b.
-isa, see 1197 b.
I/is desire,

a.

-isa,

iyaksa, 1029c.
iyant, dcln, 451.
ir-stems, dcln, 392.
ira, see 1188 e, 1226

dcln,

scdry,

-iva, see 1190 a.

1/19, pres., 628, 630.
i$vara, with infln., 984, 987.

a.

-iman, see 1168

771 d, 1032 a, 1043 c.

see 1157g.
-itu, see 1161c.
-ina, prmy, see 1171 b;
1223d.

SANSKRIT INDEX.

524
]/unch,

pres.,

758.

consider,

unadi-sufflxes, 1138
-ut, 383k. 3.
-utra, see 1185e.
-utr, see 1182b.

a.

pres.,

r,

-utha, see 1163d.

und, pres., 694 a, 758 a;

j/ud
pple, 957 d; desid., 1029 b.
ud, udaka, udan, 398 b, 432.
udatta, 81.
-una, see 1177c.
or

-uni, see 1158e.

upadhmanlya,
>/ubj,

aor.,

862.

ur-stems, dcln, 392.

-ura, see 1188 f, 1226 b.

-uri, 1191 a.
-ula, see 1189b, 1227 a.
uv in euph. comb'n from an u-vow-

352b, 697 a.
utjanas, u<jana, dcln, 355 a, 416.
)/us, pres., 608 b; ya-ger'd, 992 b;
periphr. pf., 1071 f.
-usa, see 1197c.

129 a,

c, d,

us.as, euph., 168a; dcln,

-usi, see 1221 c.

usnh,

d,

etc.,

euph., 240 b,

745

a;

897 b.

236;

objectionable

pronunciation and transliteration

as ri, 24 a; question of r or ar in

and stems, 104 d, e, 237;

combinations of final, 126, 129;
with preceding a-vowel, 127; exroots

ceptions, 127 a; impedes change of

preceding s to s,, 181 a; changes

succeeding n to n, 189 ff.; guna
and vrddhi increments of, 235 if.;

69.

V'ubh or umbh, pres., 694, 758 a.

-ubha, see 1199 a.
ubhaya, dcln, 525 c.
ur or us as 3d pi. ending, 169 b.

el,

pron.

894

415

b.

irregular changes, 241, 243; variable final r of roots (so-called f),

242.
r-roots, root-nouns from,

383

b, g.

r-stems, dcln, 369 ff.

r, variable (so-called f), roots in,
242, 245 b; their passive, 770 c;
aor., 885, 900 b; prec., 922 a; fut.,

935 a; pple, 957 b; root-infln.,

971; gerund in ya, 992 a.
]/r, euph., 242 c; pres., 608 a, 699 a,
753 b, 643d, 645, 716 a; passive,
770 c; pf., 783 a; aor., 834 a,
837 b, 840 b, 847, 853, 862; pple,
957 b; int, 1002 e; caus., 1042 i

caus. aor., 1047.

euph., 223 a.

-us, 1154; us-stems, dcln, 411 ff.

-f,
ri,

see 1182 h.
ri, bad transliterations

for r, r,

usf, 371 j.

us

ur

or

u, pron.
tions

as

3d

pi.

ending, 169 b.

etc., 19, 20, 22; combinaof final, 126, 129, 797 f;

with

preceding
a-vowel,
127;
circumflex ed, 128; uncombinable
in dual, 138 a.

u-stems, dcln, 347 ff.

-u, 1179.

-uka, see 1180 f.

-utr, see 1182b.
-utha, see 1163d.

udhan, udhar, udhas, 430 d.

una, in odd numbers, 477 a, 4?8b.
-una, see 1177 c.

or arc, pf., 788 a; aor., 862,

894 d, 897 b; ya-ger'd, 992 b.
>/rch, 608, 753 b; pf., 788 b.

y?c

-rj,

383k.

j/rrij

5.

or rj or

arj stretch ouf,

758a; pf., 788b;

>/rnv, 716 a.
-rt, 383k. 3.

aor.,

pres.,
b.

894d, 897

rtvij, euph., 219.

]/rd, pple, 957 d.
)/rdh, pres., 694; pf., 788 a;
832, 837, 838, 840 a, 847,
des., 1029 b, 1030.
rbhuksan, dcln, 434.

aor.,

862;

]/rs, pf., 788 b.

rhant, dcln, 450 e.

-ura, see 1188f.

urj, euph., 219 a.

>/urnu, so-called, 104b, 713;

80ig, 1071 e; ya-ger'd, 992 c.
-usa, see 1197c.

usman,

31, 59.

remove j

992 c.

pf.,

infln.,

968 c; ya-ger'd,

and occurrence, 23 6; objectionable pronunciation and transliteration as ri, 24 a; as alleged

'final of roots,
104 d, 242 (and

y, pron.

see
ing

r, variable); changes succeed-

to

n, 189 ff.

SANSKRIT INDEX.
1,

6; obpron. and occurrence, 23

jectionable pronunciation and transas

literation

li

24 a;

or Iri,

guna-increment, 23&.
li, Iri, bad transliterations
23

I,

for 1,

525

h, pron.

etc.,

syllable,

679;

makes heavy

79; occurrence as

final,

148, 170 a; for the labial and guttural spirants, 170

d; from finals,

its

24 a.

145, 170 a, 172; from r, 144, 178

allows change of B to
f, 183.

a.

279;

combinations of
final, 1313, 135; with final avowel, 127 uncombinable in dual

e, pron. etc.,

138 a,

etc.,

guna

b, f;
from radical

235 ff.;

of i and

or m, pron. etc., 70
3 r makes
heavy syllable, 79; occurrence as
final, 148; allows
change of s to
B, 183 occurrence, 204, 212, 213 e.
-

1,

a, 250 d; as
alleged final of roots, 251, 761 f.
e, infln. in, 970 a, 971.

k, pron.

etc., 39, 40; relation toe,

42; to 9, 64; B to 9 after, 180 ff.;
added to final n, 211; from c, by
reversion, 214 ff.; as final, and In

eka, dcln, 482 a, b; used as article,

482 c; in making 9's 477 a, b.
ekaQruti, 90 c,
1/edh, pf., 790 c; desid., 1029 b,
1031 b; periph. pf., 1071 c.
-ena, 1223 e.
-enya, 966 b, 1038, 1217.

-ka, prmy, 1186; scdry, 1222; ka

in -uka, 1180a; in -aka, 1181.

-eya, 1216.

-kaja, see 1245k.

-eyya, 1216 e.
-era, see 1201 a, 1226 b.
-eru, see 11 92 a.
-elima, 966 d, 1201 a.
esas, eupb., 176 a.

kanthya

internal

combination, 142, 217;

from 9, do., 146, 218; from s,
226 e; anomalously from t, 151 a';
to t,

151

guttural, 39.

]/kan, pf., 786 e; aor., 899 d.

1/kath, so-called, 1056.
|/kam, aor., 868; pple, 956 a.
kampa, 78 d, 87 d, 90 B.

kamvant,
27

9; combination
with final a-vowel, 127; as final,

Si,

pron.

1313

etc.,

vrddhi

of i

and

i,

235

ff.;

as alleged final of roots, 251, 761 e;

for union-vowel I in tense-inflec-

655

tion,

561

c; fore in.subj. endings,

a.

ai as gen.-abl. ending, 365 d.

o,

pron.

with

etc.,

27

combination

9;

final

a-vowel, 127; as final,

131, 132, 134, 135; before suffix
ya, 136 b; uncombinable, 138 c, f:
for final as, 176, 176; ar, 179 a;

and u, 235 ff. as alleged final of roots, 251, 761 g.

oih, euph., 137b.
-otr, see 1182b.
odana, euph., 137b.
-ora, see 1201 a.
os$ha, euph., 137 b.

guna

o^hya,

of

49.

combination
au, pron. etc., 27 9
with final a-vowel, 127; as final,
131, 132, 134 b; vrddhi of u and
u, 235 ff.
;

c.

euph., 212.

-kara, 1201

a.

karmadharaya, 1263 a.
l/kal, cans., 1042 g.
in compsn, 1302 i.

kalpa

]/kas, pple, 956 b.

Kka,

int. (?),

kama,

1013 b.

with accus., 272; in compsu

with infln.-stem, 968 g.

as denom.-sign, 1066.
kara, in sound-names, 18.
>/ka9, int., 1017.
ykas, periph. pf., 1071 f.
kiyant, dcln, 461.

kamya

)/kir, 756.
)/kirt or kft, so-called, 1056.
}/ku, pres.,'633.

Vkuc,

caus.,

>/kup,

pres.,

pple,

956 b.

1042 h.
761 a;

aor.,

840b;

l/kumar, so-called, 104 b.

kuvid, accent of verb with, 595

e.

716, 855 a;
pf. 797 c, 800k; aor. 831, 834 a
40, 847, 894d; hit, 1002 gt h;
prefixes B,
1087d; in periph.
3; in compd conjn,
conjn, 1070
constructions.
1091 4 ; special

i/kr make, pres., 714,

268a.

SANSKRIT INDEX.

526
,

scatter, 242 b; pres., 756;

885; prefixes s, 1087 d.
1002 d,
commemorate,
int,

kir

aor.,

i/kr

1019 b.
j/kyt

cut,

758;

pres.,

852 a; fut., 935 b.

-kyt, see 1106.
kyt-sufflxes, 1138 a.
-kptvas, see 1105.
yTsyp, pres., 745 b;
cans., 1042 b.

krga

as pple,

847,

aor.,

from

)/kri, caus., 10421.

1042 n.

caus.,
aor.,

847.

916 a, 920 a.
krostu, krostf, 343k, 374.
j/klam, pres., 745 d, 761 a, 763;
pple, 955 a.
j/klid, pple, 957 d.
j/kliQ, aor., 916 a.
ks, combinations of, 146, 221.
1/ksan, pple, 954 d; inf., 968 e.
j/ksam, pres., 763; fut., 935 b;
pple, 955 a, 956 b; inf., 968 d;
caus., 1042g.

ylmi9,

aor.,

ksam,

dcln, 388.

yksar,
yksal,

caus.,

aor.,

l/ksa, pres.,

ksama
yksi

1042 n.
761 e; pple, 957 a.

as pple,

958.
pres.,

10421.

pres., 626.

>/ksvid, pple, 957 d.

j/gy swallow, euph., 242 b; pres.,

756; aor., 836; inf., 968 d; int.,

go, euph., 134a, 236 b dcln, 361 c, f.

gdha, gdhi, 233 f.
j/grath or granth, pres., 730 a;
pf., 794h; caus., 1042 h.
i/grabh or grah, euph., 155 b, 223 g
pres., 723, 729, 731, 732, 904d,
1066b; pf., 794 c, 801 i; aor.,
;

j/ksud, pple, 957 d.

VTnjudh, P res -> 761 a aoT -> 847
1/ksubh, pple, 956 b.
ksaipra-circumflex, 84 a.

l/ksnu,

]/gr (or jagy) wake, 1020; aor., 867,

871.
>/grdh, pf., 786 a; aor., 847.

caus.,
755;
1042d, 1.
fut,
j/ksi destroy, pres., 761 b
93*5 a; pple, 957 a; ya-ger'd, 922 a;
caus.,

etc.,

1002 d.

890.

possess,

39 relation to j, 42
by reversion, 214 ff.
gata, in compsn, 1273c.
i/gam, 102 a; pres., 608 b, 747,
855a; aor., 833, 834b, 83740,
847, 881 e, 887b; pf., 794e, 805a;
943 a; pple, 954 d; int.,
fut,
1002g, h, 1003 des., 1028e, 103lb
cans., 1042g; root-noun, 383 h.
|/gal, int., 1002 d.
]/ga go, 102a; pres., 660; aor., 830,
836, 839, 884, 894 c desid., 1028 d.
]/ga sing, 251; pres., 761 e; aor.,
894 d, 912; pple, 954 c; inf., 968f
ya-ger'd, 992 a; caus., 1042 j, k.
j/gah or gah, pple, 956 e; int.,
1002 d.
ygir, gil, 756; caus., 1042b.
}/gu, int., 1002 d.
guna, 27, 235 ff.
}/gup, aor., 863 a; inf., 968 c; yager'd, 992 c; des., 1040.
i/gur, pres., 756; aor., 834 a; pple,
957 b.
>/Kuli, euph., 155 b, d, 223 b, 240 c;
aor., 847,
pres., 745c; pf., 793 i
852, 916a, 920a, f; inf., 968e;
ya-ger'd, 992 c; caus., 1042 b.
y&? sing, euph., 242 b; aor., 894 d.

g, pron.

958.

pf. 790c;
920a; fut., 935 d,
936 d; inf., 968 d.
yklp, 26; pf., 786a; fut., 935b,
936 d.
-km, see 1176d.
V^cnU, caus., 10421.
i/krand, pf., 794 d; aor., 847, 861 a,
890b; int., 1002g, h, 1017.
ykram, pres., 745 d; aor., 833, 847,
899 d, 904 a; fut. 935 b; pple,
955|a; inf., 968 d; tva-ger'd, 991 b;
1031 b; caus., 1042 g; in
des.,
periphr. conj., 1070 c.

/knidh,

d.

834 b;

aor.,

916 a,

ykrld,

1042g.
1/kha, 102 a.
|/khid, pf., 790 b; pple, 957

>/khud, khun, int., 1002 g, h.

]/khya, aor., 847, 894 c; fut, 936c.

l/kf?. 102 a; euph., 226 f;

aor.,

kh, pron. etc., 39; relation to B, 61b.

}/khan or kha, 102 a; pass.', 772;
pf., 794e; aor., 890a; pple, 955b;
inf., 968 e; ya-ger'd, 992a; caus.,

834 b, 847, 900 b, 904 a, b; fut.

936 e; pple, 956 d, e; infin., 968f;
pass., 998 f; des., 1031 b; caus.,
1042 b.
}/gras, pple, 956 b.

SANSKRIT INDEX.
761 e;

y/gla, pros.,

912; pple,

aor.,

957a; cans., 1042].

glau, dcln, 361 a.
etc., 30; h derived from,
66; from h, by reversion, 214ff.,

gh, pren.
402.

I/ghat, caus., 1042 g.

jaks
euph., 167, 233 f;
from, 640; pf., 794 d; aoi., 833,
847; pple, 954 e.

ghosavant,
/ghra, pres.,

34.

671, 749 a ; tva-ger'd,

ya-ger'd,
992c; caus.,

991 d;

527

mutes, 203 a; in internal

combination, 220 ; duplication between vewels, 227 ; qch for, 227 a.
cha present-stems, 608.
other

I/chad, pple, 957 d.

Xchand, aor., 863 a, 890 b; caus.,
1042 g.
>/cha, pres., 753 c; pple, 954c;
tva-ger'd, 991 b; caus., 1042k.
>/chid, pres., 694 a; pf., 806 b
;

832 a, 834 d, 847, 887 a;

pple, 957 d.
j/chur, caus., 1042 b.
j/chfd,pple, 957 d tva-ger'd, 991 d.
aor.,

1042 d.
n, pron.

39; occurrence as

etc.,

as final,

final,

407 a; duplication

143, 386. 2, 3,

210; adds

before sibi-

lant, 211.

42

c, pron. etc.,

from

as final,

4;

142;

before a palatal, 202 a,

203 ; n to n before it, 208 b ; internal combinations of, 217; reversion
to k, 216ff.; in pres., 681; pf.,
t

787;

int.,

or

]/cakas

1002 i;

l/caks, pres., 444a, 621

catur, dcln, 482 g, h.

Xcam,

pres.,

caus.,

1028 f.

des.,

so-called, 677.

cakac,

745 d;

a,

628, 675.

955 a;

pple,

1042g.

}/car, euph., 242 d; aor., 899 d; pple,

957 b;
968 c; tva-ger'd,
inf.,
991 b, c; int., 1002d, 1003, 1017;
1031 b; in ppial periphr.
des.,
phrases, 1075 b.
>/carv, pple, 956 a, 957 b.

1003; cans., 1042g.

}/cay, pres., 761 e; tva-ger'd, 991 c;
992
b periphr. pf., 1071 f.
ya-ger'd,
|/ci gather, reversion of c to k,
2161, 681, 787, 1028 f; pres., 716b,
855 a; aor., 889; tva-ger'd, 991 d;

fcal,

int.,

ya-ger'd, 992 a; caus., 10421.

yd

note, pres., 645; aor., 834 a.

reversion of c to k, 2161,

|/cit,

681, 787, 1002i, 1028f pf., 790b,

801 e; aor., 840 a, b; int., 1002i,
;

1024; des., 1040;

j/cesk pf., 790 c.
|/cyu, pf., 78!) a;
867, 868a, 870;

caus.,

aor.,
inf.,

1042b.

840 b, 866,
968c;

caus.,

j,

4; as final, 142;
pron. etc., 42
in internal combination, 219; n
to fi before it, 202 b; from t before sonant palatal, 202 a; reversion to g, 215ft*.; in pf., 787; in

1028 f.
before na of pple,
957 c; anomalously changed to d,
des.,

15 Ic.
euph., 233
640, 675; pple, 954 e.

yjaks, 102 a;

ch, pron. etc., 42, 44 as final, 142;

from <j after i or n, 203; after
;

pres..

jagat, doln, 450 d.

jagdha

233 f.

etc.,

|/jan, 102 a; pres., 631

a,

645, 680,

761 b, 772; pf., 794 e; aor., 834b,

904 d; pple, 955 b; inf., 968 e;
des., 1031 b.
jani, dcln, 343 f.

janus,

dcln, 41 5

c.

I/jap, pple, 956b;

Xjambh

or

jabh,

pf.,

790c.

int.,
inf.,

1002d, 1017.
968 e; int.,

1017.

>/jalp,

yjas, aor., 871.

Vja, 102 a.
1/jagr, so-called, 104 b,

1071

1020;

pf.,

e.

jatya-circumflex, 84 b.
i/ji

conquer,

2161; in

reversion of j to g,
787; in des., 1028 f;

pf.,

839, 889, 894b, 904b; fut,,

10421; caus. aor.,
caus.,
1047, 861 b; periph. pf., 1071 f.

aor.,

935 a;

see jya.
749 b.
jihv.amuliya, 39 a, 69.
|/ji injure

>/jinv, 716

a,

l/jiv, aor., 861 a

cans., 1042 n.

des.,

1028h, 1031b

>/jur, pres., 756, 766.

i/jus, aor., 834 b, 836,

1042 e.

f;

840b;

sajus, 225a, 392b.

786c.
)/ju, pres., 728; pf.,

in

SANSKRIT INDEX.

528

yjr waste away, euph., 2161, 242 b;

pres., 756, 766; pf., 793h, 794k;
pple, 957b; cans., 1042e.
VJnB, pres.,730b, 731; pf., 790b;

added

after short final vowel of

345, 376 b, 383 fh, 1143d,
1147 d, 1196a, 1213 a; irregular

-t,

root,

cases,

1147 e.

9526,

830, 838, 894c, 912; caus.,

1042j; caus. aor., 1047, 861 b;

-ta, of pple,
in compsn,

caus. des., 1030

or ji, pres.,

ytans

aor.,

lOCib.
761 b; pf., 785 a,
912; pple, 954 c.
;

tfya

794 b;
Vjri,

aor.,

caus. pple,

897 b.
899 d;

aor.,

jh,

142

42;

as

in internal combination,

220 b.
n, pron.

42; from n after a

201; before j, 202 b; c,
208 b.

etc.,

palatal,
$03; c,

or tas, pf., 794 d; aor., 847.

>/tak?, pres., 628; pf., 790 b; pple,
a.

ytad, euph., 198 c.

tatpurusa, 1263 a.

1042g.

and occurrence,

pron.

final,

1176; ta-stems
1284; scdry,

1246 e.

956
caus.,

aor.,

1273,

taddhita-suffixes, 1138 a.
stretch, pass., 772; pf., 794 f,
805 a; aor., 833 a. 834 b, 847,
881 e, 890 a, 899d; pple, 954d;
ya-ger'd, 992 a; des., 1028 e.
-tana, 1245 g i.
tanu as refi. pronoun, 514 b.
}/tap, pres., 761 b aor., 834 d, 233 e,
865 a; fut, 935 b.

}/tan

46; from a final

palatal, 142; 9,145, 218; $,145;
h, 147; adds t before 8, 199e;
added to final n before sibilant,
211; from j in internal combination, 219; eh, 220; kf, 221; h,
222; s, 226 b.

t, pron. etc., 45,

I/tarn, pres., 763; aor., 847; pple,

955 a; inf., 968 e.

-tama, 471-3, 487 f, g, 1242a, b.

-tamam and-tamaxn, 1111 e, 1119.

with preceding sibilant, 198d, 199 d.

-taya, 1245 a.
-taye, infin. in, 970 e, 975.
tar, see 1109 a, and -tr.
-tara, 4713, 1242 a, b.
-taram and taram, 1111 e, 1119.
-tari, infln. in, 970 i, 979.
-tavant, pple in, 959, 960.
-tave and tavai, infln. in, 970 b,

46; In used for,

54; from dh with preceding sibilant, 199 d; from h with following

-tavya, 962, 964, 1212i.

l/tas, see tans,
-tas, 1152; advbl, 1098.

th, pron.

4, pron.

46

etc.,

45, 46.

45; ordinary derivation,

from d
used for, 5 a, 54

etc.,

972,

dh, pron.

t or

th

dhvam
901
'

or
or

dh, 222 b.

dhvam, 226 c,

-ta, 1237.

881 b,

etc.,

45; ordinary derivation,

46 as final, 143 change of n to,

189 95; from n with preceding
sibilant, 199 b; doubled as final,
210; adds $ before a sibilant, 211.
;

t,

47, 48; from final

145; do. in internal
combn, 167, 168; with preceding
sonant aspirate, 160; assim. to
following 1, 162; added after t
after n before 8
before 8, 199 e
pron.

radical

etc.,

a,

207; to palatal before palatal', 202; before 9, 203; anomalously changed to k, 151 a; to t,
151 b; from k and j, 151 c.
or B,

-tat, impv. forms in, 570, 571, 618,

654, 704, 723, 740, 752 c, 760 c,

839, 1011 a, 1032a, 1043d.

924 a.

a,

n, pron.

etc., 45,

-tftt,

383k, 1238; advbl, HOOb.

-tSti, 1238.
i/tay, pres.,

761 e; periphr. pf.,

1071 f.
talavya, 44 a.
-ti, 1157; ti-stems in compsn, 1274,
1287 d; scdry, 519, 1157 h; advbl,

1102a-d.
ytij, euph., 219 a; des., 1040.
-titha, 1242 e.
1/tir, 756, 766.

633; pf., 786 c;

1002 g.
-tu, 1161, 970b, 972.
>auj, caus., 1042 b.
pres., 758; pple, 957d.
>/tu,

pres.,

868 a;

int.,

aor.,

SANSKRIT INDEX.
infin.

-turn,

987

970 b, 972,

968,

in,

-tvi, 993 b.

-tvinam, 993 c.

988.

1/tur,' pres., 766, 766; des.,

1029 a;

>/tsar, aor., 890 a, 899 d.

1042 b.

cans.,

-tur, 1182g.

1042 b.
1042 b.

ytul,

caus.,
l/tus, caus..

i/tr,'euph.,

242 b;

756, 766;

pres., 709,

794k, 801

pf.,

f,

715 c,
804;

904 d;

aor.,

968d

529

pple, 957b;, inf.,

ya-ger'd, 992a; int, 1002d,

1003, 1017; desid., 1029 a.

-tr, 943, 1182; tr-stems, dcln, 369 ff.
govern accus., 271 d; verbal use
of, 946; make periphr. fut, 9427.
trca, euph., 233 a.
tfta, tytiya, euph., 243.
g,

th, pron. etc., 47, 48; with preceding sonant aspirate, 160.
-tha, 1163; ordinal, 487 c, 1242 d;
or tha, advbl, 1101.
-tham, advbl, see 1101 a.

-tha, see tha.

-that, advbl, 1101
-thu, 1164.

a.

836 b, 837 a; pple, 957 d.

I/tip, pres., 710, 758; pf., 786a;
fut., 936d; aor., 847, 852a.
l/trs/'pf., 786 a; aor., 840b, 847.
or trnh, euph., 223 b, 224 b;
j/trd, aor.,

pres., 694a, 695; aor., 847, 91 6 a.

tosas, dcln, 415 b.
-tos, infln. in, 970 b, 972.
tta for data, 955 f, 1087 e.
tti for dftti, 1157c.
-tna, 1245 g, h.
-tnu, 1196.

tman,

426 b.

dcln,

bd.

-tya, for -ya, 992; scdry, 1245

1/tyaj, 1087 f; euph., 219 a; pf.,
785 a?; fut 935 b; pple, 956 b.
-tyfti, infln. in,

970 e, 975

a.

-tra, 1185; or tra, advbl, 1099.

ytrap,
/teas,

pf.,
pf.,

794 h.
794 h;

|/tra, 102 a; pres.,

893
-tra,
tri,

aor., 899 d.
628; aor., 887 d,

895.

a,

see
dcln,

-tra.
e,

in

f;

compsn,

d.

376 c, 1182.
-tru, see 1185g.
-tri,

966 a,

-tva,

gerundival,
scdry, 1239.

1209 h;

dantya,

ydabh

47.
or

dambh,

155 b;

991 b.

ger'd,

-dam,

see 1103 b.

advbl,

|/day, pres., 761 f periph. pf., 1071 f.

ydaridra, so-called, 104b, 1024 a;
pf., 1071 e.
;

|/dal, caus., 1042 g.

>/da9 or dan<j, pres., 746;

794 d; tva-ger'd, 991 d.

pf.,

1/das, aor., 847, 852b, 899 d.

i/dah, euph., 155b, d, 223a; aor.,
890 a, 897 a, 444 a; fut., 935 d;

1002 d;

des., 1030.

672, 855 a;
830, 834a, 836,
837, 839, 847, 884, 894 c; pple,
955f, 1087e, 1157c; inf., 968f;
tva-ger'd, 991 b; ya-ger'd, 992 a;
des., 1030, 1034b.
1/dS divide, 251; pres., 753 c, 761 g;

VdS,

give, pres.,

803a;

a,

6679,

aor.,

834 a; pple, 954 c, 955 f,

1087 e, 1157 c; ya-ger'd,

992a.

-tvara, see 1171.

-tva, 990, 991, 993.

-da, adrbl, 1103

-tvanam, 993 c.

-danim,

yd&

protect,

c,

761 g;

a;

aor.,

916 a.

2. eU.

803

aor.,

alleged, pf., 787.

a, b.

advbl, 1103 c.
|/da9, pres., 444, 639 c;

Whitney Grammar.
,

euph.,

794h; aor., 833; des., 1030.

>/dam, pres., 763; pple, 955 a; tvftpf.,

i/dS bind, pres., 753

8S4; pple, 954 c.

1042 g.

-tvSya, 993 b.
1/tvis, pres., 621

aor.,

1/dad, 672; pf., 794 j.

/dadh, 672; euph., 155 e, 160 c.
dadhan, dadhi, 343 i, 431.
dan, euph., 389 b.
dant, dcln, 396.

957

-tvana, 1240.
caus.,

525 c.

dcln,

euph., 155 b, 160 c;

833, 836 b, 838, 847.

ydagh,

aor.,

-tvata, 1239 d.
-tvan, see 1169.

to d,

404.

daksina,

pf.,

-tri, see 1185 g.

tri^ubh, euph., 151

48; anomalously
151b; do. from h,

47,

etc.,

changed

int,

482

I300c.

Vtvar,

d, pron.

a.

34

pf.,

790 b,

SANSKRIT INDEX.

530
I/das, pres., 444.
-di, advbl, 1103e.

dvi, cmpds with, 1300 c.

didyot etc., 336 e.

ydiv, see div.
dfv, dcln, 361 d.
>/dic, euph., 218 a;

dvigu, 1312.
/dvis, euph., 226 d,
aor.,

aor.,

916, 920 a;

1017.

int.,

916, 920a
pierce,

f.

euph., 242 c; pf., 793 h;

967b;

pple,

int.,

1002d, 1003,

1023; caus., 1042 e.

l/dr

heed,

pres.,

757,

773;

aor.,

834 a, 881 b.

ydyp,

aor.,

847;

fut.,

936 b, 936 d.

l/drc, euph., 218a; pf., 790c, 801 e,

805 b; aor., 832, 834 b, 836, 840 b,
847, 890 a, 894a; fut., 936 d; pass.,
998 f; root-noun, dcln, 386. 3.
dre, dnja, drksa, with pron.-stems,
518.
|/dyh or drfih, euph., 155 b, 223 b, d ;
758, i761 b, 767; pf., 786 a.
pres.,_

devanagan,

1.

dosan, dos, 398 a. 432.

dyu and dyo, dcln, 361 d, e.
1/dyut, pf., 785 a; aor., 840 a,

dh, pron.

etc.,

47. 48; from t or th

160 h from,

223 g;
-dha, see -dha.
j/dharn or dhma,

863 a, 890 a; int., 1002g;

1042 b.
-dyus, see 1105 b.
j/dra run, pple, 957 a; int., 1024 a.
ydr& sleep, aor., 912; pple, 954 c,
957 a; int., 1024 a.
i/dru, pf., 797 c; aor., 868; int.,
1018 a; caus., 1042 e.
i/druh, euph., 155 b, d, 223 a, c;
aor., 834 d. 847, 920 e, f.
dvandva, 1252 a.
dvar, dcln, 388. 3.

pres.,

760

pass.,

912; pple, 955 b;

ger'd, 992a.

772;

ydha

ya-

aor.,

put, euph., 223 g;

667

pres.,

672, 856 a; aor., 830, 834

839, 847, 884; pple, 954c;

9,
7,

968f; tva-ger'd, 991 b; des.,

1028 d, 1030, 1031 a; in periphr.
conj., 1070 c.
ydh& suck, 251; pres., 761 f; aor.,
868; pple, 954 c; inf., 968 f; yager'd, 992 a.
-dha or -dha, advbl, 1104.
j/dhav rinse, pple dhauta, 954 e.
>^dhi (or dhinv), 71 6 a.
dhi, final of compds, 1155^, 1276 b.
ydhu or dhu, pres., 712, 728 a,
755; pf., 790 b; aor., 868 a, 887 c;
int., 1002g, 1003, 1018 a; caus.,
inf.,

1042m.
|/dhurv,

aor.,

887c;

1028 h.

des.,

l/dhr, pres., 767, 773; pf., 786a;

aor., 834 a, 867, 871; int., 1003.
1/dhrs, pf., 786 a; aor., 847, 852 b;
pple, 956 b.

j/dhma, see dham.

/dhya,

pres., 761 e;

912.

aor.,

970 g, 976, 1050 f.

1/dhvaAs or dhvas, euph., 168;
pf., 790 c; aor., 847; caus., 1042 g.
ydhvan, pple, 955 a, 956 b; caus.,
1042 g.
955 e.
, pple,

-dhyai,

infin. in,

48; as

n, pron.
b,

621 a;

pres.,

after sonant aspirate,

l/dih, eupb., 155 b, 223 a; aor., 916.

>/dlkf, des., 1031 b; caus., 1042 n.
l/didi, so-called, 676; pf., 786b.
ydldhl, so-called, 104 b, 676; pf.,
786 b; aor., 897 b.
}/dip, aor., 861 a.
ydlvplay, euph., 240 b; pres., 765;
pple, 955 c; inf., 968e.
|/div or dev lament, pple, 957 a
inf., 968 e.
ydu or du, pres., 716 b; pple, 957 a.
ducchuna, euph., 168b.
j/dudh, 102 a.
yduB, euph., 240 c, 1155 a; aor.,
847; caus., 1042b.
in
dus-, 225 a, 1121
compsn,
1284a, b, 1288e, f, g, 1304c, d.
>/duh, euph., 165 b, d, f, 223 a;
pres., 621, 636; pf., 801 h; aor.,

yd?

f;

916, 920b.

for

etc., 47,
final rdcl

143;
212 a;

final,

m, 143 a,

847,

change to n, 189

95;

caus.,

and before

2013.

208 b;

204 b;

assim.

to

palatals,
combinations as root-final,

loss

as

stem-final,

to palatals
1,

206;

and
before

linguals,

after

204;

205; to
207;
duplica-

sibilants,

treated as ns, 208, 209

tion of final, 210; instability
;

as

final, 256, 1203 b; used as unioncons., 257, 313, 482 h; question

of final of pancan etc., 484; final
n in secndry dervn, 1203 c.

SANSKRIT INDEX.
na, comparative, 1122h.
na added to tha or ta of 2d pi.,
549 a; forms so made, 613, 616b,
618, 621 b, 654, 658, 669, 690,
704, 707, 723, 735 b, 740, 752 b,
760 c, 831 a, 839, 849 a.
-na, of pples, 952, 957, 1177; euph.,
161 b; scdry, 1223 g, 1245 f; in
compsn, 1273, 1284.

l/naks, 102 a.

/nand, euph., 192a.

/nabh, euph., 192 a; cans., 1042g.
/nam, pf., 786 a; aor., 890a, 897b,
935 b:
911,
fut.,
pple,
912;
964d
968 d ; int., 1017;
inf.,
;

1042 g.

caus.,

847, 854b, 867;

des., 1028.

fut.,

192 a; aor.,
935 d, 936 a;

218a; pf.,801g;
833, 834 b, 837 b; des., 1029 c.

attain, euph.,

j/na9
aor.,

/nas,

aor.,

837 b.

nagan,

pakva
/pac,
/pat,

1002 g;

1267 a; denom. conj. from, 1054 a.

path, pathi, panthan, dcln, 3431,
395, 433.

/pad,

761

pres.,

837b;

836,

c;

834 b, d,
957d; int.,

aor.,

pple,

1030.

des.,

pad, dcln, 387, 389b.

pada, Ilia; pada-endings and cases,
b.

Ilia,

/pan, pf., 794 f; int., 1002 g.

panthan, see path,
para,

dcln,

761

c.

525

c.

pres.,

/pa

f.

1024.

nitya-circumflex, 84 b.
]/nind, pf., 790b; aor., 840 b.

nilay, quasi-root, 1087 c.

ni$ and niQa, 397.
nis, loss of initial of, 1087 a.
/nl, aor., 889, 896, 900 b; fut.,
935 a inf., 968 c tva-ger'd, 991 c;
int.,
1017, 1018 a; periphr. pf.,
1071 f.
-ni, fern, ending, 1176d, 1223 c.
nida, euph., 198 d.
/nu or nu, pres., 626 a; aor., 868 a,
887 c; int., 1002 g, 1003.
-nu, 1162.
/nud, aor., 834d, 904o,- pple, 956b,
957 d; int, 1017.
nr, dcln, 371.
/nrt, euph., 192 a; aor., 833, 847,
852 b; inf., 968 d; tva-ger'd, 991 c.
;

accent of verb with, 595 e.

nema, dcln, 525 c.

761

c.

525 c.

dcln,

749 a, 855 a;
954 c; ya1028 d; caus.,

drink, pres., 671,

aor.,

/nins, euph., 183 a; pres., 628.

j/nij, euph., 21Ua; aor., 847; int.,

1087c.

quasi-root,

palyang, quasi-root, 1087 c.

palyay, quasi-root, 1087 c.
/pa<j,

a.

aor., 847; int.,

1030, 1031; cans.,

des.,

ni, euph., 192

-ni, 1158.

dcln, 361

from

761 b.
794 f, h;

pf.,

paqcima,

nau,

aor.

as pple, 958.

palay,
pres.,

la.

ned,

1;

pres.

nasikya, 230 b.

parasmai padam, 529.

parucchepa, euph., 168b.

nas, dcln, 387, 397.

-nas, 1152.
}/nah, euph., 223 g;
-na, see 1177.

50.

49,

etc.,

-p, caus. -sign, 1042

such caus., 1047.
-pa, 1201.

1002 g;

advbl, 1109 a.
be lost, euph.,

i/nac

p, pron.

!042g.
r
pati, dcln, 343d, e; in dpndt compsn,

l/nad,' cans., 1042 g.

-nam,

531

830, 838;

ger'd,

992 a;

pple,

des.,

1042k.

I/pa protect, aor., 912;

pada, 79, 93d.

caus.,

1042m.

padapurana, 1122b.
eup'h., 190 c.
]/pinv, 699 b, 716 a, 749 b.
|/pi<}, pres., 758; aor. 840 b; pple,

pinak,

956 b.
i/pis or pins, euph., 226 d, f; pres.,
694a, 920a; aor., 190c, 758a.
I/pis, euph., 181 d.
}/pid, euph., 198d.
plpi, conj. -stem, 676, 786 b.
pums, pumans, euph., 183 a; dcln,
394.

purahsara,

puraskrta,

puro-

in compsn, 1302f.
pura, pres. in past sense with, 778 a.
puru, in compsn, 1284 b, 1290.
/pus, aor., 847.

gama,

728; aor. (?), 868 a,

968 e; caus., 1042 e.
purva, dcln, 525 c; in compsn, 1251 e,
1291 c, 1302 f.
]/pu,' pres.,

894 d;

inf.,

34*

SANSKRIT INDEX.

532

426 a.
242c; pres., 731,
761 b, 766; pf., 793 h; pple, 955 d,
957 b; inf., 968 c.
ypr pass, pf., 793h; aor., 896.

pusan,

ypr

dcln,

euph.,

fill,

>/py be busy, pres., 767, 773.

yp?Q, pres., 694a; aor., 834c, 836b,
837 b, 840 b, 890, 894 a: pple,

957 c.

aor.,

830, 889.

praya, in compsn, 1302i.

ypri, pres., 731; aor. (?),
868; cans., 1042m.
}/pruth, ya-ger'd, 992 b.
Xprus, euph., 226 d, 392 b;
732,' 1066 b.
play, quasi-root, 1087c.
Vplu, aor., 863 b, 866;
992a; cans., 1042a.
pluta, 78.
>/psa, 102 a.

pron. etc., 49,

)/phan,

int.,

byhant, dcln, 450 a.

bbh, occurrence, 151 e.
ybru, pres., 632; peculiar construction, 268 a.

int.,

ya-ger'd,

1002g,

pf.,

as pple,

10421, m; caus. aor., 1047;

periphr. pf., 107 If, 107 3 a.

/bhls, 1042m; aor., 861 a, 1047.

yT>huj bend, euph., 219 a; pple,
957 c; tva-ger'd, 991 d.
ybhuj enjoy, euph., 219 a; pres.,
694 a; aor., 836 b, 847, 912.
ybhjur, pres., 756; int., 1002d.
bhuvas, euph., 176 c.
yT>hu, pf., 789 a, 793 b, 800 d; aor.,
829, 830,

iu

958.

compd

50; interchange

vadh,

conjn, 1091

aor.,

904 a;

des.,

1029 a, 1040.

}/bandh, euph., 155b; pres., 723,

730 a; pf., 794 d; fut., 935 b; inf.
968 d.
bahuvrihi, 1293 b.
)/badh, euph.. 155 b; aor., 904 d;
int., 1002 d, 1003; des., 1029 a,
1031, 1040.

yl>udh, euph., 155b;

839, 840 b, 847.

inf.,

107072;
1075 d

4.

in compsn, 1273 c.
646, 855 a; pf., 789 b,
797 c; aor., 890 a; int, 1002 g, h r
pres.,

1003; periphr.

>/banh, euph., 223 b.

or

863, 924;

bhuta
ybhf,

b, pron. etc., 49,

Tvith v, 50 a.

836-9,

968 e; in periphr. conjn,

in ppial periphr. phrases,

794 h.

1/phal,

phulla

>/bhak8, 102 a.
ybhaj,* euph., 219a; pf., 794h;
aor., 834 c, 867, 890 a; it., 936 b;
inf., 968 d.
j/bhanj, euph., 219 a; pres., 694;
pple, 957 c; tva-ger'd, 991 d.
bhavant, 466, 614 c.
j/bhas, euph., 233 f; pres., 678.
>/bhas, inf., 968 d.
VOihiks, 102 a.
/bhid,' aor., 832, 834 d, 836 a, 840 a,
847; pple, 957d.
bhi^aj, euph., 219 a; denom. conj.
from, 1054 a.
>^bhl, pres., 645, 679; pf., 786 b;
aor., 831 a, 840 b, 866, 891, 897b;
caus.,

pres.,

6.0.

794h;

pf.,

866,

1003.

]/badh

768;

pres.,

pron. etc., 49, 60; anomalously changed to a guttural, 161 d;

h from, 223 g.

pfsant, dcln, 450 c.

y'pya or pi, pres., 761 e; pf., 786,
794b; aor., 912, 914 b.
pple,
957a; caus., 1042k.
pragi-hya, 138.
pracaya or pracita accent, 90 a.
/prach, euph., 220; pres., 756 a;
pf., 794 c; aor. 834 c, 890; pple,
954 b.
1/prath, aor., 840 b, 863 a.
prabhrti, in compsn, 1302 e.
pra9lis$a-circumflex, 84 d.

ph,

223 b;

1011; caus., 1042h.

bh,

yp?ri, 731, 753.

pft, pftanfi, 397.

]/pra,

j/br>h, euph.,

aor.,

834b,

d,

pf.,

1071 f.

bhos, 456; euph., 174 b.

]/bhranc or bhra?, pres., 767;
aor.,
847; pple, y54b; caus.,
1042 h.
]/bhrajj or bhyjj, euph., 219b.
yTjhram, pres., 763; pf., 794 h;
pple, 955 a; inf., 968 d; tva-ger'd,
991 b; ya-ger'd,
992 c; caus.,
1042g.
i/bhraj, euph., 219 b; pf., 790 c,

794 h;

aor.,

833.

SANSKRIT INDEX.

m,

pron. etc., 49, 50; as final, 143;

143 a, 212, 256; in

as final radcl,

extrnl

before

combn, 213;

raj,

213 b.

-ma, prmy, 1166;

i/manh

or

mah,

pf.,

786

a;

caus.,

dcln, 423.

pf., 801 g; aor.,

887 a f ut. 936 a pple, 957 c inf.
968 e; des., 1028 j.
-mat, advbl, 1235 e.
i/math or manth, pres., 730 a,
731, 732, 1066 b, 746; aor., 899 d;
ya-ger'd, 992 b; caus., 1042 g.
i/mad or mand, 102 a; pres, 628,
645, 764; aor., 833, 834 d, 839,
840 b, 887 a, 897 b, 899 d, 904 d;
pple, 956 b; cans., 1042 g.
>/man, pf., 794f; aor., 834 b, 840b,
881 e, 887 a, b; fut., 935 b; pple,
954 d; des., 1028e, 1029a, 1040;
special construction, 268 a, 994 e.
-man, 1168; man- and ma-stems,
1166 c: man-stems in compsn,
1277 b.

}/majj, euph., 219a;

,

manas,

in comp.

-mane, infin.
-mant, 1235.
i/mantr,

in,

with inn n.-s tern,

970 d, 974.
104 b,

so-called,

1056,

1067, 1073d.

manthan,

mi

or

dcln, 434.

]/mand, 102 a: see mad.

-maya, 161 a, 1225.
-mara, 1201 a.
]/mah, see manh.

damage, pres., 192 c,

aor.,
911;
des.,

761b;

731,

1042 g.

maghavan,

}/miks, 1033 a; cans., 1042 b.

mitra, 1185c.
-min, 1231.
Xmil, fut., 936 b.

scdry, 474, 487a,d,

1224 b, 1242 c.

533

1030; caus., 10421.

l/mih, euph., 223 b; pf., 790 b; aor.,
916 a, 920 a.
1/miv, pple, 955 b.
}/muc, pres., 758, 761 b, 855 a; aor.,
832, 834 c, 837 b, 839, 847, 890 a;
des.,

1030.

Vmud,

837 b.

aor.,

1066 b; pple,
1042 b.
V'muh, euph., 223 a, c; pres., 761 a;
aor., 847; pple, 955 e.
>/murch, 220 a; pres., 745 f; pple,
954 e.

]/mus,
956 b;

caus.,

murdhanya,
)/my

die,

773;

}/mr

aor.,

242 c; pres., 757,

834 a, 837 b.

crush, pres., 731.

|/mjj, euph., 219 b; pres., 621 a,

627, 745e; pf., 786a. 793i; aor.,

900 a, 919, 920; fut., 935b, 936d;

pple, 956 b, d; inf., 958 c; tvager'd, 991 c; ya-ger'd, 992 b; int,
1002 g, 1003, 1017; des., 1028 j;
caus., 1042 b.
l/mfd, euph., 198 d; caus., 1042b.
j/myn, 731, 753 a.
>/mrd, fut., 936 d.
}/mrdh, aor., 838, 847.
>/mr}, pf., 786 a; aor., 916, 920;
pple, 956 b; int., 1002 g, 1003,
1017.

1/myf,

mahant, dcln, 450 b.

maha, 355 a.
mahaprana, 37 d.
j/ma measure, pres., 660, 663;

-mna, 1224 c.

aor.,

834 c, 840 a, 847.

>/mna, 102 a; aor., 912.

}/mruc, aor., 847.
aor.,

968 f; tvagerd, 991 b; ya-ger'd, 992 a; des.,

954 c;

45.

euph.,

man, mahi, 400 a.

839J; pple,

732,

pres.,

inf.,

|/mla, pres., 761 c; aor., 912; pple,

957 a; caus., 1042 j.
1/mluc, int., 1002 g.

1030.
exchange, pres., 761 f.
bellow, pres., 660, 663, 672,
676 c^ aor., 868 e.

|/ma
1/ma

mans, mansd
matra,
161

(and mas), 397.

1302 g; euph.,

in compsn,

a.

-mana, 584b, 1174.

mas, euph., 168 a; dcln, 389 b, 397:
and see mans.
]/mi fix, aor., 911
-mi, 1167.

des.,

1030.

51, 66, 56; relation

55; nasal y, 71 c, 213d;
y as union-consonant, 258, 313 b,
844, 1112 e, 1151 d, 1230 e, 996 b;
resolved to i, 55, 113b, 129o;
cases of loss of i before, 233 a;
y of sfx treated as i, 1203 a.

y, pron.

etc.,

to i-vowels,

ya

contracted to

i,

262, 769, 784 b,

794 b.
as
conj. -class-sign, 606,
as passive-sign, 606, 768,

ya

759;
998 a;

SANSKRIT INDEX.

534
added

to

caus.

intens. stem, 1016; in

1055 a ; as denom.

sign,

ra and rS

as increments of r, 241.
-ra, prmy, 1188: scdry, 474,' 1226,

105567.

sign,

1242 c.

-ya (or ya) of gerund, 990, 992,

993 of gerundive, 962, 963, 1213.
-ya, pray, 1187, 1213; ya-stems in
;

121012.

oompsn, 1272; scdry,

yakan, yakrt, 398 a,

386.
aor.,

834

d,

836 b,

839,

yusa, yu^an, 432.

yosan, dclii, 426 b.

pres..

randh,

pf.,

786 a, 794 h;

847.

/ran,

pf.,

]/rabh,

pf.,

786 a; aor., 899 d.

786 a, 794 h; aor., 834 d,

897 b; des., 1030.

j/ram, aor., 911, 912; pple, 954d;
inf., 968 d; tva-ger'd, 991 b; caus.,
1042 g.
>/ra give, pres., 660, 666, 672;
aor., 839, 896.
yra, bark, pres., 761 e.
>/raj, euph., 213 b, 219 b; pf., 794 h.
i/r&dh, pf., 794 h; aor., 836; des.,
1030.
Vri or ri, caus., 10421.
-ri, 1191.

>/ric, pres., 761 b

aor.,

834

c,

839,

847, 890.
j/ri9, aor., 916.
i/ris, euph., 226 f; aor., 847, 852a,
853, 870; caus., 1042 b.
]/rih, euph., 223 b; int., 1017.
|/ri,

see

ri.

1/ru, pres., 626, 633, 755.

-ru, 1192.

>/ruc,

aor.,

834

1031

desid.,

837 b, 840 b, 847;

c,

b.

1/ruj, euph., 219 a; aor., 832; pple,

957 c; tva-ger'd, 991 c.

}/rud, pres., 631

ger'd, 991 d.

aor.,

847; tva-

992 b.

r, pron. etc., 51, 52; r and 1, 53 b;

r and s as corresponding sonant

and surd, 117b, 158a, 164; final,

144, 169; words ending iij original
r, 169 a; combination as final rdcl,
165; as other, 178; avoidance of
179; s or r as final of
certain forms, 169 b; from a after
a, 176 c; 8 to s after, 180 ff.; but
not before,
181 a, b; changes
succeeding n to n, 189 ff.; duplication of consonant after, 228;
double,

after,

219 a;

tfrudbi, pres., 694 a, 758 a, 855 a;

pf., 801 h; aor., 832, 834 d, 847,
887 a, 890 a ; inf., 968 d ; ya-ger'd ,

>/yup, int., 1017.

yiivan, dcln, 427.

svarabhakti

or

aor.,

899 d.

746, 767; caus., 1042 g.

j/radh

aor.,

i/raj or rafij, eupb.,

432.

>/yaj, euph., 219 b, 784b; pres.,

628; pf., 784 b; aor., 834 c, 839,
890a,894d; inf.,968d; des.,1029c.
j/yat, aor., 840 b; pple, 956 b.
yatha, accent,. 1101 b; in compsn,
1313 ee.
]/yam, pres., 608 b, 631 a, 747;
pf., 790b; aor., 833, 8369, 887 a,
890a, 896, 897b, 911 fut., 935b
968 d; tvapple, 954 d;
inf.,
ger'd, 991 b; caus., 1042g.
yama, 230 a.
1/yas, aor., 847; pple, 956 b.
-yas for -lyas, 470 a.
>/ya, 102a; aor., 894c, 912, 914c.
-ya, 1213 d.
-yin, see 1230 e.
unite, pres., 626 a, 765; yager'd, 992 a.
separate, pres., 608 a, 645; aor.,
838, 868 a, 889, 894 b int., 1018 a
caus., 1042 e.
-yu, 1165; see 1178h j.
J/yuj, euph., 219 a; pres., 758 a;
aor.,
832, 834b,
836b, 837a,
839, 840 b, 847, 887 a; root-noun,

1/yudh,
887 a.

>/raks,

230 c.

r-endings in 3d pi., 613, 618, 629,

699b, 738a, 752b, 799, 813, 818a.

yriKj, aor., 916; caus., 1042

ru<jant, dcln, 450 c.

/rus,

pple,

b.

956 b.

j/ruh, euph., 223 b, d;

aor.,

840 b,

847, 853, 916, 920 a, b;

fut.,
935 d; inf., 968 d; ya-ger'd, 992 c ;
caus., 10421.

repha,

18.

raf, dcln, 361 b, f.

-rhi, advbl, 1103d.
1,

pron. etc., 51, 53; 1 and r, 53 b;

r in certain verbal prefixes,
1087c nasal 1, 71 b, c, 206, 213 d ;
as final, 144; assim. to, 117 g; of t,
162; of n, 206; of m, 213 d;

1 for

SANSKRIT INDEX.
asserted B to 9 after, 180b; duplication of consonant after, 228 a ;

svarabhakti

after,

230 d.

}/lap, pple, 956 b; infin., 968

834 d;

aor.,

1042 g.
936 b.
753, 758:

l/lal, caus.,
fut.,

i/lip, pres.,

834 d;

ao.r.,

l/li9, aor., 916.

}/lih, euph., 223 b; aor., 916, 920 a.
yll cling, aor., 911; pple, 957 a;
ya-ger'd, 992 a; caus., 10421, m.
totter,

1018 a, 1022.

int.,

1/lup, pres., 758, 761 b;

ylubh,

pres.,

1/lu, pres.,

aor.,

etc.,

a,

51,

a.

54.

57,

relation

58;

u- vowels, 57 a;
interchange
withb, 50 a; nasal v, 71 c, 213d;
resolved to u, 58 a, 113 b; cases
of loss of u before, 233 a
duplication of consonants after, 228 a.
va, contracted to u, 252, 769, 784,
to

-va, prmy, 1190; scdry, 1228; advbl,

1102e. f.

l/vaks, pple, 956 b.

j/vac, euph., 2161; pres., 660; pf.,
784, 789 d; aor., 847, 853, 854 a.
}/vanc, euph., 2161; pf., 786a.
-vat, advbl, 1107, 1233 f; scdry,

383k.

1,

1245j.

102 a;

738 a; pf.,
pres.,
784; aor., 899 d, 904 d; pple,
956d; int., 1017; desid., 1031 b.
>/vadh, see badh.
}/van, pf., 786 a, 794 f; aor., 839,
887 b, 912, 914; pple, 955 b;
j/vad,

1028g.
-van, prmy, 1169; scdry, 1234; vanstems in compsn, 1277, 1287 b.
des.,

vana, -vani, -vanu, 1170

-vana,

12451.

-vane,
-vant, 517,
1233 g.
j/vand, 102 a.

1169, 1171,

32.

}/varn, so-called, 1056.

-vala, 1228 b.
i/vac, pres., 638, 660; pf., 784,
786 a.
yVas shine, euph., 167 pres., 608b r
753 b; pf., 784; aor., 834 b; pple,
956 b, d.
1/vas clothe, euph., 167 pres., 628 r
631 a, 638a; pf., 786 a.
]/vas dwell, euph., 167; pf., 784;
aor., 840 b, 883; fut., 936 d; pple,
956 b, d; inf., 968 c; tva-ger'd,
991 c; in periphr. conj. 1070 c;
periphr. pf., 1071 f.
-vas, 1173 b: and see vans.
>/vah, euph., 137 c, 223 b, 224 b;
pf., 784; aor., 837 b, 839, 840 b,
890 a; fut., 935 d; pple, 954 b
1002 g, 1017; at end of
int.,
compds, 408.
|/va blow, aor., 912; pple. 957 a.
yVa droop, pres., 761 e.
)/va or vi weave, pres., 761 f; pf.,
784, 801 b fut., 93f> c pple, 954 e;
inf., 968 f; caus., 1042k.
/vans (or -vas), of pples, 584 e r
8026, 1173; vans-stems, dcln,
;

458 if.
vaghat,

444 a.
786 a; aor., 861 a.
vf, dcln, 343 b.
}/va9,

dcln,

pf.,

-vi, 1193.

vikampana, 87 d.
1024.

1/vic,

int.,

}/vij,

euph.,

935 b.

fut.,
int..

-vit,

219 a;
936 c;

aor.,

pple,

834 c;
957 c;

1017, 1024.

see 1193 b.

yvid know, 102a;

621 a

pf.,

pres.

790 a, 803 a;

613,
fut.,

618,

935 b;

968 d; des., 1031 b; periphr.

1071 f, 1073 a; periphr. aor.
I/and pres., 1073 b, c.
vid find, 102 a; pres., 758; pf.,
805 b aor., 847, 852 a; pple, 957 dvidha, in compsn, 1302 i.
inf.,

pf.,

970 d, 974.
959, 1233;
prmry,

infln. in,

van,

887

a.

728 a; pple, 957 a.

1, pron. etc.,

V, pron.

761

to

-vari, fern,
1234a.

varga,

847.

yll

(from vr), 543 a.

advbl, 1102b.

-vaya, 1228 b.
-vara, 1171.

c.

1030.

)/likh,

vam

-vam,

935 b;

fut.,

935 b; pple,

fut.,

pres., 631 a;
pple, 955 a;
tva-ger'd, 991 b; caus., 1042 g.

ylajj, pres., 754.

des.,

784;

pf.,

954 b.

yvam,

prmy, 1189; scdry, 1227.

I/lag, pple, 957 c; tva-ger'd, 991
cans., 1042 g.

-la,

ylabh,

j/vap,

535

SANSKRIT INDEX.

536
-vin, 1232.

yvindh,
|/vip,

aor.,

virama,

in intrnl combn, 218;

ceding t or n, 203.
-9a, 1229.

pres., 758.

840 b;

1042 b.

cans.,

11.

X9as,

Vvi9, euph., 218 a; pf., 803 a, 805 b;

aor., 834b, 916, 920*.
vicva, dcln, 524; in compsn, 1251 e,
1280 c, 1298c.
Vvif, euph., 225 a, 226 d, f; aor.,
916; int., 1024.
visarga, visarjaniya, 67: and
see h.
Vvi, int, 1017, 1024 a.
yv? cover, 102 a; pres. (urnu),
713; aor., 831 a, 834 a, 836 b,
839, 840b, 900b; inf., 968d;
int., 1002 g.
yv? choose, 102 a; euph., 102 a,
242 c pf., 797 c aor., 837b, 840 b
inf., 968 d; caus., 1042 e.
yVrj, euph., 219 a; pf., 786 a, 803 a;
aor.,
832, 834 c, 8369, 919,
920 a; int., 1002 g.
i/vrt, pres., 643 c, 855 a; pf., 786 a;
aor., 832, 834b, 836b, 839, 840a,
847, 904 d; fut, 935 b, 943 a;
inf.,
968e; int, 1002g, 1003,
;

1017, 1023.

yq&d

inf.,

634, 763.
763; aor.,
7; pple, 955 a; caus., 1042g.
, pf., 794j.
, aor., 839.
-9as, advbl, 1106.

)/9am

V9&,

pres.,

|/vraj, euph., 219 b; aor., 899 d.

^vraQC, euph., 221 b; pple, 957 c;
tva-ger'd, 991 c.
l/vli, pres., 728 b; pple, 957 a; int,
1017; caus., 10421.
etc.,

to

?,

pres.,

quiet,

pres.,

660, 662, 753 c, 761 g;

pple, 954 c; caus.,

834 a;

aor.,

1042k.
(or

444,

pres.,

9if),

639,

675; aor., 847, 852a, 854c; pple,

954e, 956b; inf., 968c; ya-ger'd,
992 c; desid., 1031 b; acfs from,

225 a, 392 b.
>/9inj, euph., 219 a; pres., 628.
VciB leave, euph., 226 f; pres., 694 a,
758 a; aor., 847, 853.

see 9^8.

pres., 628, 629; pf., 806 a;

fut, 935 a; pple, 956 c; ya-gerM,
lie,

992 c.
J/9UC, pres., 631 a;
968 d; tva-ger'd,

|/9udh,
>/9ubh,
840 b;

pres., 682; pf., 785,

794b.
vyafljana, 31.
i/vyath, pf.. 785.
i/vyadh, pres., 767; pf., 786, 794 b;
fut, 936 b pple, 954 b inf., 968 f;
cans., 1042 g.
Vvyay, pres., 761 f.
i/vya or vi, pres., 761 f; pf., 785,
794b, 801c; aor., 847; fut, 935c;
pple, 954 c; caus., 1012k.

lation

labor,

be

Vvyac, 1087f;

$, pron.,

957 d.
233 e; inf., 968 c.

pple,

aor.,

aor.,

991

847; int,
c;

caus.,

1042 b.

vfean, dcln, 426 b.

yVjh, aor., 916, 920 a.
VOC, quasi- root, 854 a.
-vya, 1228 c.

fall,

j/9ap,

>/9is,

847;

43Z

fjakyt, 398,

l/9ank, aor., 904 d.

]/$ad prevail, pf., 786.

X9I

aor.,

790 c; ya-ger'd, 992 c.

pf.,

?akan,

vyddhi, 27, 235 ff.

h, pf., 786 a; aor., 847, 852 a, b,
b; fut., 943 a; inf., 968 e.
786a;

pre-

>/9ak, aor., 837 a, 839, 847; pple,

956 b; des., 1030, 1040.

vytra, 1185c.

pf.,

with

59, 63, 64, 119; re63 a; as final, 145;

caus.,

1042h.

pres., 758; aoi.,

caus., 1042 b.

852a, b

pres., 761 a.
as pple, 958.

see 9va.

>/9Uf, euph., 240 b.

Vcr

242b; pres., 731;.

793h; aor., 900a, 904b;
pple, 955d, 957b; inf., 968d.
>/9cand, int, 1002 g.
crush, euph.,

pf.,

>/<jnath, pres., 631 a; aor., 867.

ycj&

or 91, pres.,

761

e; pple,

954c

1066b,

758;

967 a.
l/9rath, pres.,

732,

794h; pple, 956 d.

i^9ram, pres., 763; pf., 794 h; aor.,
847; pple, 955 a; caus., 1042 g.
pple, 954 b;
)/9rS, pres., 761 e;
caus..
1042j; caus. aor., 861 b,
pf:,

1047.

SANSKRIT INDEX.

|/9ri,

aor.,

831,

868, 889a;

867,

caus., 10421.

968e;

inf.,

j/9ris, aor., 847.

j/9rl, pple, 955 d.

>/9riv, see sriv.

i/cru, euph., 243;
pres., 699 b,
711; pf., 797 c; aor., 831, 836,
838, 839, 853, 866, 867; desid.,

1040;

caus.,

1042 e.

]/9rus, 102 a.
i/9lis, euph., 226 d, f; pres., 761 c;
aor., 847, 916.

V/9vanc,

9van,

aor.,

863 a.

dcln, 427.

>/9vas,

pres.,

631;

pple,

956 b;

1042 g.

caus.,

|/9va or 9vi or 911, pf., 786 c,

794 b aor., 847, 868, 897 b; pple,
957a; inf., 968e.
;

aor.,

b,

832, 890.

120, 182;
relation to 9, 63 a; ordinary derivation, 46; exceptional occurrence,
182; as final, 145, 145 b; B changed to, 180 8; recurrence avoided,
181 c, 184 e, 1028 i; as root final,

9, pron. etc., 59, 61, 62,

182 a, 184 c, 225, 226; changes

succeding n to n, 189 ff.; assim.
of dental after, 1*97 from 9, 218.
-sard, (or -sani), infln. in, 970 h,
'978, 1159c, llBOa.
fas, euph., 146 b, 199c.
;

-B.e (or -se), infln. in,

970 c, 973 b.

]/Bthiv, euph., 240 b; pres., 745 g,

765; pf., 789 c; pple, 955 c; tvager'd, 991 d.
-syfii

(or -syai),

infin.

in,

970 g,

977.

406 a; B before am of gen. pi.,

313 a, 496 c; in aor., 874 ff.; in
fut., 931 ff.; in desid., 1027 ff.
-B, advbl, 1105.
-sa, 1197.
sa-,
1121e; in

samvrta

rdcl

final

s,

145 b,

166-8;

of

1707;

other,

exceptional cases,
171, 173; final as, 175, 176; as,
s
to
177;
s, 180-8; exceptional
cases, 181, 184 e, 185 c, d, 186 a;
adds
t
\
before, 199e; final n
adds (retains) 8, 208, 209; s lost
between mutes, 233 c f; in 8aor., 834, 881, 883; after a vowel,
233 b
combination
exceptional
;

such loss, 233 f; 8 anomalously from final root -consonant,

after

1288

g,

f.

a, 21.

sakhi, dcln, 343 a c.

sakthan, sakthi, 343 i, 431.
ysagh, aor., 836 b.
>/sac, pres., 660; pf., 794f; aor.,
840 b; sa9C from, 673, 675.
]/saj or sanj, euph., 219 a; pres.,
746; pf., 794 d, h, 801 h; aor.,
834c, 887a; inf., 968f; des.,
1028i; caus., 1042h.
]/sad, pres., 748; aor., 847, 852 a,
853, 899 d; fut., 935 b, 936 c;
pple, 957 d; inf., 968 d.
l/san or sa, pf., 804; aor., 847,
853, 899 d;
pple, 955b;
int.,
1002g; des., 1028 g, i, 1032 a.
-sani,

infin. in,

see -sani.

samdhi, 109.
samdhyaksara, 28 a,

30.

sannatara,* 90 c.
>/sabhag, so-called, 104b, 1067.

samanaksara,

30.

saxnprasarana, 252 a.

samraj

etc.,*213b.

-sara, 1201

saragh
sarva,
1298

a.

or saraij, 389 b.
dcln, 524; in compsn, 1251 e,
c.

j/sa9C, pres., 444, 673, 673.

sas, euph., 176 a, b.
-sas, 1152.

223b, 224b;
786 a, 790 b,
803 a; aor., 837, 838, 887 a, 897 a,
b, 899 d; fut, 935 d; pple, 955 e;
at end
inf., 968 d; des., 1030;

j/sah, euph.,

pron. etc., 59, 60; 8 and r as

corresponding surd and sonant,
117b, 158a, 164; s or r as final
of certain forms, 169 b; as final,
145, 169, 170 a; combinations of

compsn,

1304 f-h, 1313

pres.,

8,

537

186a,

628;

pf.,

of cmpds, 405.
aaha, in cmpsn, 1304 f,

g.

753 c; aor.,
830, 834a, 839, 868a, 894c;
936 b; pple, 954 c;
fut., 935 a,
inf., 968 f; ya-ger'd, 992a; caus.,
1042k.

i/sa or si bind,

pres.,

-sat, advbl, 1108.

>/sadh, aor., 861 a.

-sana, ppial words in, 897b, 1175.
l/santv, so-called, 104b.
I/si,

see sa.

aor., 847; tvft>/sic, pres., 758;

ger'd, 991 d; caus., 1042h.

SANSKRIT INDEX.

538
j/sidh

repel,

1028 h,

des.,

press

935 b.
765; pple, 955

fut.,

}/siv, pres., 761

c,

i.

out,

839. 840 b,

c;

pres.,
867; fat.

699 b; aor.,
935 a; ya-

992 a.
1121h, i; in compsn, 1284 a,
b, 1288, 1304 c, d.
-an, see 1178 f.
ger'd,

8U-,

pres., 758.

ysubh,

l/su or su,

628,

789 a; aor., 868 a; fut.,

936 b, 939 b; iuf. 968 d, e.

pf.,

I/sue,

aor.,

/sud,

aor.,

755;
935 a,

732,

or

skambh,

1066b;

730,

pres.,

786a,

pf.,

790b,

794 d.
|/8ku, pres., 626 a;
]/8tan, pres., 631 a;

1017.

int.,

899 d.
233 c;
pres., 730, 732, 1066b; pf., 794d;
pple, 956 b.
-stat for -tat, advbl, llOOb.

ystabh

or

aor.,

stambh,

euph.,

}/stigh, desid., 1031 b.

VBtu, pres., 626. 633;

866, 894 b,
992 a;
ya-ger'd,
aor.,

pf.,

797 c;

fut, 935 a;

d;

desid.,

1028i;

1042 e.
]/str, euph., 242 c; pf., 801 f, 806 a;
aor., 831, 834 a, 885, 900 a; pple,
957b; inf., 968 d; ya-ger'd, 992 a.
caus.,

stf, dcln, 371k.

l/stj-h, aor., 9J6.
pres.,

euph., 233 c; pres., 671,

749 a; aor., 830, 834 a, 836,837,
840 a, 847, 884, 894 c pple, 954 c
inf., 968 f; caus. aor., 861 b, 1047

j/stha,

in ppial

831, 836 b, 839.

j/sprdh, euph., 242 d; aor., 834b,

/spr,

aor.,

840 b.

218 a; aor., 916,

936 d.
l/8p?h, euph., 223 b, d caus., 1042 d.
pple, 964 c; caus., 1042 in.
fut, 936 b.
euph.,

|/spf<j,

920 a;

fut.,

756; tva-ger'd, 991 d;

1042b.

pres.,

periphr. phrases, 1075c.

-sna, 1195.
l/sna, caus., 1042j.
euph., 223

sphotana, 230 e.
sma, in pronom'l

dcln,

493, 496 a,

503.

sma,

pres. in past sense with,

778 b,

a, c.

c.

991 d;
tva-ger'd,
caus.,
j/smi,
10421; periphr. pf., 1071f.
V'smf, pass., 770 c; tva-ger'd, 991d;
caus., 1042e..
as denoru. sign,

sya

1064.

785 a; aor., 861 a,

890b; fut, 943 a; pple, 957d;
tva-ger'd, 991 d; int., 1002g.
}/syam, pf., 794 b.
syas, euph., 176 a.
-Byai, infin. in, see -syai.
sraj, euph., 219 a.
]/sras or srans, euph., 168; pf.,
790 c; aor., 833, 847; ya-ger'd,
992 b.
l/aridh, aor., 847, 852 b.
]/sriv (or ^riv), euph., 240 b pres.,
1/syand,

pf.,

765; cans., 1042b.

-pf., 797 c;
aor., 868; caus.,
1042 e.
sva, 513b, 616 e; dcln, 525c.
]/svaj, euph., 219 a; pres., 746; pf.,
863 a; tva-ger'd,
794h;
aor.,
991 c.

i/sru,

svatavas, euph., 168a, 415b.

/svad, pple, 954 f.
i/svan, pf., 794 h; aor., 899 d; iut,
1002 g.
>/8vap, pres., 631 pf., 786 b, 794 b;
aor., 867; fut, 935 b; pple, 954b;
des., 1028 h; caus., 1042g.
;

761 e; pple, 957 a.

Btrl, dcln, 366, 367 c.

/styS,

834 c.

aor.,

caus.,

pf.,

l/skabh

32.

j/spag,

j/sphy,

861.
871.

797 c, 806 a; aor., 847;

caus., 1042 e.
, euph.,
2161, 219b, c; aor.,
834b, c, 840 b, 890; fut, 936d.
151 d; pf., 790 c;
1/spp, euph.,
,aor., 834 d, 847; fut., 935 b, 936 d;
inf., 968 e; int., 1002 g.
-se, infin. in, see -se.
Bosnian, 37 d.
sk, original of ch, 42.
j/skand, aor., 833, 890 b; pple,
957 d;
992 b;
int.,
ya-ger'd,
1002 g, h.
,

spar9a, 31,

626,

pres.,

l/snu, pres., 626 a.

-snu, 1194.

svayam,

in compsn, 1284 b.

890 a, 899 d.
svar, dcln, 383.
avara, 30, 81.
svarabhakti, 230 ce.
avarita, 81.
svavas, euph., 168 a, 416
j/svid, pple, 957 d.
]/svar,

aor.,

b.

SANSKRIT INDEX.
etc., 59, 65, 66, 119; from
and bh, 223 g; as final, 147;
compensating aspiration of initial,
147, 155b; with following t or
th, 160 a; with preceding final
before h and anmute, 163;
other cons., 213 g; reversion to gh,
214 ff., 222; in inflection, 402,
637; inpf., 787; in iiitens., 1002 i;
in desid., 1028 f; internal combn,
222 4; anomalously changed to
a sibilant, 150 f; to d, 404; duplication of a cons, after, 228 a;
nasikya added after, 230 b; loss
before hi, 101 la.
-ha, advbl, 1100 a, 1104 b.
]/had, pple, 957 d.
i/han, euph., 192b, 2161, 402,
637, 787; pres., 637, 673, 709;
pf., 794 e, 805 a; aor., 899 d; fut.,
935 b, 943 a; pass., 998 f; pple,
954 d; inf., 968 d; int., 1002 g,
h, i, 1003; des., 1028e, f; cans.,
1042m; root-noun, 383 h, 402.
hanta, accent of verb with, 598 a.

539

h, pron.

j/has, 102

dh

j/hi, euph.,

from, 640.
pres., 660,

j/has, jak
664; des.,
>/ha move,
1028 d; caus., 1042 d.
1/ha leave, pres., 665, 761 b; aor.,
830, 889, 912; fut., 936 c; pple,

957 a; inf.,
861 b, 1047.

968 f;

caus.

aor.,

a,

912.

192c, 2161, 674, 787;

699 b, 716 a; aor., 831,
pres.,
839, 840 b, 847, 889 a, 894 d;

1028 f.

des.,

hi, 595e, 1122b.

1100 c.
183 a;
696; des., 1031 b.

-hi, advbl,

}/hins,

euph.,

pres.,

687,

|/hinv, 71 6 a.

240 b;

euph.,

}/hid,
caus.,

pf.,

786 b;

1042b.

>/hu, pres., 645, 647 c, 652; periphr.

pf. etc., 1071 f, 1073 c.

j/hu orhva, pres., 761 f, 755; pf.,

794 b; aor., 834 a, 847, 887 c,
912; fut., 935 c; inf., 968 f; caus.,
1042k; periphr. pf., 1071 f.
j/hr seize, aor., 834 a, 890 a; inf.,
968 d; caus., 1042 e.
1/hf d,

hrdaya,

l/hrs,

aor.,

ylum,

397.

847; pple, 956 b.

pres.,

626 a.

yliras, pple, 956 b.

j/hri, pres., 645; aor., 840 b; pple,

957 a; caus., 10421; periphr. pf.,

1071 f.
]/hva, see hu.
yhvr or hvar, euph., 242 c; pres.,
682; aor., 863 a, 890; pple, 955 e.

GENERAL INDEX.
a-aorist (simple aorist, 2), 824, 846
54 in the later language, 846 ;
roots forming it in the older lan:

guage, 847

inflection,

84951

larities,

853, 854.

a-class

606,

participles,

848 modes,
852 irregu;

bhu-class)

(first,

73450

of

verbs,

formation of stem,

734; inflection, 73543; roots of

the class, 744; irregularities, 745
or

accented

a-class

(sixth,

tud-class) of verbs, 606, 7518:

formation of stem, 751 inflection,
752; roots of the class, 753, 754;
;

755

irregularities,

8.

see conjugations.
a-conjugation
a- or a-declension, transference of
cons. -stems to, 399, 415 a, 429 a,
437, 441b; 1148i, 1149a, 1166c,
1209; 1315.
uniform in-

a-stems (tense- stems},

flection of,

733 a.

abbreviation

of

consonant-groups,

231-3.
ablative case, uses of, 28993; ablative of comparison, 292 b; with
prepositions, 293,

1128; used ad-

verbially, 1114 ; abl. infinitive, 983

abl. by attraction with infln., 983 b

abl. use of adverbs in tas, 1098 d;

abl. as prior member of compound,

1250. f.
absolute use of instrumental, 281 g;
of genitive, 300 b;
of locative,
303b-d; of gerund, 994e.
absolutive
see gerund.

secondary derivation
1206, 1236-40.

abstract nouns,
of,

accented

texts,

91;

no

sentence

accentless words, 93;

words doubly accented, 94, 1255,
1267 d; accent of protracted syllable, 78 a; freedom of place of
accent, 92;

accent, 95;
changes of accent
in vowel combination, 128, 130,

135 a;

accent in declension,
of vocative, 92 a, 314;
change of accent in monosyllabic
9 ; in nuetc. declension, 316

31420;

50.

a-class

Hindu theory,
modern delivery of ancient

over-refinements of

90;

accent, general,

80

97

its varieties,

accentuated texts, 87 modes of designating, 87, 88; illustration of RV. method, pp. 5189;

80-6;

482 g, 483 a c; offraction488 a; of case-forms used as

adverbs, 1111 g, 1112e, 1114d;

meral,
als,

different

accent

of

action-nouns

and agent-nouns, 1144 a; of detercomminative

and
possessive
accent of personal
pounds, 1296 ;

5524;

in relation to
endings,
strong and weak forms, 556; of
personal verb-forms in the senof periphrastence, 92 b,
1073 e; of
tic formations, 945,

5918;

compounded verb-forms, 1082

5;
accent in primary derivation,
1144; in secondary, 1205; in
ordinary accomposition, 1251;
centuation of Skt. words by Western
scholars, 96.

77
accusative case, uses of, 269
with verbs, 270, 274; with nouns
and adjectives, 271, 272; with prepositions, 273, 1129; with verbs
:

ef motion

and address

etc.,

274;

cognate, 275 ; adverbial, 276, 1111 ;

double, 277; accus. infinitive, 931,

9868;
prior

995; accus. as
compound, 1250 a.

gerund,

member

of

action-nouns and agent-nouns, chief

classes of primary derivatives, 1145,
1146.

GENERAL INDEX.
active voice, in verbs, 528, 529.
acute (udatta) accent, 81.
see root-class.
ad-class of verbs

from pple,

322;
of

distinction from noun,

its

adjective,

compound

adj.,

inflection of adj.,

formation

967;

3235, 1292 ff.;

321465; com-

74; adj.
parison, 466
nally inflected, 5226.

pronomi-

ive value, 1294, 1309, 1310;

adj.

copulative compounds, 1257.

adverbs, 10971122: adv. by derivation,
10971109; case-forms
used as adv., 1110 17; Adverbial
compounds, 11 lid, 1313; verbal

1118 20;
1121; other
1122; adv.
used prepositionally, 1123 ff. adv.
copulative compounds, 1259 forms
as

etc.

prefixes

adv.,

inseparable prefixes,
miscellaneous adv.,

473 b.
see action-nouns.
see copuaggregative compounds
lative compounds.
of comparison,

agent-nouns

alphabets used for writing Sanskrit,

1
older Indian, 2; the Devana;

gari

117;

alph.,

of

varieties

and of type

writing

variety from

pp.

3,

for,

516

same

827 b, c;
1. root-aor.,

root,

simple aor., 824, 828:

829-41; passive aor. 3d.

842-5; 2. a-aor., 84654;
duplicated or causative

73

856
:

897; o.is-aor.,898

aor.,878
6.

sing,,
3. re-

aor.,

874920

sibilant-aor.,

sis-aor.,

916

adjective compounds, secondary,1247g,

12921313 ; of other than possess-

541

20

91115;

7.

4. s-

910;

sa-aor.,

aor. optative or precative

921 5; aor. in
secondary conjugation, 1019, 1035,
10468, 1068; periphrastic aor.,
1073 b
s-aor. stem in derivation,

of later language,

1140 c.
appositional compounds, 1280 d ; appos.
possessive compounds, 1302.
ar or r in root and stem forms, 104 e,

237.
article,

indefinite,

represented later

by eka, 482 c.
aspirate mutes, phonetic character etc.
of, 37, 38; their deaspiration, 114,

1635

restoration of lost aspira-

tion- to, 141 a, 147, 155; not before .imp v. ending dhi, 155 f; de-

of
from, 66; sonant
aspirate with following t, th, 160;
non-aspirate for aspirate in redurivation

and see the

590a:

plication,

different letters.

7; charactersand transliteration,
arrangement, 7 ; theory of use,
8, 9 ; native moda of writing, 9 a, b ;

aspiration (h), its pronunciation etc.,

and see h.
59, 65, 66:
asseverative particles, 1122 a, b.

Western

assimilation in euphonic combination,

vowel- writing, 10;

consonant combinations, 1215;
other signs, 11, 16; numeral figures, 17; names of characters, 18;

11620; with or without change

of articulate position, 116; surd
and sonant, 117, 156 64; nasal,

and transliteration of anusvara, 73.

see system of
alphabet, spoken

dental to lingual and palatal, 118;

other cases, 11820.

of this in

modifications
practice,

9c

e;

signs

sounds.
alterant vowels,
8 to a, 180.

changing following

analysis 'of language in to its elements,

98, 99; anal, of compound words,

1248.

anusvara,
2;

augment, 585 7; a as augment,

585 a; omission, 587; irreg. combination with initial vowel of root,
136 a; irregularly placed, 1087 c, f;
uses

its

pronunciation

signs

and

16b: see also

73,
aorist tense,

etc.,

transliteration,
ft,

m.

632; its uses, 92630;

in prohibitive expression, 579
aor. system, 535,
classification of forms of aor., 824; cha-

of

augmentless preterit per587 with

prohibit-

sons, 563,
ive,

antithetical construction, its influence

on accent of verb, 596, 597.

70

117g, 198b, 199c; l,117g, 206;

ma

579.

avyayibhava compounds,
bahuvrihi compounds
sessive

1313.

see pos-

compounds,

benedictive

see

bhu-class of verbs

precative.
see a-class.

824930

racter

and

occurrence,

825

7;

cardinal numerals, 475

nations,

47681;

their

combi-

inflection,

482

GENERAL INDEX.

542
5; construction,

486; derivatives,

487-9.
see endings

case-endings

of de-

clension.

case-forms, prolongation of final vow-

used as adverbs,
ofp 248 b;
1110 17 change of accent in such,
1111 g, 1112e, 1114d; their prepositional uses, 1125 d; derivatives
from case- forms, 1202 b case-forms
el

in composition, 1250.
266; their order of arrange-

cases,

ment, 266 a;

267305:

uses,

and see the different cases.

causative conjugation, 540, 607, 775,
856 ff., 104152; relation to socalled tenth or cur-class,
607,

1041 b; to denominative, 1041^

1056; formation of stem, 1041,
1042; inflection, present-system,
other older forms,
775, 1043;
1044; perfect, 1045; attached reduplicated

1046,

1047,
856 ff.; other aorist forms, 1048,
1049; future etc., 1050; verbal
nouns and adjectives, 1051 derivaaorist,

comparison of adjectives etc., 466

74; primary, in lyas and istha,
46770, 1184; secondary, in'tara
and tama, 471 3, 1242 a, b; in ra
and ma, 474, 1242 c; inflection
of comparatives in yas, 4635;
comp. of nouns, pronouns, prepositions, 473, 474, 520, 1119; of
double comparison,
verbs, 473 c
473d; particles of comp., 1101 b,
1102e, 1107, 1122g, h.
comparison or likeness, descriptive
compounds of, 1291 a.
;

compensatory vowel-lengthening, 246.

see comcomposition of stems

pound stems.
compound conjugation, 540
95
like

roots

1076

a,

with verbal prefixes and

107689;

elements,

accent

1082

of comp. forms,

6; irregularities, 1087 roots with inseparable

;

1121 b,

prefixes, 1089,

with

g, i;

noun and adjective stems, 1090 5.

compound stems, formation of, 101,

12461316:

difference of

earlier

tive or tertiary

and later language asto composition,

1246 a classification of compounds,

caus. stem,

1247; their analysis, 1248; rules

conjugations from
1062; caus. from infrom desid., 1039;
tens., 1025;
declinable stems from caus. stem,
1140b; double object with causatives,

277 a, 282 b.

cerebral mutes, 33, 45.

changeable or variable

roots

814;

its

6,

va-

84; enclitic, 85; their dif86; designation, 87 9;

occurrence from vowel combinations,
128, 130, 135.

32 ff.

see conjugation-

classes.

clauses, simplicity of combination of,

1131 a;
581,

dependent clauses, mode

950; accent of verb in,

595.

form of copulative
compounds, 1253 c; in Veda, 1255 e,
1256b.
combination of elements, 100, 101
collective singular

euphonic rules

for,

109260;

tinction of internal

109

dis-

and external,

general arrangement of
rules, 124 ; order of comb, of three
successive vowels, 127 b.
12;

127991;

descriptive,

sitional, 1310; adjective comp. as

nouns and as adverbs, 1311 3;
anomalous comp., 1314; stem-finals
altered in comp., 1315
loose construction with comp., 1316.
its
conditional tense, 532, 940, 941
uses, 950; conditional uses of optative and subjunctive, 581 b, e, f.
conjugation, verbal inflection, 527
1095; general, 52798: voice,
528 31
tenses and their uses,
;

series of mutes,

classes of verbs

in,

secondary adjective: possess! ve,1292

1308; participial, 1309; prepo-

ference,

or

126278;
r of

rieties,

classes

of phonetic combination, 1249; caseforms as prior member, 1250; accent, 1251 copulative comp. 1252
61
determinative
dependent,
;

see variable.
circumflex, (svarita) accent, 81
90 b; independent,

7769, 8213, 92630,

94850; modes and their uses,
533, 55782, 9215; tense-sys592,

535; present-system, 535,

599 779; perfect-system, 780
823; aorist-systems, 824930; funumber
50;
ture-systems, 931
and person, 636 personal endings,
541 56; verbal adjectives and
95; secondary
nouns, 537 9.951
tems,

conjugations, 540,

9961068; peri-

GENERAL INDEX.
phrastic and

540 a,

compound conjugation,

106995;

examples of con-

jugation in synopsis, p. 5*20.

conjugation-classes, on what founded,
their characters, 60210.
conjugations, first or non-a- and sec-

601

or a-conjugation, 601
8, 733;
transfers from the former to the

ond

625a, 631a, 665 a, 670

latter,

4,

694 a, 716, 731, 896.

3.
conjunctions, 1131
etc., 31
75: mutes, 3250; semivowels,
51 8 spirants, 5966 visarga
and anusvara etc., 67 73 quan-

consonants, pronunciation
;

allowed as

cons,

tity,

76;

122,

13952;

finals,

occurring at end of

stems and endings, 139 a:

and

see the different classes

and

letters.

how

consonant-groups,

vanagari,
tension

written iu detheir ex-

125;

9,

and

121,

abbreviation,

227-33.

543

46; III. a-,I-,and u (and diphthongal) stems. 34768; IV. r>

V. consonantstems,
A. root-stems
stems, 377 465
'

36976

etc.,

383410;

in as, is, us,

42037;

of,

377

465; their classification, 382.

contemptuous prefix, 506, 1121 e; do.
suffix, 521, 1222 d.
compounds, 1247 a
e,
copulative

126261;

of nouns, 12536; ad1257; adverbs, 1259; numerals, 1261

copulatives in later
language, 1253, 1254; in Rig- Veda,
1255 in Atharva-Veda, 1256 accent, 1258; possessives from copulatives, 1293 b.
cur-ciass of verbs, 607, 7 To, 1041 b,
and see causative con1056:
jectives,

jugation.

4119:

D.

44257

E. in ant,
F. in vans,
G. in yas, 4635; decl. of
of
numerals, 4825;
pronouns, 491 521 ; of adjectives
inflected pronominally, 522
6.
declinable stems, composition of, with
verbs, 10905; derivation of
;

458-62;

see derivation.
decompound compounds and their analysis,

1248.

decrement and increment of elements,

123, 234ff.

demonstrative pronouns, 495 603.

denominative conjugation, 540 a, 1053
68 formation without sign, 1054;
with sign ya, from stems of various
:

1055 64; their occurrence,

1007; meaning, 1058; relation of
aya- and aya-stems, 1059 c; relation to causative. 1041 c, 1056,
1067; with signs sya, kamya,
apaya, 1064, 1065; with aya,
beside na-class verbs etc., 732,
1066; from other stems, 1066 a, c;
inflection, 1068; declinable stems
from denom. stem, 1068 b, 1149 d,
11781), i, 1180d.
dental series of mutes (t, th, d, dh,
n), pronunciation etc., 33, 47,
48; peculiar quality of Skt. dentals, 47 a; dent, character of 1, 25;
of 1, 51, 53; of s, 60; assimilation
of dent,

285 8; dat.
infinitive, 982, 986; dat used adverbially, 1113; dat. by attraction
with inlin., 982 a; dat. as prior
member of compound, 1250 c.
uses

case,

of,

deaspiration of aspirate mutes, 114,

consequent re-aspiration
of initial, 141 a, 147, 155.
declension, in general, 261
320:

1535;

gender, 263; number, 264, 265;

uses of the cases, 267
case, 266
;

305; endings of ded., 30610;

variation of stem and insertions,
decl.
311-3; accent, 81420;
of nouns and adjectives, 321
465:
chssiii cation,

32634;

B. derivative stems
C. in an,
in in, 438-41;

final,

consonantal stems, declension

dative

II.

321 b, c; I. a-stems,
i-and u-stems, 335

and

to palatals

lingual*.

118, 196203, 205; dent, sibilant and nasal converted to lingual, 180
95; anomalous conversions to guttural and lingual, 1 51 a, b;
of guttural, palatal, and labial to
dental, 151

c,

e:

and see the

different letters.
dependent clause, accent of verb

in,

1247 d

f,

dependent

compounds,

noun, 1264; adjective, 1265; their varieties, 1266

78: with ordinary noun or adjective as final member, 1267, 1268
with root-stem, 1269; derivative
in a, 1270; ana, 1271; ya, 1272;
participle in ta or na, 1273; ti,
1263,

126478;

GENERAL INDEX.

544
1274;

in,

man,

etc.,

1275;

i,

van,

1276;

1277, 1278; dep. comp.

in possessive use, 1296.
derivation of adverbs, 10971109; of
declinable stems, 11361245: in
general,

113642;

primary, 1143

1201; secondary, 120245.

derivative or secondary conjugation

present, 815:

aorist

894 d, 897 b.
doubling of aspirate mutes, 154; of
a final nasal, 210; of ch, 227,- of
first consonant of a
group, 2'29 of
a consonant after r f and h. 1. v')
;

228.
dual number,

see secondary.
descent, adjectives and nouns indicating, 1206

double stems,

its use, 265 ; its forms

in declension, 308; in
personal pronoun, 492 b.

uricombinable,

1263, 127991; of ordinary adjective with noun, 1280; of appo-

dvandva compounds

see copula-

sitional noun with noun, 1280 d;

with participle as final member,
1283, 1284; with gerundive, 1285;
with root-stem, 1286; with other
verbal derivatives, 1287; with in-

dvigu compounds,

descriptive

dual

a.

compounds,

1247 d

f,

separable prefix as prior membor,

1288; with verbal prefix etc., 1289;
with other adverbial words, 1290;
special cases, 1291 ; descr. comp.
in possessive use, 1297 ff.
desiderative conjugation, 540, 1026

40; meaning, 1026, 1040; used in

future sense, 1040 a; formation of
abbreviated stems,
stem,

10279

1030

use of union-vowel

i,

1031

finals

138 a,

e,

I,

g.

tive.

1312.

see u-class.
how mark-

eighth class of verbs

elision of initial a,

135

16; its infrequency in Veda,

135 c; elision of initial a, 136 d; of
final a or &, 137 b.
ed,

emphasis, accent of verb

for,

598.

emphatic pronoun, 513.

enclitic or dependent circumflex, 85,
86.
endings, of inflection and derivation,
98100; of declension, 30610;
of singular, 307; dual, 308 plural,
;

inflection,

present-system, 1032;
other forms, 10336; derivative

309

or tertiary conjugations from desid.

stem, 1039; desid. from causative

3368

of radical a-, I-,u-stems,

349; of derivative do., 363; of ystems, 371 ; of personal pronouns,

stem, 1052 c; declinable stems from

desid. stem, 1035, 1036, 1140 b,
1 149 d, 1 159 b, 1161 d,l 178 g; desid.
root-stems, 392d; future in desid.
sense, 949; desid. in future sense,

1040 a.
determinative compounds, 1247 df,
120291; dependent, 126478;
91 in possessive
descriptive, 1279
;

adjective use, 1293 ff.

devata-dvandva compounds, 1251a,

1255.
diminutives, secondary derivation
1206 b, 1222d, 1243.

of,

diphthongs (e, Si, o, au\ mode of

writing with consonants 10 g, h
pronunciation etc., 27 30; protraction of, 78 c; euphonic combination
,

as

finals,

1315:

and see

the different letters.

diphthongal stems, declension

ya-claas.

of general pronominal
end. of condeclension, 496;
of 1st
jugation, 523,
sing., 543; 2d, 544; 3d, 545; of
1st du., 546; 2d and 3d, 547; of

492, 493;

54169;

1st pi., 548; 2d, 549; 3d, 550;

normal schemes, 553; accent, 552
4; end. of 2d and 3d sing, tak-

ing the place of root-final, 505 a;

end. of
union-vowels, 555 b, c
subjunctive combined with mode2; of optative, 566; of
sign, 560
precative, 568; tat of imperative,
see
end. of derivation
570;
;

suffixes.

euphonic combination of elements, 100,

101 rules respecting it, 109226.
exclamatory pronoun, 507; exclam.
;

prefix from interrogative pronoun,

of,

360,

361.

div- or div-class of verbs

normal scheme, 310; end. of

a-stems, 327 9 of i-and u-stems,
;

see

506, 1121 e.
extension of cons.-groups, 22730.
external and internal combination,
distinction of,

10912;

cases

of

GENERAL INDEX.
external comb, in declension,! lla.b
in derivation, lllc, d, 1203 e.

545

gerundives, or future passive partici-

961-6, 1212 i, 1213, 1216

ples,

8;

feminine stems: to a-stems, 332,

334 b; to i- and u-stems, 3446;

376 a;

to r-stems,

378a, 401

c,

to cons.-stems,

435, 436, 449, 452b,

459, 463d; fern, in I from yafern, stems iu comstems, 1210 c

;

position,
fifth

1250 h.

see

class of verbs

nu-class.

122,
13952;
most usual, 149; only one final
consonant allowed, 150; excep-

permitted,

finals,

tions, I50b, c;
of final mutes,

anomalous changes

151; final consonants of stems and endings, 139 a.

final clauses, modes used
in, 581c, d.
first class of verbs
see a-class.
first

its

or

non-a-conjugation of verbs,
characteristics, 604.

forms, stronger and weaker, of roots

and stems, 104 e, 105,
106;
and see variation of stem.
fourth class of verbs
see yaclass.

fractional use of ordinals, 488.

see

frequentative conjugation

in-

93241
9427;

periphrastic future,
future
use of pres.,777; of desid., 1040
a;
desid. use of fut., 948
b; fut. participial phrases, 1075 d.

gender in declension, 262, 263.

general and special tenses, 599 a.
genitive case, uses of, 294300with verb, 297,
298; with prepositions, 299a, 1130;
adverbs
Jn? loss 299b g en absolute,
of accent of gen. with
'Ob;

296;

adj.,

>

314 d, e; gen.
infinitive,
o4_; gen. used adverbially, 300 a,
1115; as prior member of compound, 1250 e.
5 39 989
ge U d
~95; their uses,
n on
,
989, 994; ger. in tva, 990, 991,
in
93;
ya or tya, 990, 992
93; in tvaya and tvi, 993 b;
in tvanam and
tvmam, 993 c
adverbial gerund iu am, 995.
vocative,

'

Whitney, Grammar.

2.

ed

9623,

1213

tavya, 962, 964, 1212 i; in

aniya, 962, 965, 1215 b; in tva,
968 a, 1209h; in
enya, 966*
1217; in ayya, 966 c, 1218; in
elima,966d, 1201 a; ger. in imposition, 1285.
grave (anudatta) accent, 81.

guna-strengthening,
occurrence

of,

and
and

character

23543,

27,

in

passim-,
primary derivation.
1143 a in
secondary, 1203 a, 1204 g,
guttural series of mutes
(k, kh, g,
gh, n), pronunciation etc., 33,
39 41, 180 a; asserted
gutt. character of a, 20
a; of h, 65 a; pal;

from

atals

413;

original gutt.,
do., 64, 66; reversion of
palatals etc. to gutt. form, 43, 64,

9 and

142, 145, 147,

-and

214-26:

see the different letters.

heavy and light syllables, 79.

12538-

hiatus, avoidance of, 113,

not avoided in
Veda, 113

129 e;

b, 125c,
occurrence as result of

its

euphonic processes,

tensive.

future passive participles

see gerundives.
future tenses, 532 f their
uses', 948,
949; fat. systems, 535, 93150;
B-fature and conditional,

with

in ya,

ger.

in

hu-dass
ing

of verbs

1324,

175b,d,

see reduplicat-

class.

imperative mode, 533, 569, 572, 575,

578; scheme of its endings, 553d;
its 1st
persons old subjunctive
533, 574, 578; impv. form in tat

and

its uses,

with

570, 571;

prohibitive,

579 c; Vedic 2d

in si, 624;

impv. use of

ma

sing,
infini-

982d.

tives,

imperfect, tense, 532, 599;

779.

its use,

imperfect time, no real designation

of,

532 a.
Increment and decrement of elements
123, 234ff.
indeclinables, 98 a, 1096
1135- adverbs, 10971122; prepositions,

112330;

conjunctions,

interjections, 1134,
tive stems from

11313:

1135;

deriva-

indeclinables,1202b,

1245;
final

compounds with indecl. as

member, 1314 a, f.
513 c;
pronouns,

indefinite

use

of

interrogative

indef.

and relative

pronouns, 507, 511.

35

GENERAL INDEX.

546
infinitives, 538,

96888;

later,

968,

987; earlier, 96979; uses, 980

8; relation to ordinary verbal
nouns, 969, 9701.
inseparable prefixes, 1121; in descriptive composition,

1283 ff., 1288

in possessive, 1304.
insertions between stem and ending
in declension, 313.
instrumental case, uses of, 278 84;

283 a; -with preposi1127; gerundial, 989;

used adverbially, 1112; as prior
member of compound, 1250 b.
of separation,
tions, 284,

intensive (or frequentative) conjugaand

tion, 540, 100025; character

1000, 1001; reduplication, 1002, 1003; inflection, present-system, 1004 17; derivative
middle inflection, 1016,
1017;
forms outside present-system, 1018,
1019, 1026; doubtful intens. formations, 10204; derivative or
tertiary conjugations from intens.
stem, 1025.
interjections, 1134, 1135; their final
vowel uncombinable. 138 f.
internal and external combination,
occurrence,

distinction of,

10912.

change, question of derivation by, 1208i.

interrogative particles, 1122f.

internal

interrogative pronoun,
indefinite use, 507;

prefix from

it,

504

7; its
exclamatory

506, 1121 j.

inverted compounds, 1291

is-aorist, 824,
of stem,

c,

898910:
898900;

in the sentence in Veda, 248.

and heavy syllables, 79.

light

lightening of a or a to an i- or uvowel, 249 ff.

lingual series of mutes ($, th, d, $h,
n),pronunciation etc.,33.45,46 ; iionoriginality and ordinary derivation,
46; ling, character of r, 25; of r,
51, 52; ling. 1, 5 a, 54; ling, character of a, 61; assimilation of
dentals to ling., 118, 196 ff.; lingualization of a and n, 180 95
:

and seethe different letter

s.

locative case, uses of, 301

5; loc.
d; of goal of moabsolute, 303 b
tion or action, 301 e. 304; with

prepositions, 305, 1126; used adverbially, 303 e, 1116; loc. infinitive, 985; loc. use of adverbs in

tra, 1099; in ha, 1100 a; in da,

1103 b; loc. as prior member of

compound, 1250 d.
long and short quantity, 76 9.
manner,

particles of, 1101, 1102,

1107, 1122k.
manuscripts, native Sanskrit, mode
of writing in, 9 a, b.
middle stem-form in declension, 311.
middle voice, 52830; its use as

passive, 531, 998 c, d.

iu verbal inflection, 533; sub-

mode

1314 d.

formation
inflection,

901, 902; roots making it, 903

modes, 905
irregularities, 904;
8; from secondary conjugations,
1019, 1035, 1048, 1068a.

jihvanmliya-spirant, 69, 170 d.

karxnadharaya compounds

and inflection, 2446; of final

vowel in composition, 247, 1087b;

see

descriptive compounds,
see na-class.
kri-class of verbs
series of mutes (p, ph, b,
bh, m), pronunciation etc., 33,

junctive,

55763;

optative,

564

8; imperative, 56971; uses of

the modes, 57282.
multiplicative numeral adverbs, 489 a,

11046.
mutes, series
etc.,

their pronunciation

of,

3250:

classification,

328;

guttural series, 3941; palatal,

42-4; lingual, 45, 46; dental, 47,
48; labial, 49, 50; assimilation,
117 a, b; mutes permitted as finals,
141 -3 ; anomalous conversions from

one series

to another,

151

and

see the different serjies.

labial

50; lab. character of u, U,

20; of V, 51, 57, 68; anomalous
49,

conversion

of

labial

to

guttural,

and
151 e:
see the different letters.
lengthening of vowels in formation
151 d;

to

dental,

na-class (ninth, kri-class) of verbs,

603, 71732: formation of stem,

717;

inflection,

the class, 727

718-26:

roots of

irregularities,

728

32; accompanying denominative

in aya, 732, 1066b.

GENERAL INDEX.
nasal

117c,

assimilation,

f,

161,

g,

nasal class (seventh, rudh-class) of

formation of
verbs, 603,
stem, 683; inflection, 68492;
roots of the class, 694; irregulari-

68396

6936.

nasal increment in strong forms, 255,

386.
nasal mutes (n, n, n, n, m), 34. 36 ;

occurence

their

as

67382

with

568

uses

ma prohib-

579 b; optative use of auginentless preterit forms, 587.

order of subjects in the grammar,
107; as best taken up by a stuitive,

dent, 108, 112; of subjects ineuph.

combination, 124.
ordinal numeral adjectives, 487, 488.

143;

finals,

pada-endings in declension, Ilia.

palatal series of mutes (c, ch, j, jh,

abbreviation of consonant-group afnasal spirant or anu231 ;

nasal semivowsvara, 70 3 ;
nasal
206, 213 c;
els, 71 c,

n), pronunciation etc., 33,

derived from original gutturals, 42 ;

ter,

and see the

vowels, 71, 72:

different letters,
nasality, Hindu definition
1122 c

negative particles,
prefix, 1121 a

424;

reversion

214 ff.;

of,

36

e;

neg.

a.

c.

guttural form, 43,

euphonic combinations, 118,

treatment as finals,
of dentals to,

assimilation

196203;

pal. character of

i,

I,

20; of y, 51, 66; of 9, 63, 64;

palatal

neutral pron. of a, 21.

to

119,21420;
142;

for

guttural in

reduplica-

and see the dif590b:

ferent letters.
tion,

ninth class of verbs

see na-class.
nominative case, uses of, 267, 268;
peculiar construction with verbs,
268 a; with iti, 268 b; with voc-

compounds, 1247

participial

1309.

g,

participles, 534, 537, 583, 584,

1172

ative,

7; of present-systems, 619 etc.

etc. ; of perfect,
of aorist,
;
840, 852, 872, 897, 909; of future,

composition, 1250 f.

939; passive part., 9528, 1176,

1177; active, in tavant, navant,
959,, 960; future passive, 961
6;

268 c; used adverbially,

1117; nom. use of infinitive, 987;
nom. form as particle, 1117; in

noun and
n

of opt.

9216;

precative,
567,
of prec. endings,

210; assimilation of
preceding mute, 161, 198 b, 199 b;
duplication,

^>

566;

scheme

198 b, 199 c.

ties,

547

adjective,

distinction

322; inflection of nouns

of,

see

declension.

nu-class
603,

(fifth,

su-class) of verbs,
formation of stem,

697716:

697;

698707;

inflection,

of the

class,

710-3,
number in

708;

roots

irregularities,

716.

declension, 264, 265; in

conjugation, 636 number-forms in
composition, 1250 g.
;

numerals,

47589;

simple cardinals,

475; their combinations for odd

numbers, 47681; inflection, 482
5; construction, 486; ordinals,
487, 488; other num. derivatives,
489, 11046, 1246; num. figures,
17 possessive compounds with num.,
1300; num. or dvigu compounds,
;

8027

of

secondary conjugations, 1012,

1013, 1019, 1037, 1043e, f, 1051,
1068; part, in possessive composiinflection

1299;

tion,

in ant,

4439;

in

of part,

vans, 458

62;
part. -phrases, periphrastic,
relation of part,
1074, 1076;
and adjective, 967.
particles,

98

a;

prolongation of final
part, giving ac-

248 a;
verb, 595

vowel

of,

cent to
c, e, 598 a.
passive conjugation, 531. 540, 998;
present-system (ya-class), 606, 768

74

aorist

3d sing.

8425, 1048

periphrastic perfect, 1072; participle in ta or na, 9528, 1051 b,

1176, 1177; future participles, 961

6 (and see gerundives); pass,

use of infinitive, 988
pass, from
intransitives, 999 a; pass, of secon;

omission, sign indicating, 16.

onomatopoetic words, 1091, 1135 b.
optative mode, 533, 5648; its formation, 564, 565; scheme of endcombined with mode-sign,
ings

dary

1025,
conjugations,
pass, constructions,

1052 a;

1039,

282 a,

999.
past use of present tense. 777, 778.
scheme of its
perfect tense, 532;

35*

GENERAL INDEX.

548
endings, 553 c;

nses,

8213;

present tense,

perf.-system, 535, 780823: formation of stem, 78194; redu-

78291

plication,

strong and

800;

weak

60210;

first or

8027; its inflection,

45862 modes, 80816 pluperfect, 81720
periphrastic perf.,

I.

root-

class,

107073.

second or a-conjugation, 733: VI.

a-class, 73450; VII. accented
a-class, 7518; VIII. ya-class,
759 67; IX. ya-class, or passive

perfect time, expressed by so-called

aorist, 532 a, 825, 928; by perfect,
822, 823; by participial phrases,

1075d.
periphrastic conjugation, 540 a, 1069
75; periph. future, 532, 931, 942
7; its uses, 949; perfect, 1070

conjugation,
76874; so-called
cur- or tenth class, 775; uses of
of modes, 672
tenses,

7769;

1018, 1034, 1045; aorist and

precative, 1073 b; present, 1073c;
periph. participial phrases, 1074,
1075.
person in verbal inflection, 536.

81

pres." stems, derivatives

from, 1140c.
present use of perfect, 821 c, 823;
of aorist, 930.

3,

presumption or conjecture, future

see endings of
personal endings
conjugation.
4; nouns
personal pronouns, 491
used as such, 514.
phrases, derivatives from, 1202 b;

of.

948.

primary and secondary personal endings,

use,

542 ff.; confusion of them in

636 d, 933 a, 938; normal

schemes, 553.
primary derivation,

compounds from, 1314b.

1122 i.

place, particles of, 1099, 1100,

non-a-conjngation:

61141; II. reduplicating

class, 64282; III. nasal class,
68396; IV. nu- and u-class,
697716; V. na-class, 71732;

participle,
;

777,

from same root, 609

conjugations
and conjugation-classes,

801;

irregularities,

uses,

stem-forms, 792 4; endings and

their combination -with stem, 795
9; union-vowel i, 7968; inflection,

its

532;

pres.-system, 535, 699

779 prominence as part of verbsystem, 600 varieties of form and
their classification, 601
9; various

778;

11381201

lation to secondary,

pluperfect tense, 532, 81720; plup.

time, no designation of, 532 a;
save by participial phrases, 1075 d.
position, length of syllable by, 79.

re-

1139 from what

;

1229 b,

made, 1140, 1141; union-vowels,

1142; form of root, 1143; accent,
1144; meaning, 1145, 1146; prim,
suffixes and the derivatives made
with them, 1148 1201.

pronominal, 516.
possessive compounds, 324, 1247 g,
12931308; poss. dependents,

prohibitive expression, 574, 579, 580.

pronominal roots, 490; their character, in inflection and derivation,

1296; poss. descriptives, 1297 ff.:

1137 b, 1138; adverbs from them,

1097 ff.
pronouns, 490 521: personal, 491

possessive adjectives, 1106

a,

123035;

with

ordinary

adjective

as

prior

1298; with participle,

with numeral, 1300; with
appositive noun, 13013; with
adverb, 13046; added suffixes,
1212c, 1307; pregnant use, 1308.
precative optative, 533 b; its forma-

member,
1299;

scheme of endings, 568;

prec. in later language, 921
5;
use, 673 c.
30; words used
propositions, 1123
tion,

567

as such,

11235;

with them,
as,

994 g;

with roots

cases construed

gerunds used
prep, in composition

112630;
see

verbal prefixes,

prepositional compounds,

1247 g, 1310

with added suffix, 1212m.

4;

demonstrative,

interrogative,

495503;
relative,

508

emphatic, indefinite, 513;

used pronominally, 514;

12;

nouns
pron.

504

derivative

adjectives,

515

21; adjectives declined pronom-

5226.

inally,

pronunciation
sounds.
protracted
protr.

see

system

of

78;
(pluta) quantity,
vowel uncombinable,

final

138e.
punctuation, signs of, in devanagarl,
16d.

GENERAL INDEX.
and vowels,
quantity of consonants
of syllables, 79.

768;

r-endines of 3d pi., 550d.

see root-stems.
radical stems
reduplicated (or causative) aorist, 824,
85673, 1046, 1047; formation
of stem,

85763;

inflection,

864

7; use in primary conjugation,

868; in causative, 1046, 1047;
modes, 869-71.
reduplicating class (third, hu-class)
of verbs, 603, 64282; reduplication and accent, 6426; inflecroots of the class,

tion,

64757;

659;

irregularities, 668,

660

82.

occurrence of, 259;

reduplication,
general rules for forming, 588 90;

present red., 643, 660 ff.; perfect,

78291 ; aorist,857 63 intensive,
1002; desiderative, 1029; in derivation, 1143e; anomalous, 1087 f.
relationship, nouns of, in y, 369ff. ,

1182f.
relative clauses, peculiarities of,

512;

modes used in, 581 a; accent

verb

of

in, 595.

549

1286; inflection of such stems in

a, I, u,

349361

in consonants,

383 410; sometimes govern accus.,

271 d; neut. pi. forms, 379b.
see nasal class.
rudh-class of verbs

87897: formation of
stem, 878, 879; endings and combination with stem, 880,
881;
question of loss of 8 in certain
forms, 834, 881; inflection, 882;
91; absence of
irregularities, 884
I in 2d and 3d sing, in older

8-aorist, 824,

modes, 892
8-aor.
897;
stem in derivation, 1140c.
9: formation of stem,
B-future, 931
932, 936; use of union- vowel i,

88890;

language,
6;

participles,

934, 935; occurrence, 937; modes,

938; participles, 939; its preterit,

the conditional, 940, 941 uses, 948.
;

sa-aorist, 824,

ed

later

to

91620
make

roots allow-

it,

916;

oc-

currence in older language, 919,

920; inflection, 917, 918.
see rootsecond class of verbs
class.

compounds, improper name

for possessive, 1293d.
12.
relative pronoun, 508
relative

second or a-conjugation of verbs,

its

characteristics, 605, 733.

secondary adjective compounds, 1247g,

1292-1310.

repeated words, 1260.

resolution, in Veda, of semivowels
into vowels, and of vowels into two

secondary conjugations, 640, 996

1068: passive, 998, 999; inten-

84 c, 113b,

10001025
desiderative
sive,
102640; causative, 104152;
denominative, 106368; tertiary,

syllables,

125c,

566 c,

58 a,

55 a,

129e, 309f,
761 g, 771 g.

353a,

470b,

reversion, so-called, of palatal mutes

and sibilant, and of h, to guttural

form, 43, 64, 66, 119, 142, 145,

147, 214 ff., 681,
787, 1028 f,

1176

a.

98100; roots of
language, 1025; roots

roots,

the

Skt.

and root-

forms ace. to the native gramma824,

82945:

in

later

language, 829; in older, 830 ff.;

modes, 836-9; participles, 840;
passive aor. 3d sing., 842-6.
root-class (second, ad-class) of verbs,
603, 611
41; inflection,
roots of the class, 626; irregulari-

61223;

624, 62641.
root-stems, their occurrence and use,
323, 383, 1137, 1147; as infinities,

tives,

970 a,

971;

or derivative from secondary, 1025,

1039, 1052.
secondary derivation,

1138, 1139,
to primary,
1139; union-vowels, 1142; forms
of stem, 1203, 1204; accent, 1205;

120245;

relation

meaning, 1206;
the derivatives

sec.

suffixes

and

made with them,

1207

rians, 103, 104.

root-aorist,

in

dependent

composition, 1269; in descriptive,

45; external combination in

lllc, d, 1203 e.
secondary personal endings, 542 ff. ;
normal scheme, 553 b.
semivowels (y, r, 1, v), pronunciation etc., 51-8; nasal semiv., 71 c,f,
206, 213d; semiv. assimilation,
sec. derivation,

117d -f:
and see the different letters.
sentence, rules of euphonic combination in, 101; their probable artificiality,

101

a.

series or classes of mutes,

32 ff.

GENERAL INDEX.

550

see

seventh class of verbs

nasal

class.

sibilant or sigmatic aorist, 824,

920:

874

formation and classification,

8747;

4.

is-aorist,

898910;

15;

878-97;

s-aorist,

6.

7. sa-aorist,

5.

sis-aorist,

916^20;

its

stem in derivation, 1140c.

simple aorist, 824, 82855: 1. rootaorist, 829
41; passive aor. 3d

8425;

sing.,

2.

a-aorist,

846

55.
sis-aorist, 824,

9116

formation of

definition of their difference, 34 b;

mutes, 34, 35; aspirates, 37, 38;
question as to character of h, 65 a;
of final mute, 141 b; euphonic assimilation of the two classes, 117,

15678.
and general tenses, 599 a.

5964;

spirants, 59 S.: sibilants,

aspiration, 65; other breathings,

679.
stems,

see

their derivation

106

derivation.

23460.

see comparison.
superlative
surd and sonant sounds
see sonant.
quantity of, 79; distinguished as heavy and light, 79.
of
system
sounds, 19 75: vowels
and diphthongs, 19 30; consonants, 31 ff.; mutes, 3250; semisyllables,

vowels,

518;

618, 621 b, 654, 658, 669, 690,

704, 707, 723, 831 a, 839; in 3d

793h, 831a.
;

5964;

703;

74, 230; scheme of spoken alphawith notice of comparative

frequency of the sounds, 75; quan-

769;

tity,

nation,

accent and

its

desig-

8097.

see u-class.
see detertatpurusa-compounds

tan-class of verbs

minatives.
tense in verbal inflection, 532 tensesystems, 535; present-system, 599
779; perfect-system, 780823;
aorist-sy stems, 824
930; futuresystems, 931950.
see causative
tenth class of verbs
conjugation, and cur-class.
tertiary, or derivative from secondary,
;

1025,

1039,

1052,

1068 a.
third class of verbs

see redupli-

cating class.
of,

1103, 1122j.

transliteration, general method of, 5;

of sign of elision, 135 b; of com-

bined

final

and

initial vowels,

126 a;

of anusvara, 73 c; of accent, 83 a,
89.
see a-class.
tud-class of verbs

u-class (eighth, tan-class) of verbs,

603, 697716; formation of stem,

697; inflection, 698707; roots of

the class, 709; irregular root ky
or kar, 714, 715; other irregularities,

see nu-class.
subjunctive mode, 533 formation and
endings, 557 -62 its first persons
used later as imperative, 533, 574,
578; subj. use of augmeutless preterit forms, 563, 587; uses of subj.
mode, 574-82.
BU-class of verbs

sibilants,

66; visarga andr

other breathings, 68, 69; anuunwritten sounds
svara,
defined by Hindu grammarians,
65,

aspiration,

time, particles

strong and weak, or strong, middle,

and weakest, forms of stems in
declension, 311 of roots and stems
in general, 104- 6; confusions of
strong and wpak forms in decl.,
462 c; in conj., 556 a; strong forms
in 2d sing., 723; in 2d du., 704,
831 a, 839, 1007 b; in 3d du.,
793h, 839; in 1st pi., 621 b, 658,
676a, 793h, 831a, 832; in 2d pi.,

pi.,

forming adverbs,

do. declinable stems

derivation.

conjugations,

98100,

inflectible,

strengthening and weakening processes,

see

bet,

stem, and inflection, 911; forms

in older language, 912, 913; modes,
914; middle forms, 915.
see a-class.
sixth class of verbs
sonant and surd sounds, 34, 35; Hindu

special

100;

10971109;

aA-sounds (a and c,), 61, 63.

short and long quantity, 769.
sibilants (9, s, s), pronunciation etc.,
604: a'nd see the different
letters.

9*1

98

suffixes,

716.

uncombinable (pragrhya)
138.
uninflected words

final

vow-

els,

see indeclin-

ables.

union-vowels, 254, 555 b, c; i in

present inflection, 630, 631, 640;
in perfect, 7968, 803; in aorist,

GENERAL INDEX.
876 b, 877; in

s-future, 934, 935;

periphrastic future, 943; in

desiderative, 1031; in passive parin

ticiple,

rund,

956;
968,

,in infinitive

991;
1 in

1142;

in

and ge-

derivation,

present inflection,

551
in

1305;

sessive,

visarga

or changeable p of roots,
242; treatment of, 245 b; in passive, 770 c; in s-aor., 885; in ifaor.', 900 b; in prec., 922 a; in 8fut., 935a; in pple, 955d, 957b;
in infln., 968d; in tva-genmd,
991 b; in ya-genmd, 992 a; in
desid., 1028b.
variation of stem-form in declension,
311, 312; in y-stems, 370 b; in
consonantal stems, 379, 385 8,

vowels,

variable

in
458, 463;
conjugation, 556; in present-stem,
604; in perfect. 7924; in aorist,
831 ff., 879, 899; in intensive,

421,

443,

444,

1004; in primary derivation, 1143;

in secondary, 1203, 1204; in composition, 1249 b, c.
verb
see conjugation.
verb-forms, accentuation of, in the
sentence, 92b, 591
8; prolongation of final a or i of, 248 c, d;
comparison of, 473 c, 474; comb,
with insep. prefixes, 1121b, g, i.
verbal prefixes, 1076, 1077; kindred
words, 1078, 1079, 1120; composition with roots, 107687, 137;
euph. effect on root, 185, 192,
1086; accent, 10825; their more
independent use, 1084, 1118; prepositional uses, 1125; forms of
comparison, 473 b, 1119; declinable
stems from roots compounded with

9;

1702;

vocative case, form of,

Vedic, in as, 425 g,

67

(or visarjanlya-),

quantitative value, 79; occurrence,

144, 145,
alphabetic orand see h.
der, 7 a, 172a:

2d and 3d sing., 555b;

6314;
in intensive, 1004 ff. I for i, 900 b;
fti for i, 555 c.
upadhm&niya-spirant, 69, 170 d.
in

prepositional,

1310.

266 a, 307k;
454 b, 462 a,

465 a; accent (along with qualifying word), 92 a, 314; verb accented after, 594 a.
31.
voice in verbal inflection, 528

how

written in

devanagari

with consonants, 10; sign of absenceof, 11 their pronunciation etc.,

;

1929:
r-,

a-, i-, u-vowels,

279;

1922;

23

6;

diphthongs,

quantity,

77,

78; accent,

1-vowels,

80 ff.; nasal vowels, 71; rules of

vowel-combination, 125 38; re128, 130,
exceptional cases, 136 8.

sulting accent,

135 a;

Vfddhi-strengthening, character and

occurrence of, 27, 23543, and
in

passim;

primary

derivation,

1143 a; in secondary, 1204.

tr-sound, belonging to v, 57.
weak, or weakest, form of stem in
declension, 311.

weakening
cesses,

and

strengthening

pro-

23460.

writing in India, 2a; mode of, in

Skt. manuscripts, 9 a, b ; its modie.
fications in western practice, 9c

ya-class (fourth, div-class) of verbs,

606, 75967: formation of stem,
759; inflection, 760; roots of the
class

and their

762;

classification,

761,

7637.

irregularities,
ya-class of verbs, or passive present-

system, 606,
of stem, 768

76874;

formation

them, 1141, 1282; use in descrip-

70; inflection, 771;

irregularities, 7724; ya-formation from intensive stem, 1016

tive composition, 1281, 1289; in pos-

1017.

ERRATA.
A
42,
67,

92,
94,
99,

few entirely obvious misprints are passed without

10 c, last 1.
3
125 b,
3
199c,

5,

read

for off
for (for

prayuga)

(for

prayugaPJ.

for IB.

JB.

for ledgues

leagues.

276 a,
281 b,
296b,

2
4

297 b,

mpart

impart.

preceive

perceive.

10

100,
112, 324,

read

1.

128, margin
131,

361 e,

f,

'ksahrdayam data raja 'Qvahr-.

read

for deceiving

4-

notice.

cfft

deceiving.

prajakama

prajakama.

356-]

354-].

314
bor hugu (f.

314b.
-gu,JB.)

bahugu

(f. -gti,

383k. ,1.3391 f, 1. 1

in

miUci

milking.

camam

-camam.

169,

391 g, 1. 2
458, 1. 5

195,

509,

209,

555

144,
147,
148,

1.

261, 718,

1.

263, 731,

1.

281,
365,

357,
379,

is.

(accus. sing, masc.) for

for urther
a, last 1.
1.

213, 568,

264,

yarn

Iijhvam

7 (3d pi. mid.)

3
for tfmi

733 a, 1. 4
785a, 1. 2
990a, 1. 9
992 c, 1. 2
1042b, 1. 11

for

yam.
further.

idhvam.

for

}/mL

-systems

-stems.

dyu

dyut.

E.

S.

guhya

guhya.

read

No forms made without

strengthening have a

causative value in the older language.

383, 1045,

1.

1077,
397, 1079,

1.

10
6

396,

1.

for rJ^J"

399, 1 084 a,

1. 4
1156e, 1.3.
467, 1222 c, 1.7
472, 1230g, 1.3

431,

477,

1238 b, 1.2

600,

1288g,
1308a,

511,

1.

1.

TB.).

abhi

read rT^T.

abhi.

read the sound hing, low, murmur.

read aruhat.
for aruhat

516d

-mamri.
516b.

ike

like.

cases-forms

case-forms.

-amri

sa

sa.

ukhanrtaxn

uktanrtanL

PK

663
W55
19M1
c.2
ROBA