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THEORY OF MACHINES
It is the branch of Engineering Science, which deals with the
study of relative motion between the various parts of machine
along with the forces acting on the parts is known as the Theory
of Machines (TOM).
Kinematic Link: Each resistant body in a machine which moves
relative to another resistant body is called kinematic link or element.
A resistant body is which donot go under deformation while
transmitting the force.
Kinematic Pair: If the relative motion between the two elements
of a machine in contact with each other is completely or
successfully constrained then these elements together is known
as kinematic pair.
CONSTRAINED MOTIONS
Constrained motion (or relative motion) can be broadly classified
is to three types.
1.
Completely Constrained: Constrained motion in which
relative motion between the links of a kinematic pair occurs
in a definite direction by itself irrespective of the external
forces applied. For example a square bar in a square hole
undergoes completely constrained motion.
2.
Incompletely Constrained: Constrained motion in which
the relative motion between the links depend on the direction
of external forces acting on them. These motions between a
pair can take place in more than one direction. For example
a shaft inside a circular hole.
3.
Partially (or Successfully) Constrained Motion: If the
relative motion between its links occurs in a definite
direction, not by itself, but by some other means, then
kinematic pair is said to be partially or successfully
constrained. For example a piston reciprocating inside a
cylinder in an internal combustion engine.

2.

3.

Based on the type of mechanical constraint (or mechanical

contact)
(a) Self Closed Pair: If the links in the pair have direct
mechanical contact, even without the application of
external force.
(b) Force Closed Pair: If the links in the pair are kept in
contact by the application of external forces.
Based on the type of relative motion between the elements
of the pair
(a) Sliding Pair: A kinematic pair in which each element
has sliding contact with respect to the other element.
(b) Rolling Pair: In a rolling pair, one element undergoes
rolling motion with respect to the other.
(c) Turning Pair: In a turning pair, one link undergoes
turning motion relative to the other link.
(d) Screw Pair: It consists of links that have both turning
and sliding motion relative to each other.
(e) Cylindrical Pair: A kinematic pair in which the links
undergo both rotational and translational motion
relative to one another.
(f) Spherical Pair: In a spherical pair, a spherical link turns
inside a fixed link. It has three degrees of freedom.

DEFINITION OF KINEMATIC CHAIN

Combination of kinematic pairs joined in such a way that the last
link is joined to the first link and the relative motion between them
is definite. There are two equations to find out. Whether the
chain is kinematic or not.
l = 2p 4
where
l = number of links
p = number of pairs
also

TYPES OF KINEMATIC PAIRS

The classified of kinematic pairs is listed as below:
1.
Based on the nature of contact between the pairing elements.
(a) Lower Pair: Links in the pair have surface or area
contact between them. The surface of one element
slides over the surface of the other. For example: a
piston along with cylinder.
(b) Higher Pair: In which the links have point or line
contact and motions are partly turing and partly sliding.
For example: ball bearings, can and follower.

j=

3
l
2

where
j = number of joints
To determine the nature of chain we use equation
h 3
= l2
2 2
h = No. of higher pairs
L.H.S > R.H.S. then it is a locked chain
j+

where
If

44
L.H.S. = R.H.S. then it is a kinematic chain
L.H.S. < R.H.S. then it is an unconstrained chain
GRUBLERS CRITERION
In a mechanism total no. of degrees of freedom is given by
F = 3(n 1) 2j
where
n is no. of links and
j = no. of joints (simple hinges)
most of the mechanism are constrained so F = 1 which produces
1 = 3(n 1) 2j
2j 3n + 4 = 0 this is called Grublers criterion. If
there are higher pairs also no. of degrees of freedom is given by
F = 3(n 1) 2j h
where
h = no. of higher pairs. Also known as Kutz Bach
criterion to determine the number of degree of freedom.
This statement says that if the higher pairs are present in the
mechanism like as slider crank mechanism or a mechanism in which
slipping is possible between the wheel and fixed links.
Higher pair: When the two element of a pair have a line or point
contact when relative motion takes place and the motion between
two elements is partly turning and partly sliding. E.g. Cam and
follower, bale and bearing, belt and rope drive etc.
Number of degree of freedom (movability): The number of
independent parameters that define its configuration. The number
of input parameters which must be independently controlled in
order to bring the mechanism into useful engineering purpose.

velocity. The plane motion of all the particles of the body may be
considered as pure rotation about the point. Such a point is called
the instantaneous centre of the body. If there are three rigid bodies
in relative planar motion and share three instantaneous centre, all
lie on the straight line, called Kennedys theorem.
Instantaneous axis of rotation: The axis passing through the
instaneous centre of the body at right angles to the plane of
motion is called instantaneous axis of rotation.
Axode: The instantaneous centre changes every moment, its locus
is called centrods, and the surface generated by the instantaneous
axis is called the axode.

Methods to Locate Instantaneous Centre

Locating the instantaneous centre of a body depends on the
situation given. Following are some examples:
(i) The instantaneous centre I lies at a distance

Va

along the

perpendicular to the direction of velocity Va at point A on a

rigid body shown in Fig.
IA =

Va

I
B

GRASHOFS CRITERIA

Vb

Grashofs criteria is applied to pinned four bar linkages and states

that the sum of the shortest and longest link of a planar four-bar
linkage cannot be greater than the sum of remaining two links if
there is to be continuous relative motion between the links.

B
Va

Va

l
p

q
s

Fig.
Linkage shown in Fig. 1 is Grashof type if
s+l<p+q
MECHANISM
A mechanism is obtained by fixing one of the links of a kinematic
chain, for example a typewriter. Basically there are two types of a
mechanism.
1. Simple mechanism: A mechanism with four links.
2. Compound mechanism: Mechanism with more than four links.

Inversion of a Mechanism
We can obtain different mechanisms by fixing different links in a
kinematic chain, this method is known as inversion of a mechanism.
INSTANTANEOUS CENTRE
A point located in the plane (of motion of a body) which has zero

Fig.
Fig.
(ii) The instantaneous centre I is the point of intersection of the
lines perpendicular to the direction of velocities at the given
points on the body as shown in Fig., we can write as
Va =
IA
Vb =
IB
where is the angular velocity with which the body shall
appear to rotate about the instantaneous centre I.
(iii) If the two links have a pure rolling contact, the instantaneous
centre lies on their point of contact.
(iv) If the slider moves on a fixed link having straight surface, the
instantaneous centre lies at infinity and each point on the
slider have the same velocity.

Number of Instantaneous Centres in a Constrained

Kinematic Chain
If n are the number of links in a constrained kinematic chain, then
the number of instantaneous centre (N) is given by
N=

n (n 1)
2

VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION OF MECHANISMS

To analyse velocity and acceleration of a mechanism we proceed

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45
link by link associated in the mechanism. Let us consider two
points P and Q on a rigid link PQ, as shown in Fig. Let point Q of
the link moves in clockwise direction relative to point P. In this
case the relative velocity of point Q with respect to P would be
perpendicular to the line PQ.
VQP

v
C
2 v

Fig.
where v is the velocity of the particle C with respect to coincident
point C.
ACKERMAN STEERING GEAR MECHANISM

Fig.
Now if the point Q moves with respect to P with an angular velocity
and angular acceleration , thus velocity has two components,
perpendicular to each other.
(a) Radial or centripetal component
(b) Tangential component
These components of velocity can be determined by calculating
linear accelerations in radial and tangential directions. Figure
shows the link representing both the components of acceleration.

aQP

All the four wheels must turn about the same instantaneous centre
to fulfill the condition for correct steering.
Equation for the correct steering is
cot cot = c/b
where
c = Distance between the pivots of the front axles
b = Wheel base
and are angle through which the axis of the outer wheel and
inner whel turns respectively.
For approximately correct steering, value of c/b should be in
between 0.4 and 0.5.
DAVIS STEERING GEAR MECHANISM
According to Davis Steering gear the condition for the correct
steering is given by
tan = c/2b
where
c = Distance between the pivots of the front axles
b = Wheel base
= Angle of inclination of the links to the vertical
HOOKS JOINT
To connect two shafts intersecting at a small angle (say ) we use
Hooks joint also known as universal joint. Velocity ratio of the
shafts connected by hooks joint is given by

VQP
t

aQP

N Driving

Fig.
Radial component of the linear acceleration of Q with respect to P
is given by
r
a QP

PQ =

VQP
PQ

PQ =

2
VQP

PQ

N Driven

1 cos 2 sin2
cos

where NDriving = Speed of the driving shaft in r.p.m.

NDriven = Speed of the driven shaft in r.p.m.
= Angle through which the arms of the cross turn
= Angle of intersection of two shafts
Hooks joint can be represented as shown in Fig.

and the tangential component of the linear acceleration of Q with

respect to P is given by
a tQP =

t
a QP

PQ

PQ

which is perpendicular to the link PQ

CORIOLIS COMPONENT OF ACCELERATION

If a particle C moves with a velocity v on a link AB rotating with
angular velocity , as shown in Fig., then the tangential component
of the acceleration of the particle C with respect to the coincident
point on the link AB is called coriolis component of acceleration
which is given by
t
a CCC = a CC
=2 v

Fig.
Condition for the unit velocity ratio is given by
tan =

cos

FRACTIONAL TORQUE IN PIVOT AND COLLAR

BEARING
Pivot and Collar bearings are used to take axial thrust of the
rotating shaft. While studying the friction in bearing it is assumed
that
1.
The pressure over the rubbing surfaces is uniformly
distributed through out the bearing surface.
2.
The wear is uniform throughout the bearing surface.
(i) Frictional torque transmitted in a flat bearing is given by

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46
2
WR while considering uniform pressure
3
And in case of uniform wear

T2

T=

1
WR
2
where
= Coefficient of friction
W = Load transmitted to the bearing
R = Radius of the shaft
Frictional torque transmitted in a Conical Pivot bearing is
given by

Slack Side

T2

T=

(ii)

Driving
Pulley

T1

Fig.: Belt drive-open system

T2

2
WR cosec
3
while considering uniform pressure
And in case of uniform wear

T=

T=

1
2

WR cosec

where
= semi angle of the cone
(iii) Frictional torque trnsmitted in a trapezoidal or truncated
conical pivot bearing is given by
T=

2
3

r 13

r 32

r 12

r 22

Driven
Pulley

Side T1
Tension

T1

T2

T1
Driver
Pulley

Fig. : Belt drive-cross system

When a number of pulleys are used to transmit the power from
one shaft to another, then a compound drive is used as shown in
Fig.

cosec

while considering uniform pressure.

And in case of uniform wear
1
W (r1 + r2 ) cosec = WR cosec
2
where r1 and r2 are the external and internal radii of the
conical bearing respectively

T=

R=

r1

r2

is the mean radius of the bearing.

2
(iv) Frictional torque transmitted in a flat collar bearing is given
by
T=

2
3

r 13

r 32

r 12

r 22

Fig.: Belt drive-compound system

Types of Belts
There are three types of belts
(a) Flat belts: Cross section of a flat belt is shown in Fig. 14.
Flat belts are easier to use and are subjected to minimum
bending stress. The load carrying capacity of a flat belt
depends on its width.

while considering uniform pressure

And in case of uniform wear
1
W (r1 r2 )
2
The frictional torque transmitted by a disc or plate clutch is
same as that of flat collar bearing and by a cone clutch is
same as that of truncated conical pivot bearing.

T=

BELT DRIVE
The transmission of power from one rotating shaft to another
lying at a considerable distance, is achieved using belts and ropes.
Two parallel shafts may be connected by open belt or by cross
belt. In the open belt system, the rotation of both the pulleys is in
the same direction. If a crossed belt system is used, the rotation
of pulleys will be in the opposite direction. Fig. 11 and Fig. shows
open and crossed system respectively.

Fig. : Flat belt

The ratio of driving tensions for flat belt drive is given by
T1
=e
T2

2.3 log
where
pulley

T1
T2

= coefficient of friction between the belt and the

= angle of contact in radians

Material used for flat belt is generally leather of various
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47

(b)

types having ultimate tensile strength between 4.5 to 7 N

per cm width. For heavy duty, two or three piles of leather
are cemented and pressed one above the other such belts
are called double or triple ply belts.
V-belts: Fig. shows the cross section of the V-belts. V-belts
are available in five sections designed A, B, C, D, and E and
there are used in order of increasing loads. Section A is
used for light loads only and section E is used for heavy
duty machines. The angle of V-belt for all sections is about
40. In order to increase the power output, several V-belts
may be operated side by side. In multiple V-belt drive, all the
belts should stretch at the same rate so that the load is
equally divided between them. If one of the set of belts
break, the entire set should be replaced at the same time.
The groove angle in the pulley for running the belt is
between 40to 60. Due to reduced slipping, V-belts offer a
more positive drive. V-belt drives run quietly at high speeds
and are capable of absorbing high shock.

Fig. V-belt
The ratio of driving tension for the V-belt drive is given by
T1
= e(
T2

2.3 log

T1
T2

cosec )

cosec

where
(c)

= Semi-angle of the groove

= Angle of contact in radians
V-belts are usually made of cotton fabric, cards and rubber.
Circular belts: The cross section of a circular belt is shown
in Fig. The circular belts are also known as round belts.
These are employed when low power is to be transmitted,
for example in house hold appliances, table top tools and
machinery of the clothing. Round belts are made of leather,
canvas and rubber.

r2 )2
+ 2x
x
where r1 and r2 are radii of the two pulleys
x = distance between the centres of two pulleys
In a crossed belt drive the length of the belt is given by
L =

(r1

r2 ) 2
+ 2x
x
When the belt passes from the slack side to the tight side a certain
portion of the belt extends and when the belt passes from the
tight to slack side the belt contracts. Due to these changes in
length, there is relative motion (called creep) between the belt
and pulley surfaces. Creep reduces the velocity of the belt drive
system like slip do.
Centrifugal Tension
The centrifugal tension (Tc) is given by
Tc = mV2
where
m = Mass per unit length of the belt
V = Linear velocity of the belt
The power transmitted can be calculated as below:
The total tension on the tight side = T1 + Tc
The total tension on the slack side = T2 + Tc
Power Transmitted = [(T1 + Tc) (T2 + Tc)] V
= (T1 T2) V
Which is equal to the value of power transmitted given by effective
turning force (T1 T2), that is the centrifugal tension has no
effect on the power transmitted.
The maximum power transmitted by the belt is given by the
maximum total tension in the tight side of the belt when it is three
times the centrifugal tension.
T = 3Tc
T = 3 mV2
So velocity for the maximum power transmitted is given by
L =

(r1 + r2) +

(r1

T
3m

v=

Velocity Ratio
The velocity ratio of speeds of driver and driven pulleys is given
by
2
1

where

Fig. Circular Belt

The ratio of driving tensions in round belts and rope drive
is same as V-belt drive.
Length of Belt
In an open belt drive system the length of the belt is given by

(r1 + r2) +

N2 d1
=
N1 d 2

t
S
1
t
100

d1, d2 = diameters of driver and driven pulleys

1, 2 = angular velocities of driver and driven pulleys
N1, N2 = rotational speeds of driver and driven pulleys
expressed in revoluations per minute (r.p.m.)
S = S1 + S2 + 0.01S1S2 is percentage of total
effective slip
S1 = Percentage slip between driver and the belt
S2 = Percentage slip between belt and the follower
(driven pulleys)

GEARS AND GEAR DRIVE

A wheel with teeth on its periphery is known as gear. The gears
are used to transmit power from one shaft to another when the
shafts are at a small distance apart.

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48

Types of Gears
Commonly used gear are as below:
(a) Spur gear: A cylindrical gear whose tooth traces are straight
lines parallel to the gear axis. These are used for transmitting
motion between two shafts whose axis are parallel and
coplanar.
(b) Helical gear: A cylindrical gear whose tooth traces are
straight helices, teeth are inclined at an angle to the gear
axis. Double helical gears called herringbone gears. The
helical gears are used in automobile gear boxes and in steam
and gas turbines for speed reduction. The herringbone gears
are used in machinery where large power is transmitted at
low speeds.
(c) Bevel gear: The bevel gear wheels conform to the frusta of
cones having a common vertex,tooth traces are straight line
generators of the cone. Bevel gears are used to connect
two shafts whose axis are coplanar but intersecting when
the shafts are at right angles and the wheels equal in size,
the bevel gears are called mitre gears. When the bevel gears
have their teeth inclined to the face of the bevel, they are
known as helical bevel gears.

Pinion

Rack

(g)

Fig. : Rack and pinion

Internal and external gearing: Two gears on parallel shaft
may gear either externally or internally as shown in Fig.
Annular
wheel

Spur
gear

Pinion
Rack
Pinion

Pinion
(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig.

(d)

(e)

Fig. : Bevel gear

Spiral gear: These are identical to helical gears with the
difference that these gears have a point contact rather than
a line contact.These gears are used to connect intersecting
and coplanar shafts.
Worm gear: The system consists of a worm basically part
of a screw. The warm meshes with the teeth on a gear wheel
called worm wheel. It is used for connecting two non-parallel,
non-intersecting shafts which are usually at right angles.

Gear Terminology
Terms associated with profile of a gear tooth are illustrated in
Fig.
Pitch circle: Essentially an imaginary circle which by pure rolling
action gives the same motion as the actual gear.
Pressure angle or angle of obliquity: Angle between the common
normal to two gear teeth at the point of contact and the common
tangent at the pitch point (common point of contact between two
pitch circles). It is usually denoted by . The standard pressure
angles are 14

1
and 20.
2

Addendum: Radial distance of a tooth from the pitch circle to the

top of the tooth.

Worm
wheel

Worm

(f)

Fig. : Worm gear

Rack and pinion: Rack is a straight line spur gear of infinite
diameter. It meshes,both internally and externally, with a
circular wheel called pinion. Rack and pinion is used to
convert linear motion into rotary motion and vice versa.

Fig.
Dedendum: Radial distance of a tooth from the pitch circle to the
bottom of the tooth.
Addendum circle: Circle drawn through the top of the teeth and
is concentric with the pitch circle.
Dedendum circle: Circle drawn through the bottom of the teeth.
It is also called root circle.

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49
Root circle diameter = Pitch circle diameter cos
where is the pressure angle.
Circular pitch: Distance measured on the circumference of the
pitch circle from a point of one tooth to the corresponding point
on the next tooth. It is denoted by Pc, mathematically Pc can be
calculated as
D
T
where
D = Pitch circle diameter
T = Number of teeth on the wheel.
For two gears to mesh correctly their circular pitch should be
same

Pc =

Pc =

D1
D2
=
T1
T2

D1
D
= 2
T1
T2

Velocity ratio of two meshing gears is given by

V1 = D1 N1
V2 = D2 N2
Linear speed of the two meshing gears is equal
So

D1 N1 =

D2 N2

N2
D
= 1
N1
D2
N2
T
= 1
N1
T2

Diametral pitch: It represents the number of teeth on a wheel per

unit of its diameter.
Diameter pitch Pd =

T
=
D Pc

Pc Pd =
Module: It represents the ratio of pitch circle diameter (in mm) to
the number of teeth.
D
1
m=
=
T Pd

m Pd = 1
Recommended series of modules in Indian Standards are
1, 1.25, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, and 20.
Modules of second choice are
1.125, 1.375, 1.75, 2.25, 2.75, 3.5, 4.5, 5, 5.5, 7, 9, 11, 14 and 18.
Total depth: Radial distance between the addendum and the
dedendum circles of gear.
Tooth depth = Addendum + dedendum
Clearance: Radial distance from the top of the tooth to the bottom
of the tooth in a meshing gear. Circle passing through the top of
the meshing gear is known as clearance circle. Standard value of
clearance is 0.157 m, where m is module.
Dedendum = Addendum + 0.157 m = m + 0.157 m = 1.157 m
Working depth: Radial distance from the addendum circle to the
clearance circle.

Working depth = Addendum of first gear +

Addendum of second gear
Back lash: Difference between the tooth space and tooth
thickness, measured along the pitch circle. In actual practice
somebacklash must be allowed to prevent jamming of the teeth
due to tooth errors and thermal expansion.
Path of contact: Path traced by the point of contact of two teeth
from the begining to the end of engagement.
Length of the path of contact: Length of the common normal cutoff by the addendum circles of the wheel and pinion.
Arc of contact: The path traced by a point on the pitch circle from
the beginning to the end of engagement of a given pair of teeth.
It consists of
(a) Arc of approach
(b) Arc of recess
Arc of approach: Portion of the path of contact from the beginning
of the engagement to the pitch point.
Arc of recess: Portion of the path of contact from the pitch point
to the end of the engagement of a pair of teeth.
Contact Ratio =

Length of arc of contact

Circular Pitch

Contact ratio is the number pairs of teeth in contact.

Length of Arc of contact: Length of the arc of contact can be
calculated as
Length of Arc of contact =

Length of path of contact

cos

where is pressure angle

Interference: The phenomenon, when the tip of a tooth under
cuts the root on its mating gear. It may only be avoided, if the
addendum circles of the two mating gears cut the common tangent
to the base circles between the points of tangency.
Law of gearing: According to the law of gearing, the common
normal at the point of contact between a pair of teeth must always
pass through the pitch point.

Gear Trains
Any combination of gear wheels by means of which power and
motion is transmitted from one shaft to another is known as gear
train. Various types of gear train are
1. Simple gear train: A gear train in which each shaft carries
one wheel only. Fig. shows the arrangement of a simple gear
train.
Driver

Idle gears
2

Driven
or follower

Fig. : Simple gear train

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50
Velocity ratio =

one or the other gears in the train. Fig. shows an arrangement

of an epicyclic gear train.

Speed of the driving wheel

Speed of the driven wheel

Q Wheel B

no. of teeth on the driven wheel

=
no. of teeth on the driving wheel
N1
N
= 1
N4
N2

Train value =
2.

N2
N3

N3 T2
=
N 4 T1

T3
T2

T4 T4
=
T3 T1

Driven or
follower

4
L

2
P
3

4
5

Q
6

Fig. : Compound gear train

N1 N1 N3 N5 T2 T4 T6
=
=
N6 N 2 N 4 N6 T1 T3 T5
Reverted gear train: A reverted gear train manifests when
the first driving gear and the last driven gear are on the same
axis. Axes are coincidental and coaxial. Fig. shows an
arrangement of the reverted gear train.
If D1, D2, D3, D4 be the pitch circle diameters of the respective
gears and corresponding speeds are N1, N2,N3, N4 then
D1 D2 D3 D 4
=
2
2
D1 + D2 = D3 + D4

Velocity ratio =

3.

Velocity ratio =

N1 T2 T4
=
N 4 T1 T3
1
4

Wheel A

NB
NC

Velocity Ratio

TA
TB

FLY WHEEL

Compound gears
5

Fig. : Epicyclic gear train

N 4 T1
=
N1 T4

Compound gear train: A compound gear train includes two

gears mounted on the same shaft as shown in Fig.
Driver

Arm C

A wheel used in machines to control the speed variations caused

by the fluctuation of the engine turning moment during each
cycle of operation. These wheels are known as flywheel. It absorbs
energy when crank turning moment is greater than resisting
moment and gives energy when turning moment is less than
resisting moment. The speed of a flywheel increases during it
absorbs energy and decreases when it gives up energy. This way
flywheel supplies energy from the power source to the machine
at a constant rate throughout the operation.
Coefficient of fluctution of energy: Ratio of the maximum
fluctuation of energy to the work done per cycle, is called
coefficient of fluctuation of energy.
Emax = Emax Emin
Cenergy =

E max
Wper cycle

where
Emax = maximum fluctuation of energy
Cenergy = coefficient of fluctuation of energy
Coefficient of fluctuation of speed: Ratio of the maximum
fluctuation of speed to the mean speed is called the coefficient of
fluctuation of speed.
max = max min
Cs =

Compound gear
3
2

max
mean

Relation between maximum fluctution of energy

coefficient of fluctuation of speed.
Emax = I mean ( max min)
=I

(
mean

min )

max

E max and

mean

mean

Co-axial
shafts

= I

2
mean

max
mean

Emax = I

2
mean

Cs

(1)

also energy stored is a flywheel is given by

Fig. : Reverted gear train
1
In a clock mechanism a reverted gear train is used to connect
E = I 2mean
2
hour hand to minute hand in a clock mechanism.
4. Epicyclic gear train: A special type of gear train in which
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axis of: rotation
of one or more of the wheels is carried on an
arm and this arm is free to rotate about the axis of rotation of

51
2
mean

2E
I

(2)

from (1) and (2)

Emax = 2ECs
where Cs = coefficient of fluctuation of speed.

increases and decreases as the sleeve moves upwards or

downwards respectively.
If hp is the height of porter governor (when length of arms
and links are equal).
and hw is height of watts governor then
hp

GOVERNORS
The function of a governor is to regulate the mean speed of an
engine within mentioned speed limits for varying type of load
condition.
Terms Used in Governors
(a) Height of Governor: Vertical distance from the centre of the
ball to a point where arms intersect on the spindle axis.
(b) Equilibrium Speed: The speed at which the governor balls,
arms etc. are in complete equilibrium and the sleeve does
not tend to move upwards or downwards.
(c) Sleeve Lift: Vertical distance with the sleeve travels because
of change in equilibrium speed.
(d) Mean Equilibrium Speed: The speed at the mean position
of the balls or sleeve.
(e) Maximum and Minimum Equilibrium Speeds: The speeds
at the maximum and minimum radius of rotation of the balls,
without tending to move either way are known as maximum
and minimum equilibrium speeds respectively. If N1 and N2
are maximum and minimum speeds then
Sensitiveness =

2 (N1 N 2 )
(N1 N 2 )

(f)

Sensitiveness: A governor is said to be sensitive, if its

change of speed is from no load to full load may be small a
fraction of the mean equilibrium speed as possible and the
corresponding sleeve lift may be as large as possible.
(g) Stability: If for every speed within the working range there
is a configuration of governor balls, then it is said that
governor is stable. For a stable governor, the radius of
governor balls must increase with increase in the equilibrium
speed.
(h) Hunting: Fluctuation in the speed engine continuously
above and below the mean speed is called hunting.
(i) Isochronism: A governor is isochronous provided the
equilibrium speed is constant for all radii of rotation of the
balls upto the working range.
(j) Governor Effort: The average force required on the sleeve
to make it rise or come down for a given change in speed.
(k) Power of Governor: The work done at sleeve for a given
percentage change in speed. Mathematically
Power = Mean effort Lift of sleeve
Types of Governors
Different types of Governors are:
(1) Simple governor-Watt type: The simplest type a centrifugal
governor is known as watt type or watt governor. Height of
the governor is given by
h=

895

metres
N2
where N = speed of the arm and ball about the spindle axis.
(2) Porter governor: It is obtained by modifying a Watt governor
with a central load attached to the sleeve. The governor speed

hw

m+M
m

where m = mass of the ball

M = mass of the sleeve
(3) Hartnell governor: This is a spring controlled governor. If
lsleeve is the lift of the sleeve and Xcompression is the compression
of the spring then
y
x
where r1 = Minimum radius of rotation
r2 = Maximum radius of rotation
x = Length of ball arm of lever
y = Length of sleeve arm of lever
Stiffness of the spring is given by

lsleeve = Xcompression = (r 2 r 1)

S=

S2

S1

h
where S1 = Spring force at minimum radius of rotation
S2 = Spring force at maximum radius of rotation

BRAKES
A device which applies artificial frictional resistance to a moving
machine member, inorder to retard or stop the motion of machine,
is known as brake.

Types of Brakes
There are four types of brakes commonly used listed below:
1. Shoe brake
2. Band and block brake
3. Internal expanding brake
Dynamometers
It is a brake having a device to measure the frictional resistance.
We may obtain the torque transmitted and have power of the engine
by knowing the frictional resistance. There are two types of
dynamometers, used for measuring the brake power of the engine.
1. Absorption dynamometers: A dynamometer in which the
entire energy or power produced by the engine is absorbed
by the friction resistances of the brakes and is transformed
into heat, during process of measurement. There are two
types of absorption dynamometers.
(i) Prony brake dynamometer
(ii) Rope brake dynamometer.
2. Transmission dynamometers: A dynamometer in which the
energy is not wasted in friction but is used for doing work.
The energy or power produced by the engine is transmitted
through the dynamometer to some other machines where the
power developed is suitably measured. There are three types
of transmission dynamometer
(i) Epicyclic-train dynamometer
(ii) Belt transmission dynamometer
(iii) Torsion dynamometer

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52
CAMS

9.

A rotating machine element which gives reciprocating or oscillating

motion to another element called follower is known as cam. These
are mainly used for inlet and exhaust values of I.C. engines, lathes
etc.
Types of Cams
1.
Radial cam: A cam in which follower reciprocates or oscillates
in a direction perpendicular to the axis of the cam. Radial
cam is further classified as
(a) Reciprocating cam
(b) Tangent cam
(c) Circular cam
2.
Cylindrical Cam: A cam in which the follower reciprocates
or oscillates in a direction parallel to the cam axis.
CAMS TERMINOLOGY
A radial cam with reciprocating roller follower is shown in Fig.
1.
Base Circle: Smallest circle that can be drawn to the cam
profile.
2.
Trace Point: The reference point on the follower which is
used to generate the pitch curve that varies from case to
case. For example, in case of knife edge follower, the knife
edge represents the trace point and the pitch curve
corresponds to the cam profile while in case of roller follower,
the centre of the roller represents the trace point.
3.
Pressure Angle: The angle between the direction of the
follower motion and a normal to the pitch curve. Keeping
the pressure angle too large will lead to joining of
reciprocating follower.
4.
Pitch Point: A point on the pitch pitch curve having the
maximum pressure angle.
Reciprocating roller follower

Trace point
Maximum
pressure
angle
Pitch
point

Total follower travel

Pitch circle
Cam shaft
Base circle
Prime circle
Pitch point
Cam profile

5.
6.
7.

8.

Fig.
Pitch Circle: A circle drawn from the centre of the cam
through the pitch points.
Pitch Curve: The curve generated by the trace point as the
follower moves relative to the cam.
Prime Circle: Smallest circle that can be drawn from the
centre of the cam and tangent to the pitch curve. For a roller
follower, the prime circle is larger than the base circle by the
radius of the roller while in case of knife edge and a flat face
follower it is equal.
Lift or Stroke: The maximum travel of follower from its lowest
position to the topmost position is called life or stroke.

10.
11.
12.

Angle of Ascent: It is the angle moved by cam from the time

the follower begins to rise till it reaches the highest point.
Angle of Descent: Angle during which follower returns to
its initial position.
Angle of Action: It is the total angle moved by cam from the
beginning of ascent to finish of descent.
Under Cutting: The situation of a Cam Profile which has an
inadequate curvature to provide correct follower movement,
is known as under cutting.

VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION OF THE FOLLOWER

(a)

(b)

Tangent Cam with Reciprocating Roller Follower

In the tangent cam flanks of the cam are straight and
tangential to the base circle and nose circle. Tangent cams
are used for operating the inlet and exhaust values of I.C.
engines. Displacement of the follower is given by
yf = (r1 + r2) (1 cos ) sec
Velocity of the follower is given by
vf = (r1 + r2) sin sec2
and acceleration of the follower is given by
af = 2 (r1 + r2) (2 cos2 ) sec2
where r1 = Minimum value of the radius of the cam
r2 = Radius of the roller follower
= Angle turned by the cam, from the beginning
of the follower displacement
= Angular velocity of the cam
Circular Arc Cam with Flat-faced Follower
In the circular arc cam the flanks of the cam connecting the
base circle and nose are of convex circular arcs.
Displacement of the flat faced follower is given by
yf = (R r 1) (1 cos )
Velocity of the follower is given by
vf = (R r1) sin
and acceleration of the follower is given by
af = 2 (R r1) cos
where R = Radius of circular flank
r1 = Minimum radius of the cam
= Angle turned through by the cam
= Angular velocity of the cam

BALANCING
The main aim of balancing is to remove the effects of the inertial
force due to acceleration of various parts of the engine.
(a) Balancing of rotating masses
The process of providing the second mass in order to
counter act the effect of the centrifugal force of the first
mass is called balancing of rotating masses.
m1 2 r1=m2 2 r2
where
= angular speed of the shaft
m1= mass attached to rotating shaft
m2 =balancing mass
In order to put the system in complete balance it has to
have
(i) Static balancing
(ii) Dynamic balancing
(i) Static balancing: In this balancing the net dynamic
force acting on the shaft is equal to zero.
(ii) Dynamic balancing: In this balancing the net couple
due to dynamic forces acting on the shaft is equal to
zero along with the static balancing.
If several masses revolve in different planes then in order to

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53

(b)

have a complete balance

FResultant = 0
and CoupleResultant = 0
Balancing of reciprocating masses
To eliminate the shaking force and a shaking couple is called
balancing of reciprocating masses. It is usually not practical
to eliminate shaking force and shaking couple completely,
only we can do if we can reduce them. The reciprocating
masses are only partially balanced.
Inertia force due to reciprocating parts is given by
FI

= FR = m

r cos

cos 2
n

where = angle made by the crank.

The horizontal component of the force exerted on the crank
shaft bearing = Fu (unbalanced force)

F u = FI
In magnitude
Fu = FI
Fu = m

r cos

cos 2
n

FTmax =

2 (1 C) m

FTmin =
2 (1 C) m 2 r
Swaying Couple: This is the effect caused by the couple that is
produced by the unbalanced forces. This effect tends to sway
the engine alternately clock-wise and anti-clockwise. Swaying
couple is given by
a
(cos + sin )
2
where a = distance between the central line of two cylinders
Swaying couple is maximum or minimum when
= 45 or 225
Value of minimum and maximum swaying couple

Swaying couple = (1 C) m

a
(1 C) m 2 r
2
Hammer Blow: It is the maximum unbalanced force in
perpendicular direction to the line of stroke. If P is the downward
pressure on rails and B is the balancing mass at radius b then the
value of downward pressure so that wheels do not lift from the
rails is given by
P=B 2 b
=

Fu = FP + FS
whereFP (Primary unbalanced force) = m

r cos

cos 2
n
Tractive Force: Unbalanced forces produced due to two cylinders
along the line of the stroke. The tractive force (FT) in a locomotive
with two cylinders is given by

FS (Secondary unbalanced force) = m

FT = (1 C) m 2 r (cos sin )
where
m = mass of the reciprocating parts
= angular velocity of crank
r = radius of crank
C = fraction of balanced reciprocating mass
FTmax or FTmin occurs when = 135 or 315

EXERCISE
1.

2.

3.

4.

A rotating disc of 1 m diameter has two eccentric masses of

0.5 kg each at radii of 50 mm and 60 mm at angular positions
of 0 and 150, respectively. A balancing mass of 0.1 kg is to
be used to balance the rotor. What is the radial position of
the balancing mass?
(a) 50mm
(b) 120 mm
(c) 150 mm
(d) 280 mm
The number of degrees of freedom of a planar linkage with 8
links and 9 simple revolute joints is
(a) 1
(b) 2
(c) 3
(d) 4
Match the items in Column I and Column II.
Column I
Column II
P. Higher kinematic pair
1. crublers equation
Q. Lower kinematic pair
2. Line contact
R. Quick return mechanism 3. Eulers equation
S. Mobility of a linkage
4. Planar
5. Shaper
6. Surface contact
(a) P-2, Q-6, R-4, S-3
(b) P-6, Q-2, R-4, S-1
(c) P-6, Q-2, R-5, S-3
(d) P-2, Q-6, R-5, S-1
Match the items in Column I and Column II.
Column I
Column II
P. Addendum
1. Cam
Q. Instantaneous centre
2. Beam
of velocity
R. Section modulus
3. Linkage

5.
6.

7.

8.

9.

S. Prime circle
4. Gear
(a) P-4, Q-2, R-3, S-1
(b) P-4, Q-3, R-2, S-1
(c) P-3, Q-2, R-1, S-4
(d) P-3, Q-4, R-1, S-2
The number of inversions for a slider crank mechanism is
(a) 6
(b) 5
(c) 4
(d) 3
For a four-bar linkage in toggle-position, the value of
mechanical advantage is
(a) zero
(b) 0.5
(c) 1.0
(d) infinite
The speed of an engine varies from 210 rad/s to 190 rad/s.
During a cycle, the change in kinetic energy is found to be
400 N-m. The inertia of the flywheel in kg-m2 is
(a) 0.10
(b) 0.20
(c) 0.30
(d) 0.40
The rotor shaft of a large electric motor supported between
short bearings at both deflection of 1.8 mm in the middle of
the rotor. Assuming the rotor to be perfectly balanced and
supported at knife edges at both the ends, the likely critical
speed (in rpm) of the shaft is
(a) 350
(b) 705
(c) 2810
(d) 4430
Which of the following statements is incorrect?
(a) Gashoffs rule states that for a planar crank-rocker four
bar mechanism, the sum of the shortest and longest
link lengths cannot be less than the sum of remaining
two link lengths

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54
(b) Inversions of a mechanism are created by fixing different
links one at a time
(c) Geneva mechanism is an intermittent motion device
(d) Grublers criterion assumes mobility of a planar
mechanism to be one
10. Mobility of a statically indeterminate structure is
(a)
1
(b) zero
(c) 1
(d)
2
11. A double-parallelogram mechanism is shown in the figure.
Note that PQ is a single link. The mobility of the mechanism is
P
Q

18.

19.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

(a) 1
(b) zero
(c) 1
(d) 2
A circular object of radius r rolls without slipping on a
horizontal level floor with the centre having velocity V. The
velocity at the point of contact between the object and the
floor is
(a) zero
(b) V in the direction of motion
(c) V opposite to the direction of motion
(d) V vertically upward from the floor
For the given statements:
I.
Mating spur gear teeth is an example of higher pair.
II. A revolute joint is an example of lower pair.
Indicate the correct answer.
(a) Both I and II are false
(b) I is true and II is false
(c) I is false and II is true
(d) Both I and II are true
In a mechanism, the fixed instantaneous centres are those
centres which
(a) Remain in the same place for all configuration of
mechanism
(b) Large with configuration of mechanism
(c) Moves as the mechanism moves, but joints are of
permanent nature
(d) None of the above
Maximum fluctuation of energy is the
(a) Ratio of maximum and minimum energies
(b) sum of maximum and minimum energies
(c) Difference of maximum and minimum energies
(d) Difference of maximum and minimum energies from
mean value
In full depth 1/4 degree involute system, the smallest number
of teeth in a pinion which meshes with rack without
interference is
(a) 12
(b) 16
(c) 25
(d) 32
The two-link system, shown in the figure, is constrained to
move with planer motion. It possesses

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

(a) 2 degrees of freedom

(b) 3 degrees of freedom
(c) 4 degrees of freedom
(d) 6 degrees of freedom
If the ratio of the length of connecting rod to the crank
radius increases, then
(a) primary unbalanced forces will increase
(b) primary unbalanced forces will decrease
(c) secondary unbalanced forces will increase
(d) secondary unbalanced forces will decrease
In a cam mechanism with reciprocating roller follower, the
follower has a constant acceleration in the case of
(a) cycloidal motion
(b) simple harmonic motion
(c) parabolic motion
(d) 3 - 4 - 5 polynomial motion
A flywheel fitted in a steam engine has a mass of 800 kg. Its
radius of gyration is 360 mm. The starting torque of engine
is 580 N-m. Find the kinetic energy of flywheel after 12
seconds?
(a) 233.3 kJ
(b) 349.8 kJ
(c) 487.5 kJ
(d) None of these
In a slider-crank mechanism, the maximum acceleration of
slider is obtained when the crank is
(a) at the inner dead centre position
(b) at the outer dead centre position
(c) exactly midway position between the two dead centres
(d) none of these
If the rotating mass of a rim type flywheel is distributed on
another rim type flywheel whose mean radius is half the
mean radius of the former, then energy stored in the later at
the same speed will be
(a) four times the first one
(b) same as the first one
(c) one fourth of the first one
(d) one and a half times the first one
What will be the number of pair of teeth in contact if arc of
contact is 31.4 mm and module is equal to 5.
(a) 3 pairs
(b) 4 pairs
(c) 2 pairs
(d) 5 pairs
The distance between the parallel shaft is 18 mm and they
are conntected by an Oldhams couling. The driving shaft
revalues at 160 rpm. What will be the maximum speed of
sliding the tongue of the intermediate piece along its grow?
(a) 0.302 m/s
(b) 0.604 m/s
(c) 0.906 m/s
(d) None of these
Two spur gears have a velocity ratio of 1/3. The driven gear
has 72 teeth of 8 mm module and rotates at 300 rpm. The
pitch line velocity will be
(a) 3.08 m/s
(b) 6.12 m/s
(c) 9.04 m/s
(d) 12.13 m/s
Instantaneous centre of a body rolling with sliding on a

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55
stationary curved surface lies
(a) at the point of contact
(b) on the common normal at the point of contact
(c) at the centre of curvature of the stationary surface
(d) Both (b) and (c)
27. If Cf is the coefficient of speed fluctuation of a flywheel
then the ratio of max/ min will be
(a)

1 2Cf
1 2Cf

(b)

2 Cf
2 Cf

1 Cf
2 Cf
(d)
1 Cf
2 Cf
28. A rotor supported at A and B, carries two masses as shown
in the given figure. The rotor is

(c)

(a) dynamically balanced

(b) statically balanced
(c) statically and dynamically balanced
(d) not balanced
29. A body of mass m and radius of gyration k is to be replaced
by two masses m1 and m2 located at distances h1 and h2
from the CG of the original body. An equivalent dynamic
system will result, if
(a) h1 + h2 = k

(b)

h12

h 22

k2

(c) h1h2 = k2
(d)
h1 h 2 k 2
30. A cord is wrapped around a cylinder of radius r and mass
m as shown in the given figure. If the cylinder is releasd
from rest, velocity of the cylinder, after it has moved through
a distance h will be

(a)

2 gh

(b)

gh

4 gh
gh
(d)
3
3
31. There are six gears A, B, C, D, E, F, in a compound train. The
number of teeths in the gears are 20, 60, 30, 80, 25 and 75
respectively. The ratio of the angular speeds of the driven
(F) to the driver (A) of the drive is

(c)

(a)

1
24

(b)

1
8

2 and 4 have equal lengths. The point P on the coupler 3 will

generate a/an
(a) ellipse
(b) parabola
(c) approximately straight line
(d) circle
33. A system of masses rotating in different parallel planes is in
dynamic balance if the resultant
(a) force is equal to zero
(b) couple is equal to zero
(c) force and the resultant couple are both equal to zero
(d) force is numerically equal to the resultant couple, but
neither of them need necessarily be zero.
34. A bicycle remains stable in running through a bend because of
(a) Gyroscopic action
(b) Corioliss acceleration
(c) Centrifugal action
(d) Radius of curved path
35. The maximum fluctuation of energy Ef, during a cycle for a
flywheel is
(a) l( 2max 2min)
(b) 1/2 l av ( 2max 2min)
1
lK 2
2 es av
(d) lKes 2av
(where l = Mass moment of inertia of the flywheel
av = Average rotational speed
Kes = coefficient of fluctuation of speed)
The road roller shown in the given figure is being moved
over an obstacle by a pull P. The value of P required will
be the minimum when it is

(c)

36.

(a) horizontal
(b) vertical
(c) at 45 to the horizontal
(d) perpendicular to the line CO
37. Two gear 20 and 40 teeth respectively are in mesh. Pressure
angle is 20, module is 12 and line of contact on each side of
the pitch point is half the maximum length. What will be the
height of addendum for the gear wheel
(a) 4 mm
(b) 6mm
(c) 8 mm
(d) 10mm
38. In a slider-bar mechanism, when does the connecting rod
have zero angular velocity?
(a) When crank angle = 0 (b) When crank angle = 90
(c) When crank angle = 45 (d) Never
39. A disc of mass m is attached to a spring of stiffness k as
shown in the figure. The disc rolls without slipping on a
horizontal surface. The natural frequency of vibration of
the system is

4
(d) 12
15
In the four-bar mechanism shown in the given figure, links

(c)
32.

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56
(a)

1
2

k
m

(b)

1
2

2k
m

1 2k
1 3k
(d)
2 3m
2
2m
For a four bar linkage in toggle position, the value of
mechanical advantage is
(a) 0.0
(b) 0.5
(c) 1.0
(d)
What will the normal circular pitch and axial pitch of helical
gear if circular pitch is 15 mm and helix angle is 30
(a) 13 mm and 39 mm
(b) 26 mm and 39 mm
(c) 26 mm and 13 mm
(d) 13 m and 26 mm
The speed of an engine varies from 210 rad/s to rad/s. During
cycle the change in kinetic energy is found to be 400 Nm.
The inertia of the flywheel in kgm2 is
(a) 0.10
(b) 0.20
(c) 0.30
(d) 0.40
If first and last gear having teeth 30 and 50 respectively of a
simple gear train, what will be the train value and speed
ratio gear respectively if first gear is driving gear
(a) 3/5 and 5/3
(b) 3/5 and 4/5
(c) 5/3 and 3/5
(d) 4/5 and 3/5
The centre of gravity of the coupler link in a 4-bar mechanism
would experience
(a) no acceleration
(b) only linear acceleration
(c) only angular acceleration
(d) both linear and angular accelerations
In a four-bar linkage, S denotes the shortest link length, L is
the longest link length, P and Q are the lengths of other two
links. At least one of the three moving links will rotate by
360 if
(a) S + L P + Q
(b) S + L > P + Q

(c)
40.

41.

42.

43.

44.

45.

46.

(c) S + P L + Q
(d) S + P > L + Q
An involute pinion and gear are in mesh. If both have the
same size of addendum, then there will be an interference
between the
(a) tip of the gear teeth and flank of pinion

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

(c)
(c)
(d)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(a)
(b)
(a)
(d)

11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

(c)
(a)
(d)
(a)
(c)
(d)
(a)
(d)
(c)
(a)

(b) tip of the pinion and flank of gear

(c) flanks of both gear and pinion
(d) tip of both gear and pinion.
47. ABCD is a four-bar mechanism in which AB = 30 cm and CD
= 45 cm. AB and CD are both perpendicular to fixed link AD,
as shown in the figure. If velocity of B at this condition is V,
then velocity of C is

(a) V

(b)

3
V
2

2
9
V
V
(d)
3
4
The transmission angle is maximum when the crank angle
with the fixed link is
(a) 0
(b) 90
(c) 180
(d) 270
In the given figure, ABCD is a four-bar mechanism. At the
instant shown, AB and CD are vertical and BC is horizontal.
AB is shorter than CD by 30 cm, AB is rotating at 5 rad/s
and CD is rotating at 2 rad/s. The length of AB is

(c)

48.

49.

(a) 10 cm
(b) 20 cm
(c) 30 cm
(d) 50 cm
50. A link OP is 0.5 m long and rotate about point O. It has a
slider at permit B. Centripetal acceleration of P relative to O
is 8 m/sec2. The sliding velocity of slider relative to P is 2 m/
sec. The magnitude of Coriolis component of acceleration
is
(a) 16 m/sec2
(b) 8 m/sec2
2
(c) 32 m/sec
(d) Data insufficient

ANSWER KEY
21
(a)
22
(c)
23
(c)
24
(a)
25
(c)
26
(d)
27
(d)
28
(c)
29
(c)
30
(a)

31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40

(a)
(a)
(c)
(c)
(d)
(c)
(c)
(b)
(c)
(d)

41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50

(d)
(a)
(a)
(d)
(a)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(b)
(a)

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57

HINTS AND EXPLANATIONS

1.

(c) Since, all the masses lie in the single plane of the disc.
So, we have a force polygon.
7.

For a four bar linkage in toggle position

Effort = 0
Mechanical advantage =
(a) For flywheel which controls the fluctuations in speed
during a cycle at constant output load,
E

1
I
2

2
2

2
1

1
.I 210 2 1902
2
I = 0.1 kg-m2.
(b) The critical or whirling speed of centrally loaded shaft
between two bearings
400

Let

be angular velocity of disc

F1 = m1r1 2. = 0.5 0.05 2 = 0.025 2 N
F2 = m2r2 2.= 0.5 0.06 2 = 0.030 2 N
If r is the radial position of balancing mass 0.1 kg, so

F2

8.

R
150

9.

F1

r = mr 2 = 0.1 r 2 N
From the above force polygon,
F11

F22

0.025

0.030

0.025 0.030

2.

5.

6.

10.

2F1 F2 cos 150

2
4

2
0.866

= 0.015033 2.
Now 0.1r 2 = 0.015033 2.
r = 0.150 m
r = 150 mm
(c) According to Grublers criterion, the number of degrees
of freedom of a mechanism is given by
F = 3(n 1) 2j h = 3(8 1) 2 9 0 = 21 18 = 3
(c) For a 4-bar chain/mechanism like slider-crank
mechanism, there are as number of inversions as the
number of links or bars. These different inversions are
obtained by fixing different links one at a item for one
inversion.
Hence, number of inversions for a slider-crank
mechanism will be four.
Load to be lifted
(d) Mechanical advantage =
Effort applied

Output force
Input force

k
m

9.81
0.0018

73.82 rad / s

2 Nc
73.82
60
Nc = 704.96 705 rpm
(a) According to Grsashoffs rule for a planar crank-rocker
four bar mechanism, the sum of lengths of shortest
and longest links should be less than the sum of lengths
of other two remaining links.
So, statement (a) is incorrect and rest are correct.
(d) The mobility or degrees of freedom of a plane structure
is the number of inputs (i. e., number of independent
coordinates required to determine the configuration
or position of all the links of the mechanism w.r.t. fixed
link. It is determined by Grublers equation as
F = 3(n 1) 2j h
where F = degrees of freedom or movability of
mechanism
n = number of links
j = number of lower pairs
h = numbers of higher pairs
Now, a 5-bar chain is the simplest statically
indeterminate structure in which link 1 is fixed as shown.
Hence to specify the position of all links, two
coordinates 1 and 2 are required. So two inputs are
required to give a unique output. So, F = 2 or the
mobility is 2.

Similarly, for 6-bar or more chains, F > 2

Hence, for a statically indeterminate structures,
Mobility 2

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58
11.

(c)

12. (a)

14.

15.

16.

F = 3(n 1) + 2f1 f2. = 3(5 1) 2 5 1

= 12 10 1 = 1
As we know that, velocity at point of contact between
object and floor will be R. While, radius R will be
equal to zero an instantaneous centre is situated at the
intersection point of object (radius r) and floor.

(a) Type of instantaneous centres:

(a) Fixed instantaneous centres
(b) Permanent instantaneous centres
(c) Neither fixed nor permanent instantaneous centres
(a) Fixed instantaneous centre :
They remains in the same place for all configuration of
the mechanism.
(b) Permanent instantaneous centres :
They move when the mechanism move, but the joints
are of permanent mature.
(c) Neither fixed nor permanent instantaneous centre:They vary with the configuration of the Mechanism.
(c) The fluctuation of energy may be determined by the
turning moment diagram for one complete cycle of
operation. The difference between the maximum and
minimum energies is known as maximum fluctuation
of energy.
AE = Maximum energy Minimum energy
(d) The minimum number of teeth on a pinion is found on
the basis of consideration of avoiding interference.
In case of 14 involute system, the minimum number
of teeth in a pinion which meshes with rack

t min
17.

(a)

2
sin 2

18. (d) FP = Primary unbalanced force = mr 2cos

Fs = Secondary unbalanced force
mr 2
l
cos 2
n
n
r
19. (c) For uniform acceleration and retardation the velocity
of the follower must change at a constant rate and
hence the velocity diagram of the follower consists of
sloping straight lines. The velocity diagram represents
everywhere the slope of the displacement diagram, the
latter must be curve whose slope changes at a constant
rate. Hence the displacement diagram consists of
double parabola.
T
mk 2

20. (a)
2

higher
pair

link 2

5.59 rad/s 2

t = 0. + 5.59 12 = 67.08 rad/s

1
1
800 (0.36) 2 (67.08) 2
mk2 2
2
2
= 233270 N = 233.3 kJ

KE =
21. (a)

fp = r

cos

At IDC

cos 2
n

=0

fp = r

1
n

At ODC
fp = r

32

580
800 (0.36)2

= 180
2

1
n

22. (c) Energy stored in flywheel is dependent on moment of

inertia given by :
I = (w/g)k2
where k = radius of gyration
In case of rim type of flywheel,
k = radius of flywheel.
k
2
23. (c) Arc of contact = 31.4 mm
Module (m) = 5
Circular pitch = m = 5

Since, k =

link 1

X
O
Kutzbach criterion for movability of a mechanism,
Number of degree of freedom = 3 (l 1) 2j h
= 3(2 1) 2 0 1
=31=2
Hence, it possesses 2 degree of freedom.

So, No. of pair of teeth in contact =

Arc of contact
Circular pitch
31.4
= 2 pairs.
5

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59
From the equations (ii) and (iii); we get

2 N
2
160
= 16.75 rad/s
60
60
maximum velocity of sliding = d
= 16.75 0.018 = 0.302 m/s
(c) T2 = 72
1
VR =
3
N2 = 300 rpm

24. (a)

25.

N2
N1

T1
T2

T1
T2

1
T1
3

m1h12

min

min

2
max + CS min = 2

max
min

max 2 min

2 CS
2 CS

mk 2
h1 (h1 h 2 )

m 2 h 22

mk 2

...(iii)

mh 2
(h1 h 2 )

k2 = h1h2
30. (a) Since cylinder falls freely under effect of gravity, it
follows basic law of motion and
2

= 2gh and =

2gh
31. (a) Ratio of angular speeds of F to A
TA TC TE
TB TD TF

20 30 25
60 80 75

1
24

32. (a) Point P being rigidly connected to point 3, will trace

same path as point 3, i.e. ellipse.
33. (c) A system of masses rotating in different parallel planes
is in dynamic balance if the resultant force and the
resultant couple are both to zero. This is known as
dynamic balancing.
34. (c) A bicycle remains stable in running through a bond
because of centrifugal action.
35. (d)

28. (c) Static balance is a balance of forces due to the action

of gravity.
Consider a rigid rotor with the shaft laid on horizontal
parallel ways. if it is in static balance, the shaft will not
on the ways whatever may be the angular position of
the rotor. For this to happen, the centre of gravity of
the system of masses must lie at the axis of rotation of
the shaft. For the centre of gravity to be at the axis of
the shaft, the horizontal and vertical moments of the
rotors must be equal to zero
Wr sin = 0,
Wr cos = 0
The above equations are also true with the dynamic
balance of the inertia forces. Thus if the conditions for
the dynamic balance are met, the conditions for static
balance are also met.
29. (c) For dynamically equivalent
m1 + m2 = m
...(i)
m1h1 = m2h2
...(ii)
m1h12

...(iv)

From equations (iii) and (iv)

d2
8 72
= 2 300
2
2
= 542867 mm/min = 9.04 m/s
26. (d) The position of the instantaneous centre changes with
the motion of the body. Instantaneous centre of a body
rolling with sliding on a stationary curved surface lies
(i) on the common normal at the point of contact, and
also
(ii) at the centre of curvature of the stationary surface
27. (d) We know that coefficient of fluctuation of speed (CS)
is

or, CS

mh 2
m1 = h h
1
2

= 2 N2

max

m1h1
h2

m1

24

max

...(iii)

From the equations (i) and (ii) we get

1
3

mk 2
h1 (h1 h 2 )

m1 =

Pitch line velocity = w1r1 or w2r2

CS

mk 2

(m1h1 ) h 2

1
l(
2

e max
1
l(
2
e max

2
max

max

2
av

min

2
min

)(

max

min

av

CS

av

CS

36. (c) From the figure, it shows that the value of P required
will be minimum when it is at 452 to the horizontal. This
can be solved by resolution of forces.
37. (c)

mT
2

r=

mt
2

r sin
2

40 12
= 240 mm
2

20 12
2
R 2a

R 2 cos 2

R sin

120 sin 20
R 2a (240 cos 20) 2
2
Ra = 248 mm
addendum = 248 240 = 8 mm

240sin 20

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60
38.

cos

(b)

cr

43. (a) Train values =

sin

cos
n
Angular velocity is maximum at = 0, 180
Angular velocity is zero at = 90

If n is large

39.

44. (d)
45. (a)

46. (a)

Taking moments about instantaneous centre A

(kx) r

47. (b)

mr 2

kr 2
3 2
mr
2

+ k ( r2) = 0
=0

2k
=0
3m

41.

1 2k
2 3m
(d) In toggle position, for a four bar linkage, the mechanical
advantage will be infinity.
(d)
= 30
Normal circular pitch = circular pitch cos
= 15 cos 30 = 13 mm

Circular pitch
15
15
=
=
tan 30
tan 30
1 3
= 26 mm
42. (a) We know that
Axial pitch =

E=

1
l
2

400

2
1

2
2

400 l

l = 0.1 kg-m 2

VC
VB

VC
VB

CD
AB

VC

VB

W .CD
W . AB

CD
AB

CD
AB

45
30

3
2

3
V
2

3
V.
2
48. (c) The transmission angle is maximum when crank angle
with fixed link is 180.
The transmission angle is minimum when crank angle
with fixed link is 0.
The transmission angle is optimum when crank angle
with fixed link is 90.
49. (b) CD = AB + 30 cm
Rotation of AB, 1 = 5 rad/s
Rotation of CD, 2 = 2 rad/s
So, 1AB = 2CD
5 AB = 2 (AB + 30)
AB = 20 cm
50. (a) aC = r 2
8 = 0.5 2
2
= 16
= 4 rad/sec
Coridis component of acceleration = 2 v
= 2 4 2 = 16 m/s2

Velocity of C =

n=

40.

3
5

1
5
Train value
3
The centre of gravity of the coupler link in a 4 bar
mechanism would experience both linear and angular
accelerations.
According to Grashofs law for a four bar mechanism.
The sum of shortest and longest link lengths should
not be greater than the sum of the remaining two link
length.
i.e. S + L P + Q
An involve pinion and gear in mesh. If both have the
same size of addendum, then there will be interference
between the tip of the gear teeth and blank of renion.
This is a phenomenon of interference.
We know that, VB = V, CD = 45 cm, AB = 30 cm

VCD
VBA

(IO + mr2) + kx ( r) r = 0

1 2
mr
2

30
50

Speed ratio =

cr =

(c)

Ia

Tfirst
Tlast

400

1
2

210

190

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