Management of
Groundwater in India
Department of Business Economics
Submitted by
Prakash M
Richard Sarkar
Chaitanya
Vardan Singh
Abstract
In this project, sustainable management of ground water in India is analyzed. By understanding
the sources of ground water and the factors depleting the water sources, we analyzed the current
situation in some parts of India and the exploitation of ground water sources by industries is
analyzed. Few cases of Coca Colas plants exploitation in Rajasthan and few other states are
also analyzed. To attain sustainable ground water management, few government policies,
government initiatives against industrial purpose, macro policy recommendations, modern
ground water bill, cropping patterns are reviewed. Few micro recommendations are also drawn
towards ground water sustainability.
1. Introduction:
that almost 13,000 km3 of water is present in the atmosphere, or roughly 0.001 per cent of the
earths total volume of water. Precipitation occurs as water vapour cools and eventually
condenses, usually on tiny particles of dust in the atmosphere. It is estimated that approximately
45,000 km3 of precipitation falls on the global landmass each year.
Rainfall or snowmelt in excess of evapotranspiration and infiltration produces runoff to wetlands,
streams and lakes. A fraction of the precipitation water infiltrates into the ground. The rate of
infiltration depends on soil type, soil moisture content, slope steepness and the presence of
cracks or fractures in the ground. The rate of infiltration and the runoff and evaporation patterns
determine, on a local basis, the fraction of water applied to the surface that moves through the
soil to become groundwater. Thus groundwater is the residual from precipitation, after
evapotranspiration and runoff have been accounted for.
Groundwater represents the largest stock of freshwater in the global water cycle, although it is
estimated that somewhat less than half of this volume is freshwater, the rest being in deeper
saline aquifers. Only about three per cent of total groundwater is active in the hydrological cycle
on an annual basis (Gleick, 1996).
Water cycle is the source of groundwater, which is unseen but very important.
Aquifier:
2. Relevance in India:
Groundwater in India
Monitoring of ground water regime is an effort to obtain information on ground water levels and
chemical quality through representative sampling. The important attributes of ground water
regime monitoring are ground water level, ground water quality and temperature. The primary
objective of establishing the ground water monitoring network stations is to record the response
of ground water regime to the natural and anthropogenic stresses of recharge and discharge
parameters with reference to geology, climate, physiography, land use pattern and hydrologic
characteristics. The natural conditions affecting the regime involve climatic parameters like
rainfall, evapotranspiration etc., whereas anthropogenic influences include pumpage from the
aquifer, recharge due to irrigation systems and other practices like waste disposal etc.
water flows from high elevation to low elevation and from high pressure to low pressure,
gradients in potential energy (hydraulic head) drive groundwater flow
in recharge (discharge) areas, the hydraulic head decreases (increases) with depth
Groundwater recharge
Groundwater recharge or deep drainage or deep percolation is a hydrologic process where water
moves downward from surface water to groundwater. Recharge is the primary method that water
enters an aquifer.
3. ANALYSIS:
A Case Study on Over-depletion of Ground-Water Resource by Coca Cola in Kaladera,
Rajasthan
Overview:
Kala Dera is a large village outside the city of Jaipur. Agriculture is the primary source of
livelihood.
Coca-Cola started its bottling operations in Kala Dera in 2004, and within a year, the
community started to notice a rapid decline in groundwater levels.
Groundwater levels in Kala Dera, the site of CocaCola's controversial bottling plant in
India, have plummeted 5.83 meters (19 feet) in just one year between May 2007 and May
2008, according to government data obtained by the India Resource Center from the
Central Groundwater Board.
The area of Kala Dera has also been declared a drought area by the government, adding
to the water shortages in the area.
Adding further to the severe water crisis as a result of dropping groundwater levels and
drought are Coca Colas bottling operations. The company reaches peak production
capacity in the summer months using the most amount of water exactly when the water
shortages for the community are the most pronounced.
Farmers and the community in the Kala Dera area rely largely on the groundwater
resource to meet all their water needs, the same source of water used by Coca Cola for its
bottling operations.
(Pic: Wells go dry at Kaladera as there is a clash over competing water uses Agriculture
and industrial- Coca Cola plant)
Community response in Kaladera against Coca Cola
"The Coca-Cola company is denying our fundamental human right to water by
continuing to extract groundwater from a rapidly falling aquifer. Every drop of water that
Coca-Cola extracts from the groundwater is water taken away from the children, women
and men who are unable to meet their basic water needs, leave alone the farmers who are
seeing their crops fail,"
- (Mahesh Yogi of the Kala Dera Sangharsh Samiti, a local community group in
Kala Dera opposing Coca-Cola since 2002.)
"Coca-Cola's operations in Kala Dera are an assault on the community. The community
has primary rights over groundwater, and meeting basic water needs such as drinking and
for agriculture have to be met first. We have drought in Kala Dera and accessing water is
extremely difficult for people. Coca-Cola has no place here. They must shut down."
- (Sawai Singh of the Jan Sangharsh Samiti who had petitioned the Rajasthan state
government, including Chief Minister Ashok Gehlot, seeking closure orders on the
bottling plant.)
"Coca-Cola's continued operations in Kala Dera are criminal. Water levels have
plummeted because of Coca-Cola, the rains have been deficient, the area is experiencing
drought, people have no drinking water, farmers have no water to cultivate their land and
have lost their livelihoods, yet Coca-Cola continues to withdraw millions of liters of
groundwater to make Coca-Cola. And if those weren't enough reasons to shut down the
plant, Coca-Cola's own study has recommended closure of the bottling plant. All the
signs point towards one resolution - shut down the Coca-Cola bottling plant in Kala
Dera."
-(Amit Srivastava of the India Resource Center, an international campaigning
organization that works with the community in Kala Dera to oppose the plant.)
1. When Coca-Cola was asked to verify the actual numbers behind its claim of recharging
six times the amount of water in Kala Dera, Coca-Cola admits it does not have metering
mechanisms to measure how much water is recharged.
2. Using their 2004 actual groundwater usage in Kala Dera, Coca-Cola's claims of
recharging six times the amount of groundwater it used in Kala Dera translates into
recharging about 1.3 billion liters of water annually - just in Kala Dera alone. It is enough
water to meet the basic drinking water needs for a million people - for an entire year! If
Coca-Cola's claims are to be believed, there would be no water shortages in the area.
3. Precipitously falling groundwater levels in Kala Dera, particularly since Coca-Cola began
operations in Kala Dera in 2000, suggest a massive depletion of groundwater, and not a
recharge or replenishment, as Coca-Cola claims. Coca-Cola's claims contradicted
government data on groundwater levels.
4. There is not enough rainfal in the Kala Dera area to meet such ambitious water recharge
numbers given the number of rainwater harvesting structures set up by Coca-Cola. Kala
Dera receives less that 600 mm of rain annually under normal circumstances and it is a
drought prone area. Nine of the last twenty six years have been drought years.
5. About 80% of the rainfall in Kala Dera falls in a matter of 3 to 4 days, according to Dr.
M. S. Rathore, a natural resource expert on Kala Dera who is deeply skeptical of CocaCola's claims. Under such rainfall patterns, Coca-Cola's claims become even more
exaggerated because it suggests that they are recharging just over 1 billion liters of water
in just a matter of four days. Such a feat is impossible, especially in Kala Dera.
6. All of Coca-Cola's rainwater harvesting structures in and around Kala Dera are in
"dilapidated" conditions, according to the 2008 TERI study the company paid for.
(Image showing Groundwater stressed blocks of India and Kaladeras status in the stressed
blocks)
Other similar cases of Ground water exploitation by Coca Cola plants in India
1) Plachimada, Kerala:
The single largest CocaCola bottling plant in India, in Plachimada, Kerala, remains shut
down since March 2004. Initially ordered to shut down until June 15 (for arrival of
monsoon rains) by the state government to ease drought conditions, the Plachimada
bottling plant has been unable to open because the local village council (panchayat) is
people marched to the CocaCola factory gates and were physically attacked and beaten
by police and private security guards. In October 2003, a march was organized from the
Coke plant in Mehdiganj to a Pepsi plant in Jaunpur, about 150 km away. And in mid
December 2003, ten activists went on a Five day hunger strike in front of the plant. They
were supported by fifty people sitting with them each day, and about 300 people went on
hunger strikes of varied duration. And in June 2004, hundreds conducted a sitting in front
of the state assembly in Lucknow.
(Farmer Urmila Vishwakarma stands for a photograph near the Coca Cola Co. bottling
plant in Mehediganj, Varanasi. Vishwakarma said she takes water from 240 feet down,
versus 65 feet in prior years. Our biggest battle is for water, she said. Our situation has
become critical. Photographer: Prashanth Vishwanathan/Bloomberg)
Coca-Cola finally shuts down plant at Kala Dera, Rajasthan due to exhaustion of
Groundwater level
In February 2016, CocaCola India has stopped production at three plants ahead of the
peak summer season, citing inadequate demand, including one in Kaladera, Rajasthan
where activists have alleged water depletion. The other plants that were shut are in
Andhra Pradesh and Meghalaya.
Activist body India Resource Center (IRC) had said Wednesday that one of the primary
reasons for the closure of the Kaladera plant in Jaipur was the increased difficulty in
accessing groundwater from a depleted aquifer, in addition to incurring financial losses.
Activist group IRC said it has proof that a CocaCola representative told workers that
production at Kaladera was shut down on January 25, 2016, and there is no possibility of
resuming in the future, the plant has incurred financial losses, the availability of
groundwater and raw materials has become difficult and that the plant will now serve as a
storage and distribution centre.
(Newspaper extract from Economic Times- dated 11th February, 2016- stating the closure
decision of Coca Cola plant in Kaladera)
Sustainability Initiatives taken by Government of India against Ground water depletion for
Industrial purpose
Until late 2015 now, it was mandatory for all new industries to apply f or an NOC. But
following November 2015 Government order, when the revised guidelines came into
effect, all existing industries were also directed to obtain NOC. "All existing industries or
projects which are drawing ground water and have not obtained NOC for groundwater
withdrawal either due to its coming into existence prior to formation of CGWA or due to
exemption from obtaining NOC as per earlier guidelines shall apply to CGWA f or NOC f
or groundwater withdrawal with immediate eff ect," the new guidelines stated.
The applications can be submitted online and the grant of NOC will be considered as per
prevailing guidelines. The processing fee for every new NOC is Rs 1000 and Rs 500 for
renewal of NOC. It would be also mandatory for industries to submit water quality report
of effluents.
(Newspaper extract from Times of India-dated 18th November 2015- stating CGWA order
to take NOC for industrial use of Groundwater)
Annual
Net Avalability
Replenishable
Availability*100
Ground water
Haryana
Punjab
Rajasthan
resource
9.31
23.78
11.56
8.63
21.44
10.38
9.45
31.16
12.99
109
145
125
Policy Recommendations:
women.
There should be a periodical reassessment of the groundwater potential on a scientific basis,
taking into consideration the quality of the water available and economic viability of its
extraction.
The abstraction of groundwater resources should be regulated so as not to exceed the safe
Legal framework
Groundwater in the Indian legal system falls within a complex, multilayered framework,
consisting of a range of constitutional and statutory provisions at the central and state levels.
The right to groundwater has traditionally been seen as following the right to land, based on the
Indian Easements Act of 1882. However, this long-established real property groundwater right
is challenged by the emerging public interest dimension of groundwater use. In 1996, the
Supreme Court, ruling under the Environment (Protection) Act (1986), instructed the government
of India to establish the Central Groundwater Authority (CGWA) to regulate and control
groundwater development with a view to preserving and protecting this resource. The decisions
made in a more recent case involving the Coca-Cola Company also affirm the governments right
and obligation to protect groundwater under the right to life guaranteed by the Constitution of
India.
The Constitution lists water supplies which is understood to include groundwater under the
state List, thereby giving the states jurisdiction to regulate and control groundwater. However,
the central government also has a concurrent power to make laws with respect to any matter for
any part of the territory of India. Accordingly, the central government has sought to support
states in a pragmatic way through the issuance of the Model Groundwater Bill.
Model Groundwater Bill
The rationale for the bill is to provide a template for consideration by state governments, which
can modify and adopt it according to their needs. It was first developed in 1970 and has
subsequently been revised and circulated many times. Among other things, the bill recommends
the establishment and empowerment of some form of state groundwater management agency,
and registration and control of at least the larger groundwater users. It is important to note that
only a handful of states have enacted groundwater legislation based on the bill.
Institutions and capacity for groundwater management and protection
Through the National Environmental Policy and National Water Policy, the central government is
expected to play a role in the direction of groundwater development and management in the
country. The Central Groundwater Authority (CGWA) is charged with the regulation and
The roles and responsibilities between state and central groundwater institutions are not
sufficiently defined.
The CGWAs rules for regulation, development, and management of the resource are still
pending approval and many states have reservations regarding its mandate given that
Mapping should take place at the scale of watershed of the order 1000-200 0 hectares
(Tamilnadu, 13 million hectares , 60000 points)
Maps can be aggregated at a more regional scale rather than move down
Informed decisions
Salinity
Specific to aquifier
Cropping Pattern
The below photos shows the cultivation of Maize, Groundnut and Paddy. Among these paddy
will require more water to cultivate. We have to choose the right crop to cultivate according to
the rainfall and canal water availability.
We have mentioned this because, in village over exploitation of ground water is undertaken to
cultivate these crops. Government should intervene and water saving irrigation methods should
be taught to the farmers like drip irrigation and right choice of crops should be cultivated. This
not only saves water but also sustainability of water will be maintained.
Maize Cultivation
Groundnut
Cultivation
Paddy Cultivation
Micro Recommendations:
Description
needed
Food crop procurement purchases MSP water intensive crops
Crop Policy
like paddy
Free for irrigation pumping
Subsidies on inputs
Electricity
Moisture management mulching,
composting
Recharge Programs
demand management
Current situation and action
Policy Area
Description
Sand and gravel mining
needed
Key in storing flood water and
in recharge, uncontrolled to
controlled state
Houses with roof water
Land use planning
REFERENCE
prevent contamination
Central Ground Water Board. 2005. Master Plan for Artificial Recharge to Ground Water
in India. New Delhi: Government of India, Ministry ofWater Resources
(http://cgwb.gov.in/documents/MASTER%20PLAN%20Final-2002.pdf, accessed May
16, 2009)
Bhatia, R. 2005. Water and Growth. Washington, DC: World Bank
Planning Commission. Report of the Expert Group on Groundwater Management and
ownership. New Delhi: GoI