Syllabus
Vector Algebra:
Vector addition, multiplication (Dot and Cross products), Triple products, vector
differentiation: Velocity, Acceleration of a vector point function.
Solid Geometry: Straight lines, angle between the planes
Why do we bother with Vector algebra?
3. Vector algebra operations are much easier to express with familiar nomenclature.
(For example, the statement C = A + B is a typical vector algebra expressions.)
Many of the rules learned in basic algebra also apply in vector algebra.(For
example, we can add the same vector to both sides of an equation , we can
divide both sides of an equation by a number and so on.)
What is a vector?
Historical Note: The word vector has been derived from a Latin word vectus,
which means to carry.
The germinal ideas of modern vector theory date from around 1800
when Caspar Wessel (1745-1818) and Jean Robert Argand (1768-1822)
described that how a complex number a + ib could be given a geometric
interpretation with the help of a directed line segment in a coordinate plane,
William Rowen Hamilton (1805-1865 ) an Irish Mathematician was the first
to use the term vector for a directed line segment in his book Lectures on
Quaternions (1853).
The idea of vector concept and their addition was known much earlier ever since
the time of Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), a Greek philosopher, and pupil of Plato (427348 B.C.).
That time it was supposed to be known that the combined action of two or
more forces could be seen by adding them according to parallelogram law.
The correct law for the composition of forces, that forces add vectorially,
had been discovered in the case of perpendicular forces by Stevin-Simon
(1548-1620).
In the 1880, Josaih Willard Gibbs (1839-1903), an American Physicist and
Mathematician, and Oliver Heaviside (1850-1925), an English engineer, created
what we now know as vector analysis, essentially by separating the real (scalar)
part of quaternion from its imaginary (vector) part.
In 1881 and 1884 Gibbs printed a treatise entitled Elements of vector
Analysis; This book gave a systematic and concise account of vectors.
However, much of the credit for demonstrating the applications of vectors
is due to the Heaviside and P. G, Tait (1831-1901) who contributed significantly
to this subject.
What is vector?
Suppose you were given the job as weatherman for national television station.
You would like to convey to your audience the wind speeds and directions in their
area, and how they compare to other areas.
First you could try writing down the speed and direction of the wind at
various locations on a map.
What is a vector?
However, notice that the viewer is going to have a miserable time.
First, he will need very good eyesight, and patience. Most importantly, such a
system is insufficient for detecting general trends in wind direction and speed.
To do so, the viewer has to write down all the data for each location and
study it(but it is not a good system!).
A slight Improvement:
Another idea is to indicate the direction of the wind an arrow, while writing the
wind speed next to the arrow. Now the viewer can compare the directions of the
wind easily with other locations.
A slight Improvement:
Some of the arrows may correspond to mere breezes, others to full-blown gales.
Therefore, such a system is visually misleading, because numbers alone do not provide
the necessary visual cues establish general trends in wind speed.
Using the idea of the vector:
Is there a way that we can incorporate both aspects of wind speed and direction, with a
simple system?
Yes! Make the length of the arrow correspond to the speed of the wind. With this
system, long arrows correspond to high winds, so on. Now, the viewer can tell which
direction the wind is blowing in his area with a quick glance. Furthermore, the viewer can
tell how the wind speed in his area compares other areas.
Vector Algebra
Once the arrow indicates both a magnitude of some sort (in this case, the speed of the
wind) and a direction, it is called a vector. The vector in this example is a velocity vector.
The length of the arrow, which represents the magnitude of the velocity, is called the
speed.
Introduction:
in our day today life, we come across many queries such as
i) What is your height?
ii) How should a football player hit the ball to give a pass to another player
of his team?
Observe that a possible answer to the first query may be 1.6
meters, a quantity that involves only one value (magnitude) which is a real
number. Such quantities are called Scalars.
However, an answer to the second query is a quantity( called force) which
involves muscular strength (magnitude) and direction (in which another player is
positioned). Such quantities are called vectors.
A directed line segment: A directed line segment is a segment say AB, of an infinite
straight line which has got a particular direction say from A to B, as shown in the figure.
A is called the initial point and B is called the terminal point. The infinite straight line on
which the segment AB lies is called the line of support. Thus
a directed line segment
whose initial point is A and terminal point B, denoted by
has length and
AB
direction.
Hence a directed line segment can be used to denote vectors. Thus if AB is a vector
Note: Since the length is never negative, the notation a 0 has no meaning.
Types of vector:
Zero vector: A vector whose initial andterminal points coincide, is called a zero vector
( or null vector) and is denoted as o . Zero vector cannot be assigned a definite
Collinear vectors: Two or more vectors are said to be collinear if they are parallel to
the same line, irrespective of their magnitude and directions.
AB , CD
ii)
iii)
The vectors
AB , CD , EF
Negative of a vector:
Consider a
vector AB (as shown in figure). The vector AB whose magnitude is same
and is denoted by BA - AB
ii) Equal
iii) Co-initial
To see how the method works, consider the following problem: Eric leaves the base camp and
hikes 11km, north and then hikes 11km east. Determine Erics resulting displacement.
This problem asks to determine the result of adding two displacement vectors
that are at right angles to each other.
To result (or resultant) of walking 11km north and 11km east is a vector directed as
shown in the diagram to the right. Since the northward displacement and the eastward
displacement are at right angles to each other, the Pythagorean Theorem can be used to
determine the resultant (i.e, the hypotenuse of the right triangle)
Now, consider a boat in a river going from one bank of the river to the other in a direction
perpendicular to the flow of the river. Then, it is acted upon by two velocity vector, one in the
velocity imparted to the boat by its engine and other one is the velocity of the flow of river
water.
Under the simultaneous influence of these two velocities, the boat in actual starts
travelling with a different velocity.
To have a precise idea about the effective speed and direction (i.e. the resultant
velocity) of the boat, we have the following law of vector addition.
Example:
An airplane starts from an airport located at the origin O and flies 150 miles in the
direction 200 north of east of city A. From A, the airplane then flies 200 miles in the
direction 230 west of north to city B. From B, the airplane flies 240 miles in the direction
100 south of west to city C. Express the location of city C as a vector.
OA l, OB l and OC l
Product of Two vectors: So for we have studied about addition and subtraction of
vectors . Another algebraic operation which we intend to discuss regarding vectors is
their product.
We may recall that product of two numbers is a number, product of two matrices
is again a matrix. But in case of functions, we may multiply them in two ways, namely,
multiplication of two functions point wise and composition of two functions.
Similarly, multiplication of two vectors is also defined in two ways, namely, scalar
(or dot ) product where the result is a scalar, and vector (or cross) product where the
result is a vector. Based upon these two types of products for vectors, they have found
various applications in geometry, mechanics and engineering.
Vector Product:
h b sin
Geometrical Interpretation:
Vector multiplication is not Commutative. a b b a
If a b 0
i j k ; j k i ; k i j
Angle between them 90
j i k ; k j i ; i k j
a b (i i ) a b (i j) a b (i k )
11
12
13
a b (j i ) a b (j j) a b (j k )
21
2 2
23
a b (k i ) a b (k j) a b (k k )
1
3: 2
33
Vector Product:3Determinant
i
a x b a1
a2
a3
b1
b2
b3
( 5 i j 2 k ) ( 2 i 3 j k )
i j k
5 1 2
2 3 1
An Example:
( 5 i j 2 k ) ( 2 i 3 j k ) 5 i 9 j 17 k
[(1. 1) 3.2]i
[2.2 (5. 1)] j
[5.3 (2. 1)]k
Check :
An example:
Determine a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of
a ( 5 i j 2 k ) and b ( 2 i 3 j k )
An Example:
if
i
ab 1
a ( i 2 j 3 k ), b ( 2 i j k ),
3 5i 5 j 5 k
|ab |
25 25
75
25
|ab |
ii ) sin
a b
25 25 25
1 4 9 4 11
75
84
( b
c )
( b
c )
( a i a j a k )
1
2
3
[( b i b j b k ) ( c i c j c k )]
1
2
3
1
2
3
( a i a j a k )
1
2
3
[( b c b c ) i ( b c b c ) j
2 3
3 2
3 1 1 3
( b c b c ) k ]
1 2
2 1
a2
a3
b2
b3
c1
c2
c3
|
b
| b c | bc sin c|
| a ( b c ) | a | b c | cos
Find a b c in the following
a 2i 3j - 4k, b i j 5 k , c 2i j k
2
a b c 1
3
1
5 3
An Example
sets of vectors
are coplanar
a 2i 5j 8k, b 2 i 3 j 4 k , c i j k
solution : The conditon for the vectors a , b , c to be
coplanar is a b c 0
i.e a b c 2
4 0
Differentiation of vectors:
Introduction:
Many physical quantities that occur in engineering and science require more than a
single number to characterize them. When describing quantities such as force and
velocity it is necessary to specify both a magnitude and direction, and these are
examples of vector quantities, whereas the air temperature, which can be specified by
giving a single number, is an example of scalar quantity. Physical problems are often
best described in terms of vectors, so the objective of this lecture is to develop the most
important aspects of vector differential calculus.
Limits continuity of vector functions
of a single real variable:
Definition: A vector function of a single real variable F(t) = f 1(t)I + f2(t)j + f3(t)k is said to
have L as its limit at t0, written
t t 0
t t 0
Definition: Continuous:
i 2 j 3 k.
dt
dt
dt
dt
d 2F
d dF
dt 2
dt dt
and , in general,
d nF
d d n 1 F
dt n
dt dt n 1
, for n 2.
dC
0 differentiation of a constant vector
dt
d
du
ii) cu c differentiation of a vectorscaled by c
dt
dt
i)
d
u v du dv differentiation of a sum or difference
dt
dt dt
d
du
dv
iv) u v
v u differentiation of a dot product
dt
dt
dt
d
du
dv
v) u x v
x v u x differentiation of a cross product
dt
dt
dt
vi) If u(t) is a differentiable function of t and t t(s)
is a differentiable function of s, then
du du dt
ds dt ds
iii)
.
r 2
2 t
d
d
d
n
a s
r
r
do
dt
t
d c
n e
i
f v
k t
n
) a
1 s
t
n
t o
c
2
t
t
(
j
)
1
t
e
r
a
k
,
j
,
i
t
a
h
t
w
o
n
k
e
W
:
n
o
i
t
u
l
o
S
t
(
i
)
1
t
(
r
f
I
Example:
k t
d d
(t 1)i
(t 2 t 1) j
2 j (6t 2)k
t
d
t
d
(t 3 t 2 t 1)k
r
d
d
r
2
2 t
dt
d d
d
dt
d
j
d i
dt
ddt
i
dt
dr
d
dr
dt
dt
and
r
2
2
dt
d
d
n
i
f
k
t
j
t
s
o
c
i
t
n
i
s
r
f
I
r t
d d
,
r
2
2
dt
d
,
r t
d d
Example:
s
r
o
t
c
e
v
t
n
a
t
s
n
o
c
e
r
a
k
,
j
,
i
t
a
h
t
w
o
n
k
e
W
:
n
o
i
t
u
l
o
S
r
d
dt
sin ti (cos t ) j
cos t sin t 1
2
r
2
2 t
d
d
and
r t
d d
cos ti sin tj k ;
(t ) k
dt
d
(cos t ) j
r
2
2
dt
d
(sin t ) i
dt
d
dt
d
k t
d d
t
j
dt
dd d
t
t
i
dt
dr
d dr
d d
sin t cos t 1
2
Example:
Acceleration =
dr
3t 2i 2tj 2k
dt
d 2r
6ti 2 j
dt 2
Example:
dr
t
Velocity = v= e i 6 sin 3tj 6 cos 3tk
dt
d 2r
Acceleration =
e t i 18 cos 3tj 18 sin 3tk
dt 2
The magnitude of velocity and acceleration are
v e 2t 36(sin 2 3t cos2 3t ) e 2t 36
v 1 36 37
a 1 324 325
Example : Find the radial and transverse velocity of a particle moving in a plane curve
dv d
v
rcos i rsin j
dt dt
dv
d
dr
d
dr
rsin
cos
sin
i rcos
j
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
dr
d
cos i sin j r
sin i cos j
dt
dt
dr
d
r r
dt
dt
Hence radial and transvers e component of velocity are
dr
d
and r
respective ly
dt
dt
r rcoswt i rsinwtj
dr
The velocity v
rw sin wt i rw cos wtj
dt
dv
acceleration a
rw 2 cos wt i rw 2 sin wtj
dt
v r rw sin wt i rw cos wtj rcoswt i rsinwtj
dv
a
w2 r cos wt i r sin wtj w2 r
dt
i.e Negative sign shows that acceleration is always directed
r xv r cos wt i r sin wtj x rw sin wt i rw cos wtj
r 2w
Hence r xv is constant vector of magnitude r 2 w
dr
v
rw sin wt i rw cos wtj
dt
6.61x108
2570 ft / sec .
V BW V B V W 3 i 4 j
V WE V W V E i 3 j
V BE V B V E 4 i j
V BE
16 1 17
tan
1
and tan
4
1
4
Relative velocity : For relative velocity problems, some fixed data point needs to be
selected. This is often a fixed on the earths surface. In any vector equation , only the
start and finish points affect the resultant vector of a system. Two different systems are
shown in the following diagram, but in each of the systems, the resultant vector is ad .
i)
The directions of the cars are shown in the above figure, called a space diagram.
Velocity diagram is shown as follows.
But must lie in the third quadrant. i.e the required angle is 1800 +50.710=230.710. Thus
the velocity of car Q relative to car P is 71.06m/s at 230.710
Assignment:
Example: 1) A car is moving along a straight horizontal road at 79.2 km/h and rain is
falling vertically downwards at 26,4 km/h. Find the velocity of the rain relative to the
driver of the car.
Answer:83.5 km/h at 71.60 to the vertical.
2) Calculate the time needed to swim across a river 142m wide when the swimmer can
swim at 2 km/h in still water and the river is flowing at 1 km/h.
Answer: 4 minutes 55 seconds.
Analytical geometry:
Introduction : Analytical geometry or co-ordinate geometry deals with the study of the
geometrical properties of the points, lines, curves through the use of algebraic methods
Rene Descartes (1596-1650) was the first French Mathematician, who introduced the
system of combining Algebra and Geometry and developed the subject which we now
call Algebraic Geometry or co-ordinate geometry or Analytical geometry. It was shown
that every point in a plane can be represented by an ordered pair (x, y) of real number
uniquely and conversely for every ordered pair of real numbers there exists a point in
the plane. Thus each, geometrical figure can be associated with an algebraic equation
in x and y and its properties can be studied with the help of algebraic equation.
Draw three mutually perpendicular straight lines x o x , y o y and z o z as shown in
the figure o is called the origin . The three mutually perpendicular lines are called
rectangular coordinate axes. These three axes take in pairs determine the three planes
XOY, YOZ, and ZOX (or XY, YZ and ZX) mutually at right angles known as rectangular
co-ordinate planes.
Take any point P in the plane Draw planes parallel to the rectangular coordinate
planes to meet the axes in A, B and C. Let OA = x OB = y. OZ = z. The numbers x, y, z
are called the coordinates of P and the ordered triple ( x, y, z) is used to denote the
point P.
Note: The x-axis is the line of intersection of xy and zx planes whose equations are z =
0 and y = 0. Therefore equations of the x-axis are y = 0, z= 0
Similarly the equations of the y-axis are z = 0, x = 0 and the equations of the zaxis are x = 0 , y = 0.
Equation of line in symmetrical form: To find the equation of the straight line passing
through the point A(x1,y1,z1) and having direction cosines l , m , n.
Let AB be the line in a space and A be the point (x1,y1,z1) and Let (x, y, z) be any point on the line AB and
AP = r,
Draw AL and PM perpendicular on x-axis
So that OL= x1, OM= x
LM = OM OL
LM= x x1-------( 1 )
similarly y - y1=m r
z - z1 =nr, we write
x x1 y y1 z z1
r
l
m
n
x x1 y y1 z z1
r
l
m
n
x x1
y y1
z z1
i.e.
r,
r,
r
l
m
n
x x1 lr, y y1 mr, z z1 nr,
Two point form : The equation of a line passing through two points P(x1,y1,z1) and Q (x2,y2,z2) is
x x1
y y1
z z1
x2 x1 y2 y1 z 2 z1
If a, b, c are the direction ratios of the line then
equation of the is of the form
x x1 y y1 z z1
a
b
c
Example : Find the angle between two lines
x 3 y 2 z 1
and
1
0
1
x 2 y z 1
3
4
5
Solution : The DR' s are 1,0,-1 and 3,4,5
If is the angle between them
3(1) 4(0) (-1)5
2
2
1
ExampleCos
: Convert
the line 2x y z+ 4 = 0 = 3x +2y - z into
the symmetrical form
10
5
100
100
Solution : Let a , b, c be the direction ratios
a (2) b(1) c(1) 0
a (3) b(2) c(1) 0
Solving we get a : b : c 3/2 : -2 : 1
To find a point on the straight line put z 0 in the
equation 2x y 4 0 and 3x 2y - z - 1 0
3
2
1
2
Perpendicular distance formula :
is
l
m
n
pm
x1 2 y1 2 z1 2 lx1 m y1 nz1
2x 3 2 y z 4
2
3
4
Solution : given equation of line is
2x 3 2 y z 4
2
3
4
x 3/ 2 y 2 z 4
x 4 y 2 z 3
Example : Find the coordinates of the reflection (image) of the point(2,-1,3) in the plane
3x-2y-z-9=0
r
3
2
1
Any point on this line is (3r 2,-2r - 1. - r 3)
point B is the reflection of A and M is the mid point of AB
-r 6
3r 4
coordinates of M are
,r 1,
(1)
2
2
9r 12
r 6
2r 2
9 0.
2
2
9r 12 4 r 4 r 6 18 0
14 r 8 0
4
put r - 4/7 in equation (1)
7
26 15 17
,
,
7
7
7
x x1 y y1 z z1
andthe plane ax by cz d 0.
l
m
n
Solution : If be the angle between the line and the plane,
r
then 900 is the angle between the line and the normal to
the plane (see figure)
Example : Now the direction ratios of the line are l.m.n and the direction ratios of the
normal to the plane are a,b,c
cos 90 0
or sin
sin
l
l
la mb nc
2
m n2
2
b2 c2
la mb nc
2
m2 n2
b2 c2
la mb nc
2
m2 n2
b2 c2
i) Through the point(1,-2,2) and making angles 600, 1200, 450 with positive directions of
axes.
ii) Passing through the points (-2,1,3) and (4,2,-2).
Solution: Since the line making angles 60 0, 1200, 450 with positive direction of axes,
then direction cosines are cos 600, cos1200, cos450
1 1 1
i.e , ,
.
2 2 2
which passes through the point (1,-2,2) Equation of the line are
x -1 y 2 z - 2
1
1
1
2
2
2
Given points(-2,1,3) and (4,2,-2) Therefore the equation of straight line in two point form is
Example : Find the symmetrical form of the line 2x+y-3z = 3, 3z+2y-5z-5 = 0
Solution: 2x+y-3z = 3 ; 3x + 2y -5z = 5
Put z = 0 in the equations, we get 2x+y = 3 ; 3x + 2y = 5 on solving these two equations, we get x=1,
y=1. Therefore the point on the line is (1,1,0) Equation of the line passing through (1,1,0) is
x x1
x 2 x1
y y1
z z1
y 2 y1
z 2 z1
x 2
y 1
z 3
4 2
2 1
2 3
x 2
y 1
z 3
i .e
6
1
5
i .e
i.e
x 1 y 1 z 0
(1)
a
b
c
a
b
c
1 3
3 2 2 1
2 5 5 3 3 2
a b c
a 1, b 1, c 1 equation (1) becomes
1 1 1
x 1 y 1 z 0
x 1 y 1 z
1
1
1
x 2 y 1 z 5
x
y 5 z 3
and
3
2k
2
3k
1
5
Are perpendicular each other.
Solution: The direction ratios of the given lines are -3,2k,2 and 3k,1,-5. If the lines are perpendicular,
then
(-3)(3k)+(2k)(1)+(2)(-5)=0
i.E -9k+2k-10=0
i.E k=-10/7
x 1 y 2 z 3
x2 y 3 z 4
and
2
3
4
3
4
5
Solution: The condition for the two lines to be coplanar is
x 2 x1
l1
l2
y 2 y1
m1
m2
z 2 z1
n1 0
n2
2 1 3 2 4 3
2
1 1 1
2 3 4 0
3 4 5
i, e1(15 16) 1(10 12) 1(8 9) 0
1 2 1 0
00
both the lines are coplanar
Angle between two plances:
Angle between two planes is equal to the angle between the normals to the planes from any
point
Consider two planes
ax+by+cz+d=0-----(1)
a1x+b1y+c1z+d1=0----(2)
Then a,b,c are DRs of normal to (1) and a1, b1, c1 are DRs of normal to (2)
Hence the angle between the two planes is
23 1 6 22
cos 1
2 2 12 2 2 32 6 2 2 2
4
cos 1
3x7
4
cos 1
21
Example : Find the equation of the line through the points (-2,1,3) and (4,2,-2).
Solution: Since the line is perpendicular to the plane x 3y + 2z = 4. Its direction ratios
are 1, 3 ,2. It passes through the point (1,-3,4).
Therefore the equations of the line are
x 1 y 3 z 2
1
3
4
x 1 y 3 z 1
sin 1
sin 1
2
2
2
2
2
2
l m n
a b c
2 x1 2 x3 3x2
sin 1 14
17
4 9 4 1 4 9
la mb nc
Reference:
1)Elementary Engineering Mathematics by B S Grewal
2) Higher Engineering Mathematics by B S Grewal.
3.) Mathematics textbook for class xii (part-ii) CBSE, NCERT Publication.
4.) Internet.
5. ) Advanced Engineering Mathematics by Alan Jeffrey, Elsevier publication.
6.) Higher Engineering Mathematics by John Bird. Elsevier publication.