METU
by
Prof. Dr. Osman SEVAOLU
Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 1
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Transformers - Principle
Principle
Area A2
Area A1
h1
Area1 = A1
Area2 = A2
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 2
h2
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Transformers - Principle
Basic Principle
Displacement of water on the LHS =
Displacement of water on the RHS
Area A2
Area A1
Volume1 = A1 x h1
Volume2 = A2 x h2
Volume1 = Volume2
h2
h1
A1 x h1 = A2 x h2
A1 / A 2 = h 2 / h 1
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 3
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Transformers - Principle
Basic Principle
Pressure of water on the LHS =
Pressure of water on the RHS
Pressure2
Pressure1 = Pressure2
Definition:
P = Pressure = Force / Area
Pressure1
h2
h1
P1 = P2
F 1 / A 1 = F2 / A2
or
F1 / F2 = A1 / A2
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 4
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Transformers - Principle
Basic Principle; Energy on the LHS = Energy on the RHS
F 1 / F 2 = A1 / A 2
A1 / A 2 = h 2 / h 1
or
Energy2
Energy1
F 1 / F 2 = h2 / h1
h2
or
F 1 x h 1 = F2 x h 2
h1
Definition:
Energy1 = Height1 x Force1
Energy2 = Height2 x Force2
Energy1 = Energy2
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 5
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Transformers - Principle
Basic Principle; Power on the LHS = Power on the RHS
Let us now divide both sides by t
Power2
Definition:
Power = Energy / Time
Power1
F1 x h 1 / t = F2 x h2 / t
Definition:
Water flow rate 1 = I1
= h1 / t
h1
h2
Transformers
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Transformers - Principle
Basic Principle; Power on the LHS = Power on the RHS
F1 x I1 = F2 x I2
Power2
Conservation of Power;
Power1 = Power2
Power1
h2
h1
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 7
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Primary Current
Secondary Current
Power1 = Power2
Input Power = Output Power
S1 = V1 x I1*
S2 = V2 x I2*
S1 = S2
I1
V1
I2
Transformer
V2
or
V1 / V2 = I2 * / I1*
Primary Voltage
Secondary Voltage
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 8
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Basic Principle; Power on the Primary Side = Power on the Secondary Side
Conservation of Power
Primary Current
Secondary Current
P1 = P2
Primary Power = Secondary Power
I1
I2
V1
Transformer
Primary Voltage
V2
Secondary Voltage
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 9
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Basic Principle; Energy on the Primary Side = Energy on the Secondary Side
Conservation of Energy
Primary Current
Secondary Current
W1 = W2
Primary Energy = Secondary Energy
V1 x I1* cos x t = V2 x I2* cos x t
P1 x t = P2 x t
= P x t
I1
V1
I2
Transformer
V2
W1 = S1 x cos x t
W2 = S2 x cos x t
Primary Voltage
Secondary Voltage
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 10
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Transformers - Example
Basic Principle of Conservation of Power; Power on the LHS = Power on the RHS
Conservation of Power;
Primary Voltage
Secondary Voltage
x I2
V1
V2
13 kV
154 kV
I1
4000 A
I2
Load
337.6 A
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 11
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Definition
Primary Winding
Secondary Winding
n1 n2
n = n2 / n1
Laminated Iron Core
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 12
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Lenzs Law
Statement
(t)
V (t)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 13
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Lenzs Law
Definition
Now, if we have two windings wound
around a single magnetic core
V1 (t) = n1 d/dt (t)
V2 (t) = n2 d/dt (t)
where V1(t), V2 (t) are the primary
and secondary voltages,
n1, n2 are the number of turns
in the primary and secondary
windings,
(t) is the flux passing
through the windings
n1
n2
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 14
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Lenzs Law
Definition
Now, Dividing the above equations
side by side and cancelling;
V2 (t) n2 d/dt (t)
------- = ------------------V1 (t) n1 d/dt (t)
n1
or
n2
V2 (t)/ V1(t) = n2 / n1
=n
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 15
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Definition
The relation between the primary
and secondary side voltages can
simply be stated as;
or
V2 (t) = V1 (t) x n2 / n1
= V1 (t) x n
n1
n2
similarly
V2(rms) = V1 (rms) x n2 / n1
= V1 (rms) x n
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 16
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Definition
The relation between the primary
and secondary side currents can
simply be stated as;
I1
I2 / I1 = n1 / n2
or
I2 = I1 x n1 / n2
= I1 / n
I2
V1
n1
n2
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 17
V2
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Conservation of Power
Principle of Conservation of Power
Principle of Conservation of Power
states that
Power1 = Power2
Power1 = V1(rms) I1(rms) = V1 I1
I1
Power2 = V2 I2
Hence
V2 I2
= ( n2 / n1 ) V1 ( n1 / n2 ) I1
= V1 I1
I2
V1
n1
n2
Conclusion;
Transformer does not increase or
decrease power, it just changes the
voltage and current inversely
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 18
V2
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Schematic Representation
Schematic Representation
Laminated iron core may be
represented as a frame passing
through the primary and secondary
windings
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 19
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Z L = RL + j X L
V2 = I2 ZL
I2 = I1 x n1 / n2
V2 = V1 x n2 / n1
Hence;
V1 x n2 / n1
V1 / I1
= I1 x n1 / n2 ZL
= ZL x ( n 1 / n 2 ) 2
ZL = ZL x ( n1 / n2 )2
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 20
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ZL= RL+ j XL
ZL = ZL x ( n1 / n2 )2
V2 = 0
Z L = RL + j X L
V2= 0
V2 = 0
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 21
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ZL = ZL x ( n1 / n2 )2
V2= 0
V2 = 0
I1 = V1 / ZL
n
V2= 0
V2 = 0
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 22
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ZL= RL + j XL
I1
V1
I1 = V1 / ZL
I1
V1
ZL= RL + j XL
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 23
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Example
Example
n2 / n1 = 1/5
V1 = 220 0o
)2
ZL = (0.1 + j0.2) x ( n1 / n2 )2
= 2.5 + j 5
I1 = V01o / Z/ L(2.5 + j5 )
I1 = 220
= 220 0o / 5.590 63.43o
= 39.35 -63.43o Amp
I2 = I1 n1 / n2
= 39.35 -63.43o ( n1 / n2 )
= 39.35 x 5 -63.43o
= 196.75 -63.43o Amp
ZL= RL + j XL
= 0.1+j 0.2
(n1 / n2 )2 = 25
I1
V1 = 220 0o
ZL= RL + j XL
= 2.5 + j 5
= 5.590 63.435o
n1 / n2 = 5
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 24
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Problem
Z1 = Zsource + Z primary
Z2 = Zload + Zsecondary
Z1
Z2
Solution
P2 = V2 I2* cos
Z1
Z2
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Solution (Contd)
I1 = V1 /( Z1 + Z2)
I1
Z1
Z2=R2+ jX2
V1
Z1 + Z2
j(X1 + X2)
R1 + R 2
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I1
Z1
Then;
Z2=R2+ jX2
V1
R 1 = R2
X1 = - X2
Z2 = Z 1 *
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 27
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Z1
Z2=R2+ jX2
R 1 = R2
R1 = R2 (n1 / n2)2
Hence
(n1 / n2)2 = R1 / R2
n 1 / n 2 = ( R 1 / R2 )
Since, Z1 and Z2 are both fixed,
they can not be varied.
But the turn ratio n1 / n2 can be
adjusted to match them
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 28
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 29
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 31
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1.8
1.6
1.4
Mild steel sheet
Cast steel
Cast iron
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 400
1200
2000
2800
3600
4400
5200 6000
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 32
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 33
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Node B
3 km O/H line
P+jQ
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R = Z cos
Tan-1
Load
Pavg = R Irms
Generator
500
300
S(t)
400
200
V(t)
Vrms
S(t)avg
I(t)*
100
(X/R)
-100 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Time (msec)
-200
-300
-400
V(t) Vmax*coswt
I(t) Imax*cos(wt+theta)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 35
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Load
+
V
Pavg = R Irms2
P+jQ
PL + j QL = 120 kW + j 140 kVAR
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 36
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= VL + V
= VL + ( r + jx ) I
Generator
jx
Load
I*
Vg
VL
Vg I* = VL(t) I* + ( r + jx ) I2
Power delivered
by the generator
(Variable)
Power received
by the load
(Constant)
Power losses in
the line
(Variable)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 37
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I2
Square of line or
load current
ACSR Conductor
(Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced)
l (m)
Generator
jx
Load
+
Vg
VL
r=l / A
where, r is the resistance of conductor,
is the resistivity coefficient,
= 1 / 56 Ohm-mm2/m (Copper)
1 / 32 Ohm-mm2/m (Aluminum)
l (m) is the length of the conductor
A (mm2) is the cross sectional area of
the conductor
Hence, line resistance can not be reduced
Similarly, line reactance cannot be reduced
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 38
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I2
Generator
Line resistance
and reactance
(Constant)
jx
Load
+
Vg
Active and
reactive power
losses in the line
(must be reduced)
VL
SL = VL I*
Power received by
the load
(Constant)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 39
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I*
VL
Generator
Load Voltage
(Can only be changed
by +/- 10 %)
Load
+
VL
jx
V
Vg
SL = VL I *
( VL n ) ( I * / n )
Power received by
the load
(Constant)
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Generator
jx
Load
( VL n ) ( I * / n )
VL
Vg
Active and
reactive power
losses in the line
= ( r + jx ) (I / n)2
= ( r + jx ) I2 / n2
Line resistance
and reactance
(Constant)
n2
Square of line /
Hence, loss is reduced
by n2
Example;
n = 380 000 Volt / 15 000 Volt = 25.333
n2 = 641.77
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 41
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(VL n)
Increased voltage
(High voltage)
(I* / n)
Reduced current
(Low current)
I2
I1
I3
I2
High Voltage System
V1
Transformer
Primary Voltage
V2
Secondary Voltage
V2
Secondary Voltage
Transformer
V3
Load Voltage
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 42
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V1
Transformer
Generation Voltage
13.0 kV
13.5 kV
15.0 kV
I3
I2
I2
I1
V2
Transmission Voltage
66 kV
154 kV
380 kV
V2
Transformer
Transmission Voltage
V3
Load
(Distribution) Voltage
31.5 kV
34.5 kV
6.3 kV
0.4 kV (380 Volts)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 43
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Step-up Transformer
(1/n =15 kV/154kV), 1/n = n1 / n2
I2
I1
I3
I2
High Voltage System
V1
Transformer
Generation Voltage
V2
Transmission Voltage
V2
Transformer
Transmission Voltage
V3
Load Voltage
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 44
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Step-up Transformer
(1/n =15 kV/154kV), 1/n = n1 / n2
I1
I2
I2
I3
V1
Generation Voltage
V2
Transmission Voltage
V2
Transmission Voltage
V3
Load Voltage
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 45
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Step-down Transformer
(1/n = 154 kV/34.5), 1/n = n2 / n3
Generation System
Transmission System
Distribution System
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 46
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Voltages
Primary Side
Vline = 34500 Volts
Vphase = Vline = 34500 Volt
Secondary Side
Vline = 380 Volts
Vphase = 380 / 3 = 220 Volts
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 47
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Isec.-a
Ic
c
Ica
Vsec.-a
Ibc
Vsec.-a
+
n
Ib
Ia
Iab
Vsec.-b
a
Vsec.-c
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 48
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Three-Phase Power
(Overview)
Pprim. - a
= Va Ia cos
Pprim. - b
= Vb Ib cos
Pprim. - c
= Vc Ic cos
+
Pprim. - Total = Va Ia cos + Vb Ib cos + Vc Ic cos
= 3 Vphase Iphase cos
= 3 V line Iline / 3 cos
= 3 V line Iline cos
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 49
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Three-Phase Power
(Overview)
Power on the Primary Side
PPrim. - Total = 3 V Prim.- line IPrim.-line cos
QPrim. - Total = 3 V Prim.- line IPrim.-line sin
SPrim. - Total = 3 V Prim.- line IPrim.-line
QSec. - Total
SSec. - Total
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 50
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c Ic
c
Ica
Vsec.-a
Ibc
Vsec.-a/phase
Ib
Ia
Iab
Vsec.-b
a
Vsec.-c
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 51
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c Ic
c
Ica
Vsec.-a
Ibc
Vsec.-a/phase
Ib
Ia
Iab
Vsec.-b
a
Vsec.-c
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 52
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c Ic
c
Ica
Vsec.-a
Ibc
Vsec.-a/phase
Ib
Ia
Iab
Vsec.-b
a
Vsec.-c
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 53
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Application
High buildings, where fire risk, oil
maintenance and weight is a problem
Disadvantage: Expensive !
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 54
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Transformer Windings
Line Voltage = Phase Voltage
Line Current = 3 x Phase Current
c Ic
c
Ica
Ibc
+
b
a
Iab
Ib
Ia
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 55
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Transformer Windings
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 56
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 57
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 58
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Manufacturing Process
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 59
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Manufacturing Process
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 60
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Manufacturing Process
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 61
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Transformers - Representation
Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
Ishunt
Vinput
gc
r2
jx1
r1
jx2
Iprim
Vload
bm
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 62
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Transformers - Representation
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 63
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 64
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Generator Transformers
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 65
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 66
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 67
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 68
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 69
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 70
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 71
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 72
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 73
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 74
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 75
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 76
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 77
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 78
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 79
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 80
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 81
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 82
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 83
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 84
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 85
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 86
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 87
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 88
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 89
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 90
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 91
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 92
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 93
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Kiosk Sizes
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 94
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13 kV
13.5 kV
15 kV
Transmission
66 kV
154 kV
380 kV
Distribution
0.4 kV
3.3 kV
6.3 kV
15.8 kV
31.5 kV
33 kV
34.5 kV
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 95
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Cooling of MV Transformers
Oil Circulating Radiators
Fans
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 96
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TEA
154 kV System
13.5 kV
(Gen.)
Distibution
15 kV
Distibution
34 kV
0.4 kV
Domestic
TEA
380 kV System
Distibution
6.3 kV
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 97
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 98
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 99
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REAL TRANSFORMERS
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 100
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 101
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 102
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 103
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Vno-load Vload
percent regulation
100%
Vload
Pload
Ploss
100%
power efficiency
100% 1
Pin
Pin
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 104
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 105