1. Phonetics vs.

Phonology (revisited)

Introduction to English Linguistics

Phonology:

description
of
the
speech
sounds of a specific language
(i.e. the function of sounds in
system of e.g. English)

Phonetics:

description
of
all
possible
speech sounds, independent of a
specific language

Week 4: Phonology

Thomas Hoffmann

Wed 12-14

1. Phonetics vs. Phonology (revisited)

Remember Saussure:

Def:

langue
= abstract linguistic system
shared by all speakers of
a speech community
(paradi- & syntagmatic fn!)
phonology:
part of langue
units: /phonemes/

2. Phonemes

parole
= all utterances of
the speakers in
a speech community

Phonemes are the smallest units of a

language that differentiate meaning

phonetics:
part of parole
units: [phones]

2.1 Phonemes: Minimal pairs

2.1 Phonemes: Minimal pairs

How to determine phonemes:

Minimal pairs must:

minimal pairs:
2 words that contrast in only one sound

have same number of segments:

pit-bit = minimal pair
spit-bit minimal pair

2.1 Phonemes: Minimal pairs

2.1 Phonemes: Minimal pairs

Minimal pairs must:

Minimal pairs must:

have same number of segments;

all segments must be identical except one:
lock-dock = minimal pair
blood-broad minimal pair

have same number of segments;

all segments must be identical except one;
the differing segments must be at the same
place in each word:
pit-bit = minimal pair
tip-bit minimal pair

2.1 Phonemes: Minimal pairs

2.1 Phonemes: Minimal pairs

Minimal pairs must:

paradigmatic substitution of a single sound

which gives new meaning:

have same number of segments;

all segments must be identical except one
the differing segments must be at the same
place in each word
the two words must differ in meaning:
flock-flog = minimal pair
[]-[] minimal pair

pin
bin

chin
win

2.1 Phonemes: Minimal pairs

2.2 Phonemes: Received Pronunciation (UK)

word:

RP has 44 phonemes:

[phone 1] [phone 2] [phone 3] /phoneme/

bean

[b]

[]

[n]

//

barn

[b]

[]

[n]

//

born

[b]

[]

[n]

//

boon

[b]

[]

[n]

//

burn

[b]

[]

[n]

//

20 vowel phonemes
24 consonant phonemes

2.2 Phonemes: Received Pronunciation (UK)

2.2 Phonemes: Received Pronunciation (UK)

20 vowel phonemes:

24 consonant phonemes I: 17 obstruents

Vlong
Vshort
Vdiphthong

bean barn

born boon burn

stops

pit

pet

pat

putt

pot

put

about

bay

buy

boy

no

now

peer

pair

2.2 Phonemes: Received Pronunciation (UK)

24 consonant phonemes I: 7 sonorants

nasals

sum

sun

liquids

light

right

semivowels

wet

yet

fricatives

sung

poor

affricates

pin

bin

tin

din

come

gum

fine

vine

think

this

seal

zeal

chin

gin

sheep measure how

2.3 Phonemes: Distinctive features

characteristics of a phoneme (mostly articulatory) which
unambiguously distinguish it from other phonemes
seal /s/ C: [voiceless]
zeal /z/ C: [voiced]

[fortis] [alveolar] [fricative]

[lenis] [alveolar] [fricative]

English: always [voiceless]&[tense] vs. [voiced]&[lenis]

only one needed: [+voice] vs. [-voice]
phonemes as bundles of distinctive features
[+CONSONANT] / [+VOICE] / [-VOICE] /

2.3 Phonemes: Distinctive features

2.3 Phonemes: Distinctive features

characteristics of a phoneme (mostly articulatory) which

unambiguously distinguish it from other phonemes

characteristics of a phoneme (mostly articulatory) which

unambiguously distinguish it from other phonemes

rack //
V: [short] [low] [front] [unrounded]
rock // (BE) V: [short] [low] [back] [rounded]

bit //
bat //

V: [short] [high] [front] [unrounded]

V: [short] [low] [front] [unrounded]

2.3 Phonemes: Distinctive features

2.4 Phonemes: Allophones

characteristics of a phoneme (mostly articulatory) which

unambiguously distinguish it from other phonemes

phoneme = abstract unit [langue]

phone = concrete/uttered sound [parole]

bit //
beat //

V: [short] [high] [front] [unrounded]

V: [long] [high] [front] [unrounded]

distinctive V-features: [length] [height] [front/back]

redundant/non-distinctive: [(un)rounded]

concrete realisations/variants
of one phoneme
= allophone

2.4 Phonemes: Allophones

Complementary distribution

Allophones:

the use of a certain variant/phone depends on the

sound environment (phonetic context)
e.g. voiceless stops /p/

do not differentiate meaning

if you know context (syntagmatic level)
you can predict type of allophone: complementary
distribution

/p/
[p]

[p]

spill

pill

[elsewhere]

[/#__V]

Complementary distribution

Complementary distribution

take e.g. English stops system:

the use of a certain variant/phone depends on the

sound environment (phonetic context)
e.g. clear- and dark-

Phoneme level:
Allophone:
word/syllableinitially before V
[/#__V]

voiceless:
/p/ /t/ /k/
[p] [t] [k]
(aspirated)
e.g. pet, ten, Kent

voiced:
/b/ /d/ /g/
[b] [d] [g]
(no aspiration)
bet, debt, get

//
[]

[]

clear-

dark-

light,
will you

pill

[/ __{V, }]

[elsewhere]

light

held

Complementary distribution
the use of a certain variant/phone depends on the
sound environment (phonetic context)
contextual variants
where one allophone occurs the other cannot occur
and vice versa
using wrong allophone:
doesnt change meaning!
[cf. [] and []: sound odd
but identifiable as light and pull]
Fig. 1: Different l-phones (Davis 1991: 22)

2.4 Phonemes: Allophones

2.4 Phonemes: Allophones

allophones:
do not differentiate meaning
in complementary distribution
so: [] & [] allophones of a phoneme?

allophones:
do not differentiate meaning
in complementary distribution
so: [] & [] allophones of a phoneme?
[] occurs only initially
[] occurs only finally
complementary distribution!

2.4 Phonemes: Allophones

2.4 Phonemes: Allophones

yet: note phonetic differences

Allophones:

[]

[]

voicing

velar

glottal

nasal

fricative

do not differentiate meaning

in complementary distribution
must be phonetically similar

2.5 Phonemes: Free variation

2.5 Phonemes: Free variation

the use of a certain variant/phone

does not depend on the phonetic context
do not differentiate meaning (no minimal pairs)

e.g. final-k in flock has 3 optional variants:

//
[]
(aspirated)

[]

[]
(unreleased)

esp. in careful
speech

normally
before C

despite certain preferences:

all 3 possible in same position ( allophones)
without changing meaning ( phonemes)

2.6 Phonemes: Neutralization

2.6 Phonemes: Neutralization

sometimes:
contexts where phonemic contrast
is suspended (neutralised)
in other words:
we find phone x
and are not sure
whether it is an allophone of
phoneme A or B

2.6 Phonemes: Neutralization

e.g. US English: some speakers realise /t/ and /d/ as

an alveolar tap [] between sonorants:
writer [] = rider []
thus if you hear []

unclear whether [] = allophone of /t/ or /d/

[phonemic contrast neutralized]

2.6 Phonemes: Neutralization

e.g. BE // vs. // (cf. scenic-cynic)

e.g. BE // vs. // (cf. scenic-cynic)

yet cf.: happy []

yet cf.: happy []

allophone of
[]

before V or
word-finally:
quality //

[]

before V or
word-finally:
quantity //

?//?

?//?

quality //

quantity //

3. Phonotactics

3. Phonotactics: the structure of the syllable

= the possible sound sequences

of a language
[possible syntagmatic relations]

closed : filled coda (pin)

syllable ()
onset

rhyme
nucleus

3. Phonotactics: the structure of the syllable

3. Phonotactics: the structure of the syllable

open : empty coda (two)

syllable ()
onset

rhyme
nucleus

coda

3. Phonotactics

possible syllable structure in English:

(CCC) V (CCCC)
onset = CCC: strike, skewed, squirm
coda = CCCC: prompts, texts, glimpsed

coda

manner of
articulation

acoustic shape

syllable position

vowels

[+voice]
[-obstruction]

harmonic sounds

nucleus

consonants

[+/-voice]
[+obstruction]

noise

onset/coda

nasals &
approximants

[+voice]
[+obstruction]

harmonic sounds

onset/coda
nasals & []
sometimes:
nucleus (e.g. little)

3. Phonotactics
If someone gave you four cards
with the phonemes //, //, //, //,
what possible English words
could you create out of them?
mathematical possibilities:
4*3*2*1 = 24

3. Phonotactics

3. Phonotactics

If someone gave you four cards

with the phonemes //, //, //, //,
what possible English words
could you create out of them?

not possible: e.g. *[], *[] or *[]

language-specific constraint on
sound sequences
=
phonotactics
[syntagmatic]

English: only 4 possible words!

3. Phonotactics

4. Prosody: Supra-segmental phonology

English e.g.:

prosodic features:

no word-initial [mb-] [nd-] [pt-] [kn-]

no word-initial []
all V before [] are short

extend over more than one phoneme

intonation: pitch movement in sentence
falling: Its too late. [statement]
rising: Its too late? [echo question]

4. Prosody: Supra-segmental phonology

5. Phonological processes

word stress:

prominence of syllables of a word

stressed / accented syllables:
longer, louder, higher-pitched
cf. accent []N vs. []V [accent minimal pair]
varies in E due to historical reasons
(mixed Germanic & Romance [French/Latin] vocabulary)

assimilation / dissimilation
coalesence
elision
epenthesis
reduction

5. Phonological processes

5. Phonological processes

assimilation:

dissimilation:
one sound influences another
so as to make the two more alike:

anticipatory/regressive: [A B] A affected
e.g. good morning // []
perseverative/progressive: [A B] B affected
e.g. book + plural -s

e.g. dog + plural -s

note: assimilation can be partial (e.g. [])
or total (e.g. [])

one sound influences another

so as to make the two more different:
e.g. Ital. colonello > French coronel [ > E colonel ]

5. Phonological processes

5. Phonological processes

coalescence:

elision:
two sounds combine
to produce a single new one
= reciprocal assimilation

omission/deletion of a sound
e.g. Christmas // []
e.g. last week // []

e.g. this year // []

5. Phonological processes

5. Phonological processes

epenthesis:

reduction:
insertion of a sound

liaison:
pronunciation of a sound of word only in certain contexts
e.g. linking-r: tear it //// [ ] [non-rhotic E]
intrusion:
insertion of a sound that is not part of a word
e.g. intrusive-r: Asia and Africa
[ ]
[non-rhotic E]
e.g. length // []

reduction of a sound in unstressed position

e.g. a man stressed: [ ] / unstressed: [ ]
also accent []N vs. []V
in E: reduction of unstressed V to [] (also [] and [])