CONTENTS
PAGE NO.
1. INTRODUCTION
2.1 Planning
2.2 Alignment
10
11
11
3.7 Camber
12
12
13
13
13
16
18
18
19
30
35
47
48
INTRODUCTI0N
The term highway is used to mean a public road,
indicates
and a road
1
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN ON BLACK COTTON SOIL
2
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN ON BLACK COTTON SOIL
PLANNING :-
2. ALIGNMENT :considerations The position or the layout of the centre line of the
highway on the ground is called the Valignment. The horizontal alignment
includes the straight path, the horizontal deviations and curves. Changes
in gradient and vertical curves are covered under vertical alignment of
roads.
A new road should be aligned very carefully as improper alignment
would result in one or more of the following disadvantages :
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
3
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN ON BLACK COTTON SOIL
Factors Controlling Alignment :For an alignment to be shortest, it should be straight between the two terminal
stations. This is not always possible due to various practical difficulties such as
intermediate obstructions and topography. A shortest route may have very steep
gradients and hence not easy for vehicle operation. Similarly, there may be
construction and maintenance problems along a route which may otherwise be
short and easy. Roads are often deviated from the shortest route in order to
cater for intermediate places of importance or obligatory points.
Obligatory points
(b)
Traffic
(c)
Geometric design
(d)
Economics
Map study
(b)
Reconnaissance
(c)
Preliminary surveys
(d)
Reconnaissance :-
5
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN ON BLACK COTTON SOIL
The
second
stage
of
surveys
for
highway
location
is
the
Valleys,
ponds,
lakes,
marshy
land,
ridge,
hills,
permanent
structures and other obstructions along the route which are not
available in the map.
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Soil type along the routes from field identification tests and
quarries.
(vi)
Preliminary Survey:(i)
6
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN ON BLACK COTTON SOIL
(ii)
good alignment.
(iii)
Final Location and Detailed Survey:The alignment finalised at the design office after the preliminary
survey is to be first located on the field by establishing the centre line.
Next detailed survey should be carried out for collecting the information
necessary for the preparation of plans and construction details for the
highway project.
Location
The centre line of the road finalised in the drawings is to be
translated on the ground during the location survey. This is done using a
transit theodolite and by staking of the centre line. The location of the
centre line should follow, as closely as practicable, the alignment finalised
after the preliminary surveys. Major and minor control points are
established on the ground and centre pegs are driven, checking the
geometric design requirements. However modifications in the final
location may be made in the field, if found essential. The centre line
stakes are driven at suitable intervals, say at 50 metre intervals in plain
and rolling terrains and at 20 metre in hilly terrain.
Detailed survey
Temporary bench marks are fixed at intervals of about 250 metre
and at all drainage and under pass structures. Levels along the final
centre line should be taken at all staked points. Levelling work is of great
importance as the vertical alignment, earth work calculations and
drainage details are to be worked out from the level notes. The cross
section levels are taken upto the desired width, at intervals of 50 to 100
metre in plain terrain, 50 to 75 metre in rolling terrain, 50 metre in builtup areas and 20 metre in hilly terrain. The cross sections may be taken at
7
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN ON BLACK COTTON SOIL
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Intersection elements
Under cross section elements, the considerations for the width of
pavement, formation and land, the surface characteristics and cross slope
of pavement are included. The sight distance or clear distance visible
ahead of a driver at horizontal and vertical curves and at intersections
govern the safe movements of vehicles.
Classification of Rural Roads
The rural roads in India are commonly referred to:
(i)
(ii)
3.2 Terrain Classification:The general slope of the country classifies the terrain across the
area. The terrain is an important parameter governing the geometric
standards and the criteria given in Table 2.1 should be followed. While
classifying a terrain short isolated stretches of varying terrain should not
be taken into
consideration.
Classification
Plain
More than 1 in 10
Rolling
1 in 10 to 1 in 4
Mountainous
1 in 4 to 1 in 1.67
Steep
9
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN ON BLACK COTTON SOIL
cent
3.3 Design Speed :Design speed is a basic criterion for determining all geometric
features of horizontal and vertical alignments. The design speeds for the
rural roads should be taken as given in Table.
DESIGN SPEED
Road
Classifica
tion
Rural
Roads
(ODR
and VR)
Rolling
Terrain
Mountainou
s Terrain
Steep
Terrain
Ruling
Min.
Rulin
g
Min.
Rulin
g
Min.
Ruli
ng
Min.
50
40
40
35
20
25
20
Normally ruling design speed should be the guiding criterion for the
purpose of geometric design. Minimum design speed may, however, be
adopted where site condition and cost does not permit a design based on
"Ruling Design Speed".
3.4 Roadway width :Roadway width inclusive of parapet, side drains for rural roads for
different terrain shall be as given in Table.
10
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN ON BLACK COTTON SOIL
7.5
6-0
3.75
3.5Side-slopes : Side slope for rural road where embankment height less than 3.0 m is
given in Table.
Slope (H:V)
in
2:1
silty/sandy/gravelly soil
Embankment in clay or clayey
silt or inundated
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FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN ON BLACK COTTON SOIL
21/21 to 3:1
Cuttingm
silty/sandy/gravelly
1:1 to 1/2:1
1/:1 to 1/4:1
soil
conglomerate
Cutting in soft rock like shale
1/4:1 to 1/8:1
Cutting
like
1/12 to 1/16:1
like
Near vertical
in
medium
rock
sandstone, phyllite
Cutting
in
hard
rock
quartzite, granite
Camber (Percent)
Low Rainfall (Annual
Rainfall > 1000 mm)
High
Rainfall
(Annual Rainfall M <
1000 mm)
4.0
5.0
gravel
3.5
4.0
Thin
bituminous
pavement
3.0
3.5
Rigid pavement
2.0
2.5
Earth road
WBM
road
and
3.7Vertical curve:Vertical curves are introduced for smooth transition at grade changes.
Both summit curves and valley curves should be designed as parabola.
The length of the vertical curve is controlled by sight distance
requirements, but curves with greater length are aesthetically better.
Curves should be provided at all grade changes exceeding those given in
12
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN ON BLACK COTTON SOIL
Maximum Grade
Change (%) Not
Requiring a Vertical
Curve
Minimum Length of
Vertical Curve (meter)
Up to 35
1.5
15
40
1.2
20
50
1.0
30
3.8 Summit Curve : The length of summit curve is governed by the choice of sight
distance according to the operating condition of the road.
Flexible pavements
(ii)
Rigid pavements
4.1.1 Rigid pavement:Rigid pavements are those which possess note worthy flexural strength or
flexural rigidity. The stresses are not transferred from grain to grain to the
lower layers as in the ease of flexible pavement layers. The rigid
pavements are made of Portland cement concrete-either plain, reinforced
or prestressed concrete.
The rigid pavement does not get deformed to the shape of the
lower surface as it can bridge the minor variations of lower layer
The cement concrete pavement slab can very well serve as a
wearing surface as well an effective base course.
14
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN ON BLACK COTTON SOIL
the cement concrete slab can also be laid directly over the soil sub
grade.The rigid Though pavements are usually designed and the stresses
are analyzed using the elastic theory, assuming the pavement as an
elastic plate resting over elastic or a viscous foundation.
4.1.2 Flexible pavements:Flexible pavements are those, which on the whole have low or negligible
flexural strength and are rather flexible in their structural action under the
loads. The flexible pavement layers reflect the deformation of the lower
layers on-to the surface of the layer. Thus if the lower layer of the
payment or soil sub grade is undulated, the flexible pavement surface
also
gets
undulated.
Atypical
flexible
pavement
consists
of
four
components: (i) soil sub grade (ii) sub-base course (iii) base course and
(iv) surface course.
The flexible pavement layers transmit the vertical or compressive
stresses to the lower layers by grain to grain transfer through the points
of contact in the granular structure. A well compacted granular structure
consisting of strong graded aggregate (interlocked aggregate structure
with or without binder materials) can transfer the compressive stresses
through a wider area and thus forms a good flexible pavement layer.
The flexible pavement may be constructed in a number of layer and
the top layer, in addition to the wear and tear due to the traffic.
1.
2.
3.
4.
1.soil subgrade: -
15
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN ON BLACK COTTON SOIL
2.sub base course:The sub base course functions as a support to the road
surface and its foundation .the life of road depend on primarily on stable
and dry subgrade.its level may be same as or above or below the natural
ground level .the support given to the road structure by the subgrade is
an important factor and hence , considerable attention should be paid to
the proper preparation of subgrade before the road structure is laid on it
4. Surfacing:-
The top most layer on which the traffic directly travels is known as
4.2 Design Wheel Load :The wheel load configurations are important to know the way in
which the loads of a given vehicle are applied on the pavement surface.
Typical wheel load configuration of a tractor trailer unit of a heavy duty
vehicle. For highways the maximum legal axle load as specified by India
Roads congress is 8170 kg with a maximum equivalent single wheel load
4085kg. Total load influences the thickness requirements of pavements.
Tyre pressure influences the quality of surface (wearing) course.
:-
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mcleod method
6.
Burmister method
7.
In 1928 California
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FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN ON BLACK COTTON SOIL
4.3Pavement Thickness DETERMINATION:In order to design a pavement Thus the total thickness of flexible
pavement needed to cover the sub grade of the known CBR value is
obtained. In case there is a material superior than the soil sub grade, such
that it may be sued as sub-base course then the thickness of construction
over this material could be obtained from the design chart knowing the
CBR value of the sub-base. Thickness of the sub-base course is the total
thickness minus the thickness over the sub-case. Thus CBR method of
flexible pavement design is based on strength parameter of sub grade soil
and subsequent pavement material.
4.5 TRAFFIC DESIGN:Traffic volume studies are conducted to determine the number,
movements, and classifications of road way vehicles at a given location.
These data can help identify critical flow time periods determine the
influence of large vehicles or pedestrians on vehicular traffic flow, or
18
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN ON BLACK COTTON SOIL
(1) manual
(2) Automatic.
Property
1. Black cotton soils are clays of high plasticity.
2. They certain essentially the clay mineral montmorillonite.
3. The soils have high shrinkage and swelling characteristics .
4. The shearing strength of the soils is extremely low.
5. The sails are highly compressible and have very low bearing
capacity.
6. It is extremely difficult to work with such soils.
METHODOLOGY
19
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN ON BLACK COTTON SOIL
The two type work was carried out shown belowA. Fieldwork
B. Laboratory Work
After obtaining soil samples, the tests which were performed on soil
sample are listed below 1. Natural Moisture Content
2. Specific Gravity
3. Sieve Analysis
4. Liquid Limit
5. Plastic Limit
6. Light Compaction
7. Direct Shear Test
8. C.B.R. Test
FIELD WORK -:
The soil sampling was carried out in the field.
Soil Sampling - Two types of samples which are to be taken from
medical college site by means of Auger, soil samplers etc. areThe sample
obtained by column of soil isolated in the pit. The soil was carefully
removed around the soil column and it was then properly trimmed. An
open ended box was then placed over the soil column. The spaces
between the columns were filled with paraffin. A spade or a plate with
sharp edges was inserted below. The box and the sample were cutted
from its base. The box filled with soil sample was then removed. It was
20
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN ON BLACK COTTON SOIL
turned over and the soil surface in the box is trimmed, and depression is
filled with paraffin.
This sample used for determining the engineering properties of the
soil; such as shear strength and consolidation. Some index properties
such as shrinkage limit also be determine.
Laboratory Work
Laboratory work was carried out on the given samples of soil obtained
from medical college site
1. NATURAL MOISTURE CONTENT : In almost all soil tests natural moisture content of the soil is to be
determined. The knowledge of the natural moisture content is essential in
all studies of soil mechanics. To site a few natural moisture content is
21
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN ON BLACK COTTON SOIL
Minimum
quantity
of
soil
specimen
passing
425-micron IS sieve
25
2 mm IS sieve
50
4.75 mm IS sieve
200
9.5 mm IS sieve
300
19 mm IS sieve
500
37.5 mm IS sieve
1000
Keep the container in the oven with lid removed and maintain the
1.
2.
Find the mass M3 of the container with lid and dried soil sample The
natural moisture content was determined with the help of distrubed
Sample obtained from different depths. The values of natural moisture
content shown below-:
S.No.
Depth in meter
Natural Moisture
1-00-1-35
content (%)
17.8
2.5-2.85
19.4
Test Procedure
1.
Clean the pycnometer and dry it. Find the mass (Mi) of the
pycnometer. Find the mass at the pycnometer plus soil etc. (M1).
3.
Fill the pycnometer to half its height with distilled water and mix it
thoroughly with g rod. Add more water and stu it. Replace the screw top
and ffl\ the pycnometer flush with ht> the conical cap. Dry the
pycnometer from outside, and find the mass (M3).
4.
(M1).
gravity.
Calculations. The Specific Gravity is calculated from Eq. 3.3 :
The specific gravity of soil grains (or solids) usually Called soil is ratio of
the weight in air of the given volume of dry soil solids at a stated
temperature to the weight on air of an equal volume of distilled water at a
temperature. Specific gravity was determined with the help of
pycnometer in the laboratory. The disturbed sample was taken. From the
site and subject to pycnometer test and specific gravity was determined.
The specific gravity was determined the specific gravity of soil sample of
different depths shown below
RESULT
S.No.
Depth in meter
Specific Gravity
1-00-1-35
2-66
2.5-2.85
2-67
3 - Sieve analysis :Sieve analysis or mechanical analysis is carried out for one
classification of soil, for this purpose the test was conduct on the
23
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN ON BLACK COTTON SOIL
disturbed sample of soil, which was obtained from the medical college site
kept for sieve analysis.
Water was used for sieve analysis because the soil was and silt particles
dislodged very easily around the sand particles when the water with
hexameter phosphate is used to clean the soil The sieve sizes were taken
for the sieve analysis
IS sieve 20 , 10mm, 4.75mm, 2mm, 1mm, 600 micron, 425 micron, 300
micron, 75 micron.
S.no
% finer N
20 mm
100
10 mm
100
4.75 mm
100
2 mm
99.7
1 mm
99.5
600 mica.
95.3
425 mica
98.9
300 mica.
98.7
9.
125 mica.
96.9
10.
75 mica
93.5
By means of the gauge on the handle of the grooving tool and the
micron sieve, and mix it thoroughly with distilled water in the evaporating
dish or on the marble plate so that uniform paste is formed Leave the soil
for sufficient time so that water may permeate throughout the soil mass.
In the case of fat clays, this maturing time may be upto 24 hours. For an
average soil, thorough mixing for
about15 to 30 minutes may be sufficient. The amount of water to be
added depends on the type of soil and is a matter of experience.
3. Take a portion of the paste with the spatula and place it in the centre of
the cup so that
it is almost half filled. Level off the top of the wet soil symmetrically with
the spatula, so that it is parallel to the rubber base and the maximum
depth of the soil is 1 cm.
4. With the help of grooving tool 'a', the paste in the cup is divided
along the cup diameter
5. Turn the handle of the apparatus at the rate of 2 revolutions per
seconds, until the two parts of the soil come in contact with the bottom of
the groove along a distance of 10 mm. Record the number of blows
25
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN ON BLACK COTTON SOIL
Plastic
Limit
Plastic limit is defined as the minimum water content at which a soil will
just begin to crumble when rolled into a thread approximately 3 mm in
diameter.
Undisturbed soil specimen was taken from medical college site allowed to
pass through 4.25 micron sieve. Passed soil was mixed with water
thoroughly. Until the soil mass becomes plastic enough to be easily mould
with fingers. After some time ball was made of soil mass and then rolled
between the finger and a glass plate till the soil just crumble. The crumble
threads were kept for water content determination. We have repeated the
test twice with fresh sample of soil. Plastic limit was taken as the average
of three water content.
Test was organized with the soil sample at different depth the plastic limit
obtained from different depth were shown in table.
1. Take about 20 g of air dried soil from the thoroughly mixed
portion of the material passing420 micron IS sieve. Mix it on the marble
plate with sufficient distilled water to make it plastic enoughto be shaped
into a ball. Leave the plastic soil mass for some time to mature. In some
fat clays, theplastic soil mass may be left to stand for 24 hours to allow
water to permeate throughout the soil mass.
2.
Take about 8 g of the plastic soil, make a ball of it, and roll it on
the marble (or glass)plate with the hand with just sufficient pressure to
roll the mass into a thread of uniform diameter throughout its length.
When the diameter of the thread has decreased to 3 mm, the specimen
is kneaded together and rolled out again. Continue the process until
thread just crumbles at 3 mm diameter.
26
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN ON BLACK COTTON SOIL
Collect the crumbled soil thread in the airtight container and keep
it for water content determination The test is repeated twice more. Thus
three readings are obtained for the determination.
4.
Light compaction
Purpose
Soil placed as engineering fill (embankments, foundation pads, road bases) must be
compacted to the selected density and water content to ensure the desired performance and
engineering properties such as shear strength, compressibility, or permeability. Also,
foundation soils are often compacted to improve their engineering properties. Laboratory
compaction tests provide the basis for determining the percent compaction and water content
needed in the field, and for controlling construction to assure that the target values are
achieved. In a geotechnical laboratory you would prepare at least four (preferably five)
specimens with water contents bracketing the estimated optimum water content. A specimen
having a water content close to optimum would be prepared first by trial additions of water
and mixing and then water contents for the rest of the specimens would be selected to provide
at least two specimens wet and two specimens dry of optimum, and water contents varying by
about 2%, but no more than 4%. In this laboratory exercise each group in yours ection will
compact one of the specimens at a specific water content, as directed by the laboratory
instructor, and the results from all the groups will be combined later. The data, when plotted,
represents a curvilinear relationship known as the compaction curve. The values of optimum
water content and standard maximum dry unit weight are determined from the compaction
curve. These test methods apply only to soils (materials) that have 20% or less by mass of
particles retained on the No.4 (4.75 mm) sieve.
Procedure
Specimen preparation
1. Obtain from your laboratory instructor a sample of the soil to be tested.
You will need approximately2 kg.
2. Without previously drying the sample, pass it through a No. 4 (4.7 mm)
sieve. Determine the water
27
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN ON BLACK COTTON SOIL
middle of its thickness. Place the loading pad on the top of the plain grid
plate. Both the parts of the box should be tightened together by the
fixing screws.
Put water inside the water jacket so that the sample does not get dried
during the test.
2.Mount the shear box assembly cn the load frame (or shearing
machine). Set the lower part of the box to bear against the load jack and
the upper part of the box to bear against the proving ring set the dial of
the proving ring to zero.
3.Put the loading yoke on the top of the loading pad, and adjust the dial
gauge to zero to measure the vertical displacement in the soil sample.
Put proper normal weight on the hanger of the loading yoke, so that this
weight plus the weight of the hanger equals the required normal load.
Note the reading of the vertical displacement dial gauge.
4.Remove the locking screws so that the parts are freed to move against
each other. By turning the racing screws, raise the upper part slightly
above the lower parts by about 1 mm.
5.Conduct the test by applying horizontal shear load to failure or to 20 per
cent longitudinal displace me-. whichever occur first. The rate of strain
may vary from 1 to 2.5 mm per minute. Start the stop wan:: immediately
at the start of the application of the shear load. Take the readings of
proving ring gauge, longitudinal displacement gauge and vertical
displacement gauge at regular time intervals.
6.At the end of the test, remove specimen from the box and determine
its final water content. Rer^_: the above steps on three or four identical
specimens, under varying normal loads In many engineering problems
such as design of foundation retaining walls. Slab bridges. Piping sheet
piling the value of the angle of internal friction and cohesion of the soil
involved are required for the design. Direct shear test is used to predict
these parameters quickly. The laboratory reports cover the laboratory
procedures for determining these values for cohesion less soil.
mould of 60 mm x 60 size after cutting all the edges sharply was taken
out the obtained soil sample was placed in the direct shear box.
Horizontal dial gauge in attached to the shear box from which division
were obtained corresponding to which shear stress value was calculated
Observation of test shown next page
Normal stress kg/cm2
0.1
0.832
0.2
0.850
0.3
0.862
The graph was plotted between normal stress and shear stress which was
a straight line. The graph was shown in fig
Result- The Value obtained from the observation table for was plotted on
graph to get the value of cohesion (C) and angle of internal friction ()
1. From fig
C = 0.82 kg/cm2
= 80
Note- typical photo views of direct shear apparatus is shown in fig
30
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN ON BLACK COTTON SOIL
The following table gives the standard loads adopted for different
penetrations for the standard material with a C.B.R. value of 100%
Equipments and tool required
1. Cylindrical mould with inside dia 150 mm and height 175 mm,
provided with a detachable extension collar 50 mm height and a
detachable perforated base plate 10 mm thick.
2. Spacer disc 148 mm in diameter and 47.7 mm in height along with
handle.
3. Metal rammers. Weight 2.6 kg with a drop of 310 mm (or) weight
4.89 kg a drop 450 mm.
4. Weights. One annular metal weight and several slotted weights
weighing 2.5 kg each, 147 mm in dia, with a central hole 53 mm in
diameter.
5. Loading machine. With a capacity of at least 5000 kg and equipped
with a movable head or base that travels at an uniform rate of 1.25
mm/min. Complete with load indicating device.
6. Metal penetration piston 50 mm diameter minimum of 100 mm in
length.
7. Two dial gauges reading to 0.01 mm.
8. Sieves. 4.75 mm and 20 mm I.S. Sieves.
32
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN ON BLACK COTTON SOIL
C.B.R. APPRATUS
2.
3.
33
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN ON BLACK COTTON SOIL
34
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN ON BLACK COTTON SOIL
of
Pavement design
the
properties
of
the
aggregates
are
of
considerable
Crushing test
(b)
Abrasion test
(c)
Impact Test
(d)
Soundness
(e)
Shape test
39
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN ON BLACK COTTON SOIL
ABRASION TESTS :
40
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN ON BLACK COTTON SOIL
Impact Test :
A test designed to evaluate the toughness of stone of the resistance
of the aggregates to fracture under repeated impacts is called impact
test. The aggregate impact test is commonly carried out to evaluate the
resistance to impact of aggregates and has been standardized by ISI.
The aggregate impact value indicates a relative measure of
resistance of aggregate to impact, which has a different effect then the
resistance to gradually increasing compressive stress. The aggregate
impact testing machine consists of a metal base and a cylindrical steel
cup of internal diameter 10.2 cm and depth 5cm in which the aggregate
specimen is placed. A metal hammer of weight of 13.5-14.0 kg having a
free fall from a height 38 cm is arranged to drop through vertical guides.
The aggregates impact machine.
41
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN ON BLACK COTTON SOIL
Shape Tests
The particle shape of aggregate mass is determine by the
percentages of flaky and elongated particles contained in it and by its
angularity. The evaluation of shape of the particles made in terms of
flakiness index, elongation index and angularity number.
the flakiness index of aggregate is the percentage
by weight of
than 6.3 mm. Standard thickness gauge is used to gauge the thickness of
the samples. The sample of aggregates to be tested is sieved through a
set of sieves and separated into specified size ranges. Now to separate
the flaky material , the aggregates which pass through the appropriate
slot would the 0.6 of the average of the size range If the size range of
aggregate in a group is 16-20mm, the width of the slot to be selected in
thickness gauge would be 18x0.6 =10.8mm. The flaky material passing
the appropriate slot from sample taken from the different size range is W,
the flatness index is given by 10w/W percent , or in other words it is the
percentage of flaky materials, the widths of which are less than 0.6 of the
mean dimensions. It is desirable that the flatness index aggregates used
in road construction is less than the 15 percent and normally does not
exceed 25 percent.
Angularity Number :
Based on the shape of the aggregate particles, they may be
classified as rounded. irregular or partly rounded, angular and flaky ,
Angular particles posses well defined edges formed at the intersection of
roughly plane faces and are commonly found in aggregates prepared by
crushing of rocks. Since weaker aggregates may be crushed down during
the test. Angularity or absence of rounding of the particles of an
aggregate is a property which is of importance because it affects the ease
of handling a mixture of aggregate and binder.
The
BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
43
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN ON BLACK COTTON SOIL
(ii)
44
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN ON BLACK COTTON SOIL
Bitumen and
(ii)
Tar
Bitumen may be further divided as petroleum
(i)
mixing
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Tests on Bitumen
Bitumen is available in a variety and grades. To judge the suitability
of these binders various physical tests have been specified by agencies
like ASTM , Asphalt Institute , British standard Institution and the ISI.
These tests include penetration test. ductility tests, softening point test
and viscocity test For Classifying bitumen and studying the performance
of bituminous pavements , the penetration and ductility tests are
essential. The other tests like softening point and flash and fire point tests
are more been recornized that the above tests are not sufficient to define
the temperature possessing same penetration value at a specified
temperature may exhibit entirely different viscous charactertistics at the
application or service temperatures. These tests therefore may need
intensive correlation with fundamental property like viscocity.
The various tests on bituminous materials are :
(a)
Penetration tests
Penetration test
The penetration determines the hardness or softness of bitumen by
measuring the depth in tenths of a millimeter to which a standard loaded
needle with penetrate vertically in five seconds. The sample is maintained
at a temperature of 250C . The concept of penetration test. Indian
Standard Institution has standardized the equipment and test procedure.
The penetrometer consists of a needle assembly with a total weight
of 100g and device for releasing and locking in any position. There is a
graduated dial to read to penetration values to 1/10th of a millimeter.
The bitumen is softened to a pouring consistency, stirred thoroughly
and poured into containers to a depth at least 15mm in excess of the
expected penetration. The sample containers are then placed in a
temperature controlled water bath at a temperature 25 0C for one hour. At
least three penetration tests are made on this sample by testing at
distances of at least 10mm apart . After each test the needle is
disengaged and wiped with benzene and dried. The depth of penetration
is reported in on-tenth millimeter units. The mean value of three
measurements is reported as a penetration value. It may be noted that
the penetration value is largely influenced by an inaccuracy as regards
pouring temperature size of needle, weight placed on the needle and the
test temperature.
The penetration value of various types of bitumen used in pavement
construction in this country range between 20 and 225, 30/40 and 80/100
grade bitumen are more commonly used, depending on construction type
and climatic conditions. In hot climates a lower penetration grade bitumen
like 30/40 bitumen is preferred.
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FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN ON BLACK COTTON SOIL
Ductility test :
In the flexible pavement construction where bitumen binders are
used, it is important that the binders from ductile this films around the
aggregates. This serves as a satisfactory binder in improving the physical
interlocking of the aggregate bitumen mixes. Under traffic loads the
bitumen pavement layer is subjected to repeated deformation and
recoveries. The binder material which does not possess sufficient ductility
would crack and provide pervious pavement surface. Ductility test is
carried out on bitumen to test this property of the binder.
The test is
is cut and the surface is leveled using a hot knife. The mould assembly
containing sample is replaced in water bath the ductility testing machine
85 to 95 minute. The sides of the mould are removed, the clips hooked on
the machine and the pointer is adjusted to zero. The distance up to the
point of breaking of thread is reported in centimeters as ductility value.
The ductility values gets seriously affected by factors such as pouring
temperature , dimensions of briquette, level of briquette in the water bath
, presence of air pockets in the modulus briquettes, test temperature and
rate of pulling.
.
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FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN ON BLACK COTTON SOIL
CONCLUSION
Site investigation or subsoil investigation are done for obtaining the
information about subsurface condition at the site of proposed
construction. Site investigation in one form or the other is generally
required for every big engineering project. Information abot the surface
and subsurface features is essential for the design of structures and for
planning constructing. The following results are obtained from the medical
college site :1. Natural moisture content of the given soil sample varies
between 17% - 20%.
2. Specific gravity of the given soil sample varies between 2.6 to
2.7
3. From sieve analysis one thing is clear that the soil is fine and
it is clay because more than 50% soil passes through the 75
micron is sieve.
4. The liquid limit of soil is very high and varies between 48% to
61% hence, it offers low shearing resistance and the shear
strength of soil is relatively lower than the other soil. Also soil
will absorb more water due to the presence of clay particles.
5. Plastic limit of given soil sample varies between 24% to 26%
and the plasticity index of soil lies between 28% to 34%.
6. Maximum dry density of a given soil samples varies between
1.87 gm/cm to 1.89 gm/cm
7. The value of cohesion intercept and angle of internal friction
obtained from direct shear test lies between 0.74% kg/cm2 to
0.82 kg/cm2 and 70 to 80 respectively.
8. Calculated value of California bearing ratio is 17 cm of
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FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN ON BLACK COTTON SOIL
REFERENCES
1. SOIL MECHNICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING BY B .C. PUNMIA
2. SOIL MECHNICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING BY DR. K. R. ARORA
3. BASIC AND APPLIED SOIL MECHANIC BY RANJAN GOPAL & RAO
4. SOIL TESTING AND LABORATORY MANUAL BY APPARAO K.V.S. & V.C.S. RAO
AND FROM
5. INTERNET
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FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN ON BLACK COTTON SOIL