Nnamdi Azikiwe University

2013/2014 Second Semester

MAT 241: Number Theory
Author: Frances Odumodu

Contents
1 Basic Set Theory
1.1 Relations between
1.2 Set Identities . .
1.3 Quantifiers . . . .
1.4 Indexed sets . . .

sets
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2 Symbolic Logic
2.1 Basic Logical Operations
2.2 Important equivalences .
2.3 Quantifiers . . . . . . . .
2.4 Exercise . . . . . . . . .

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3 Methods of Mathematical Proofs

3.1 Direct Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Indirect Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.1 Proof by Contraposition . . . . . . .
3.2.2 Proof by Contradiction . . . . . . . .
3.3 Proof by Cases (Exhaustion) . . . . . . . . .
3.4 Existence Proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5 Uniqueness proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6 Proof of Universal statements . . . . . . . .
3.7 Proof of Statements of the form p (q r)
3.8 Principle of Mathematical Induction . . . .
3.9 Pigeon Hole Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.10 Counter Examples and General Comments .
3.11 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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4 Relations
4.1 Ordered pairs and cartesian products
4.2 Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Equivalence Relation . . . . . . . . .
4.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Outline
Mathematics is the queen of the sciences and number theory is the queen of
Mathematics. Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss
Basic set theory. Symbolic logic. Methods of mathematical proof. Relationspartial ordering, equivalence, upper and lower bounds, maximal, minimal,
maximum and minimum elements of sets of real numbers. Elementary treatment of the well ordering principle, Zorns lemma and axiom of choice.
Prime numbers - infinitude of divisibility and modulo systems. GCDs and
LCMs. Euclids division algorithm. The fundamental theorem of arithmetic
or unique factorization theorem. Congruences and residue classes. Eulers
totient and the chinese remainder theorem. Continued fractions and the solvability of linear congruence. Transversals and the solvability of polynomial
congruence (elementary treatment only).

Part I: Set Theory and Logic

Basic Set Theory

Set theory is at the foundation of Mathematics, and nearly every Mathematical object of interest is a set of some kind. Larry Gerstein
A set is a well-defined collection of objects. That is, it is defined in such a
way that we can determine for a given object x whether or not x belongs to
the set.
Example
The set of all sentences of a language.
The set of living human beings.
The set of vowels of the English language.
The set of students absent from this class.
The even integers 2, 4, 6, . . ..
If S is a set and s belongs to S, we write s S and say that s is an element
of S. If s does not belong to S, we write s 6 S. Example. If S = {s, t, u}
then s S and 4 6 S.
Sets are determined by their elements. Thus, we may define a set by listing its
members. The set is then said to be in tabular form. Example. A = {1, 2, 3}.
The order in which the elements are listed is irrelevant. Thus, {1, 2, 3} and
{3, 1, 2} represent the same set. Also, repetition of elements does not affect
the set being represented. For example, {1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3} is the same set as
{1, 2, 3}.
Many sets that occur frequently are given standard names:
N = {1, 2, 3, 4, . . .}, the natural numbers or positive integers.
Z = {. . . , 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .} the set of integers or whole numbers.
Q = {x : x = ab for some a, b Z, b 6= 0} the set of rational numbers
or the rationals.
R the set of real numbers or the reals.
A set may also be defined by stating a property that completely characterises
the elements of a set. That is, it determines whether or not an object x
4

belongs to a set. The set is then said to be in set builder form. Examples. The
set of all planets in the solar system. The set of Mathematical Instruments.
Given a property P and an element s of a set S. We wrte P (s) to indicate
that s has property P . For a given element s, the statement P (s) should
either be True or False. Thus, we can write a set A = {s S : P (s)}, the
set of all elements of S having the property P .
1. E = {x : x is an even integer and x > 0}
= {x Z : x = 2y for some y Z}.
2. B = {x : x Z and 0 x 1000} = {0, 1, 2, . . . , 1000}.

Note that if we are given a set of the form S = {, Goodluck , 53, spaghetti , 4},
then it would be difficult to find a property that characterises the elements.
Exercise.
1. Describe the following sets in the form {x : p(x)}.
(a) A = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, . . .}.
(b) B = {1, 2, 5, 10, 17, 26, 37, 50, . . .}.
(c) C = {1, 5, 9, 13, 17, 21, . . .}.
(d) D = {1, 12 , 13 , 14 , 14 , . . .}.
(e) E = {lemon , 1, 2, 3, 4, . . .}.
2. List the elements in the set {x Q : x N and 1 x 3}.
3. True or False.
(a) {1, 2, 3} = {3, 1, 2}.
(b) {a, c, b} = {b, b, c, c, a, c}.
(c) t {2, 5}.
(d) {1, 2}.
(e) {1, 2} = {1, 2}.
(f) {x R : x2 = 2} = .

1.1

Relations between sets

Subset relation Given two sets, we may speak of whether or not one set
is contained in the other. A set A is said to be a subset of a set B if every
element of A is also an element of B. Notation: A B.
In symbols: A B if and only if , for all x, if x A, then x B. That is.
A B x, x A = x B
If A is not a subset of B, we write A * B. To get the characterisation, we
negate the statement for A B. That is
A * B (x, x A = x B)
x such that x A ; x B
x such that x A and x B
Thus, to show that A * B, it suffices to show that A contains an element
which is not in B.
Exercise. Show that A A. Show also that if A B and B C, then
A C.
Example. N N Q R C.
A set A is said to be a proper subset of a set B if A is contained in B but
B is not contained in A. That is, there is an element in B which is not an
element of A. In symbols, A B A B and A 6= B. Notation: A B
or A ( B or A $ B.
Example. {1, 7} 6 {1, 7} {1, 2, 7} and A for any nonempty set A.
Let A = {1, 2}, B = {1, 2, 3}, C = {3, {1, 2}} and D = {1, 2, {1, 2}}. Then,
A B, A
/ B, A C, A * C, A D and A D.
Set equality. Two sets A and B are equal when they consist of the same
elements. That is, A = B if and only if, for all x, x A if and only if x B.
If A and B are not equal, we write A 6= B.
Exercise. Prove that A = B if and only if A B and B A.
Exercise. Let A = {x Z : x = 2(y 2) for some y Z} and B = {x Z :
x = 2z for some z Z}. Are A and B equal? Justify.
Set operation. We would like to define operations on sets that are somewhat similar to the operations of addition, multiplication and subtraction of
integers that you are familiar with.

Union. The union of two sets A and B is the set of elements that belong to
either A or B or both.
A B = {x : x A or x B}
Intersection. The intersection of two sets A and B is the set consisting of
elements of both A and B.
A B = {x : x A and x B}
Set difference. The difference of two sets A and B is the set consisting of
those elements of A that do not belong to B. The operation is called set
complement or complement of B in A.
A b = {x : x A and x
/ B}
Example. Let A = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13} and B = {A, 2, 11, 18} then A B =
{A, 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 18}, A B = {2, 11} and A B = {3, 5, 7, 13}.
Universal set. Usually, the sets we work with are susbet of some bigger
set. For example, the even numbers and the odd numbers are both subsets of
the set of integers. We call such a set a universal set or the set of discourse,
denoted by U. Thus, a universal set is the underlying set that all the sets
under examination are subsets of.
Thus, we may speak of the set difference U A, which is the set of those
elements of U that do not belong to A. That is,
Ac = U A = {x U : x
/ A}.
Empty set. Set operations may lead to a set containing no elements. If A
is any set and E is a set containing no elements, then E A. Thus, there is
a unique set containing no elements.
We call the set containing no elements the empty set or nullset. Notation:
{} or . Thus, = {x Z : x 6= x}.
Exercise. Verify that (Ac )c = A, c = U and U c = .
Disjoint sets. Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint if A B = .
Singleton sets. A set with only one element is called a singleton set. Example. {x}.
Cardinality. A set is finite if it contains exactly n distinct elements where
n = 0 or n is a natural number. Otherwise, the set is infinite. For example,
and { the English alphabets}.
7

Power Set Let A be a set. The power set of A is the class of all subsets of
A, denoted by P(A). If A is a finite set, then so is its power set. If n(A) is
the number of elements in A, then n(P(A)) = 2n(A) .

1.2

Set Identities

There are a number of set identites that the set operations of union, intersection and set difference must satisfy. They are very useful in calculations
with sets. Let U be the universal set and A, B, C be any sets. Then
1. A B = B A; A B = B A. Commutativity.
2. (A B) C = A (B C); (A B) C = A (B C). Associativity.
3. A (B C) = (A B) (A C); A (B C) = (A B) (A C).
Distributivity.
4. A A = A; A A = A. Idempotent.
5. A (A B) = A; A (A B) = A. Absorption laws.
6. A = A; A = . Identity laws.
7. (A B)c = Ac B c ; (A B)c = Ac B c . De Morgans laws.
8. A Ac = U; A Ac = ; U c = ; c = U; (Ac )c = A. Complement
laws.
9. A B = A B c .
Exercise. Prove all the laws.
Prove that A (((B C c ) (D E c )) ((B B c ) Ac )) = .
Exercise.
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {3, 4, 5, 6} and C = {x Z : x is even }. Then
1. Find A B; B A; B A; C B; (A B) C; (A B) C.
2. If Z is the universal set. Find Ac , C c , (A C)c .

1.3

Quantifiers

Let x be a variable and P a property. P (x) asserts that : x has property P .

The sentence P (x) is not a proposition since we cannot tell if P is true or
not. If we however replace x by a specific element a, then P (a) becomes a
proposition.
If we want to say that P (x) is true for at least one substitution of an element
x, we use the notation
x, P (x)
which reads, there exists an x, such that P holds or P holds for some x
or There is at least one x for which P holds. is called the existential
quantifier.
If we want to say that every element in a certain set has property P , we write
x, P (x)
which reads, P holds for all x or P holds for every x. is called the
universal quantifier.
Example. x, x2 0
x such that x + 5 = 0.
If by P , we mean that P does not hold, then ( x, P ) is the same as
( x, P ) and ( x, P ) is the same as ( x, P ).

1.4

Indexed sets

Suppose you attend four Number Theory classes. We can denote the set of
classes by C = {c1 , c2 , c3 , c4 } where c1 = first class, c2 = second class, etc.
Here I = {1, 2, 3, 4} forms our labels or indexes. The set I is called the index
set. Having chosen an index set, we can write C = {ci : i I}.
Example. If we have the terms of a sequence {x1 , x2 , x3 , . . .}, we can instead
define our index set as N = {n : n N} so that our sequence becomes
{xn }nN .
Example. If we have a set of circles with different radii which are positive
real numbers then
p
Cr = {(x, y) : x2 + y 2 = r}.
If we define R+ to be the set of positive real numbers, then we have a family
of circles with center (0, 0) for each r: {Cr }rR+ .

If we have an indexed family of sets: {Ai }iI . Then, we can define the union
[
Ai
iI

as the set of elements that belong to at least one Ai and the intersection
\
Ai
iI

as the set of elements that belong to all Ai . More compactly,

[
Ai = {x : x Ai for some i I} = {x : i I such that x Ai }
iI

and
\

Ai = {x : x Ai for all i I} = {x : x Ai i I}.

iI

T
Note that if x
/ iI Ai then i I, x
/ Ai . That is, if x is not simultaneously in Ai for all i I, then there is an Ai that does not contain x.
Note:

c S of DeMorgans

c T
T Extension
S laws:
c
= iI Bi and
= iI Bic .
iI Bi
iI Bi
Exercise. If A1 = {1, 2, 3, 4}, A2 = {0, 1, 2}, A3 = {1, 0, 1} and I =
{1, 2, 3}. Then, determine iI Ai and iI Ai . If U = Z, determine iI Aci
and iI Aci .
Exercise. Prove the extension of DeMorgans law.
An indexed family of sets {Ai }iI is said to be disjoint if
pairwise disjoint if Ai Aj = .
Pictorially:

10

iI

Ai = and

Exercise. A1 = {1, 2, 3, 4}, A2 = {3, 4, 5, 6} and A3 = {1, 6, 7}. Then, show

that {A1 , A2 , A3 } is disjoint but not pairwise disjoint.
Recall: [, ] = {x R : x }. Determine the following sets:
[
\
\
[, ],
[, ] and
[, ].
>0

>0

Symbolic Logic

Mathematics, like ice cream and politics, is discussed in sentences. Larry

J. Gerstein
The development of symbolic logic can be traced back to the work of George
Boole. Boolean algebra, an important branch of Symbolic Logic, is named
after him.
Definition 1. A statement or a proposition is a declarative sentence that is
either true or false, but not both true and false. The designation True (T)
or False (F) is called the truth value of a statement. One can assign one and
only one of them to a statement.
Examples. sin2 x + cos2 x = 1 (T) and 6 is a prime number (F).
The following are not statements.
1. Is (e )2 = e2 ? (This is a question.)
2. If only every day could be like this one! (Exclamation.)
3. This proposition is false. (This contradicts itself)
4. 2 + 3i is less than 5 + 3i. (there is no less than in the set of complex
numbers).
5. x > 5. (This is an open sentence. Neither true nor false because it
contains a variable. It becomes True or False when we quantify it or
substitute a specific object for its variable.)
Simple statements are not composed of any other statements. We can form
compound statements by joining two or more components statements using
one or more logical connectives: , , , , .

11

2.1

Basic Logical Operations

1. Negation or
Let P be a statement. Then, we can form the negation of P by writing
It is not the case that P holds or It is false that P holds or NOT
P . In symbol, P or P . The truth values of P can be represented
in a truth table:
P
T
F

P
F
T

The truth value of the negation of P is always the opposite of the truth
value of P . Example.
P : Paris is in France.
P : Paris is NOT in France.
P : 6 > 9.
P : 6 6> 9 i.e. 6 9.
2. Conjunction p q AND
Two statements p and q may be combined using and to form a compound statement p q read p and q. Its truth table is given by
p q
T T
T F
F T
F F

pq
T
F
F
F

p q is only true when p and q are both true.

Example. If p: Paris is in France and q: 2 + 2 = 5. Then p q is NOT
true since q is false.
3. Disjunction p q OR
In natural languages, there are two distinct uses of OR:
Inclusive: meaning p or q or both
Exclusive: meaning p or q but NOT both.
We will always use OR in the inclusive sense. The truth table is given
by

12

p q
T T
T F
F T
F F

pq
T
T
T
F

So, p q is false only when p and q are both false.

4. Conditional p q If p then q
This is read as p implies q or If p then q. This has truth table:
p q
T T
T F
F T
F F

pq
T
F
T
T

Thus, p q is false only when p is true and q is false.

5. Biconditional p q
This is read as p if and only if q. That is, p q and q p. In
symbols, (p q) (q p). The truth table is given by:
p q
T T
T F
F T
F F

pq
T
F
F
T

The biconditional is true whenever p and q have the same truth value
and false otherwise.
If p and q are statements, so are (P ), (p q), (p q) (p q) and (p q).
Let P be a proposition. P is a tautology if it contains only T in the last
column of its truth table. That is, it is true for any truth values of its
variables. Example.
P
T
F

P
F
T

P P
T
T

A proposition P is a contradiction if it contains only F in the last column of

its truth table or if it is false for any truth values of its variables. Example.
13

P
T
F

P
F
T

P P
F
F

A proposition P is a contingency if it is true under some conditions and false

under others.
Two propositions p and q are said to be (logically) equivalent if they have
identical truth tables. Example. p q and q P are logically equivalent.
p q p q q p (q) (p)
T T
T
F
F
T
T F
F
T F
F
F T
T
F T
T
F F
T
T T
T
Definition 2. Given the proposition p q, we call the (logically) equivalent
proposition (q) (p) its contrapositive and vice versa.
Examples.
1. p XOR q and (p q) are equivalent
p q
T T
T F
F T
F F

p XOR q
F
T
T
F

p q
T T
T F
F T
F F

pq
T
F
F
T

(p q)
F
T
T
F

2. The propositions p q, q p and (p) q are equivalent.

p q
T T
T F
F T
F F

pq
T
F
T
T

q
F
T
F
T

p
F
F
T
T

q p
T
F
T
T

p
F
F
T
T

q (p) q
T
T
F
F
T
T
F
T

3. Let x R, p : x = 10 and q : x2 = 100. Then

p q: If x = 10 then x2 = 100.
6= q p: If x2 6= 100 then x 6= 10.
(p) q: either x 6= 10 or x2 = 100.

14

2.2

Important equivalences

1. Double negation:(p) = p.
2. Idempotent laws: p p = p and p p = p.
3. Commutative laws: p q = q p, p q = q p and p q = q p.
4. Associative laws: (p q) r = p (q r) and (p q) r = p (q r).
5. Distributive laws: p (q r) = (p q) (p r) and
p (q r) = (p q) (p r).
6. De Morgans laws: (p q) = p q and (p q) = p q.
7. Contrapositive: p q = q p.
8. Implication: p q = (p) q
9. p q = (p q) (q p) and p q = ((p) q) (p (q))
10. p q (p) q.
Exercise. Prove these using truth tables.

2.3

Quantifiers

Recall quantifiers: the universal quantifier and the existential quantifier .

The following are propositions: x, P (x) and x, P (x).
The proposition x, P (x) is true precisely when the statement P (a) is true
for every substitution of objects from the domain of discussion while the
proposition x, P (x) is true precisely when P (a) is true for at least one
substitution of an object in the domain of discussion.
Example. U = R.
1. x such that x2 = 4 is True. and x, x2 = 4 is False.
2. x, x2 0 and x, x2 0 are both True.

15

2.4

Exercise

The only way to learn Mathematics is to do Mathematics. Paul Halmos

1. Construct truth tables for
(a) (p q)
(b) (p q) (q p).
(c) (p q) (p)
2. Show that p q and q p are not equivalent.
3. Use truth tables to prove the following equivalences
(a) (p q) p (q).
(b) (p q) (p (q)) (q (p))
(c) p (q r) (p q) (p r)
(d) p (q r) (p q) (p r)
4. Write as statements using only letters.
(a) Either Sam will come to the party and Max will not, or Sam will
not come to the party and Max will enjoy himself.
(b) A sufficient condition for x to be odd is that x is prime.
(c) A necessary condition for a sequence s to converge is that it is
bounded.
(d) Fiorello goes to the movies only if a comedy is playing.
(e) If x is positive, x2 is positive.
(f) The bribe will be paid if and only if the goods are delivered.
5. Given the following propositions
A = Tomorrow is Saturday
B= I will visit my friend Peter
C = There are more than 200 elephants in Nigeria.
Write down the new propositions:
(a) A B.
(b) A (B C).
(c) ((B) A) C.

16

Methods of Mathematical Proofs

If it is a miracle, any sort of evidence will answer, but if it is a fact, proof is

necessary. Mark Twain
Proofs are the heart of Mathematics. You must be able to read, understand
and write them. A good proof should be easy to follow.
A Theorem is a statement which has been proved to be True.
A proof of a theorem is a finite sequence of claims, each of which is derived
logically from the previous claims as well as theorems whose truth has been
already established.(reference missing). In otherwords, a proof is a series of
statements each of which is either
an assumption (axiom), or
a conclusion, clearly following from an assumption or some previously
proved result.
and each step should be clear or at least clearly justified.
To prove any thing, we must know some previous truths. Logic supplies ways
by which we can deduce a statement from other statement, but we need some
statements to begin with. These initial statements are what we call axioms.
Thus, an axiom is a statement that is assumed to be true.
A Lemma is smaller theorem that is used as a step in larger proofs of more
interesting results.
A Corollary Corollaries are interesting in their own right, but follow with
very few extra steps after the underlying theorem is proved.

3.1

Direct Method

Many theorems are of the form if p then q. This is the standard form of
theorems, though it can be disguised. To prove p q, we assume p as well
as other established truths and prove q.
Most proofs are and should be direct proofs. Always try direct proofs first,
unless you have a good reason not to.
Examples.
Theorem 1. The sum of two odd integers is even.

17

Proof. An integer x is odd if we can write x = 2k + 1 for some k Z and x

is even if x = 2k for some k Z.
Let x and y be odd integers. Then x = 2k + 1 and y = 2l + 1 for some k, l
Z. Now,
x + y = 2k + 1 + 2l + 1
= 2k + 2l + 2
= 2(k + l + 1)
= 2z where z = k + l + 1

Theorem 2. If r1 and r2 are distinct roots of the polynomial p(x) = x2 +bx+c

then r1 + r2 = b and r1 r2 = c.
Proof. From our assumption, p(x) factors into linear equations. Now,
p(x) = x2 + bx + c

(1)

P (x) = (x r1 )(x r2 ) = x2 (r1 + r2 )x + r1 r2

(2)

and
Comparing corresponding equation in (1) and (2) we have that r1 + r2 = b
and r1 r2 = c.
Theorem 3. Let A and B be sets. If A B = A B then A B.
Proof. Assume A B = A B. We show that x A x B.
Let x A. Since A A B, we have that x A B. But A B = A B.
So x A B. That is, x A and x B. This implies that x B. Hence,
A B.

3.2

Indirect Method

When a theorem cannot be proved by direct methods, we try an indirect

method.

18

3.2.1

Proof by Contraposition

If the dog is dead, he smells

If he doesnt smell, he is not dead.
Sometimes the direct route is just too difficult to deduce. In that case we do
an indirect proof. The contrapositive of p q is q p. We do a direct
proof on the contrapositive.
Example.
Theorem 4. If 3x + 7 is even, then x is odd.
Proof. We prove a contrapositive statement: If x is even then 3x + 7 is odd.
Suppose x is even, then x = 2k for some k Z. Then 3x + 7 = 3(2k) + 7 =
6k + 7 = 6k + 6 + 1 = 2(3k + 3) + 1. Since 3k + 3 is an integer, we have that
3x + 7 is odd.
Theorem 5. If x2 is even, then x is even.
Proof. We prove the contrapositive statement: If x is odd, then x2 is odd.
Suppose x is odd, then x = 2k + 1 for some k Z. Thus, x2 = (2k + 1)2 =
4k 2 + 4k + 1 = 2(2k 2 + 2k) + 1 which is odd.
3.2.2

Proof by Contradiction

The basic structure of a proof by contradiction is this: Assume that the

conclusion of your statement is false. Find a contradiction.
Suppose you want to prove a statement of the form p q, Assume that
p q is false. This only happens when p is true and q is false. So we assume
that p is true and q is false and then we proceed to find a contradiction.
Examples.

2 is irrational.

Proof. We prove this by contradiction. Suppose 2 is rational. Then

a
2 = ; b 6= 0.
b

Theorem 6. The square root of

Assume that a and b have no common divisors (factors). That is,

lowest term. Then.

a
a2
2=
2 = 2 a2 = 2b2 .
b
b
19

a
b

is in its

Thus, a2 is even. This implies that a is even. Since a is even, we can write
a = 2k for some k Z. So,
a2 = 2b2 4k 2 = 2b2 b2 = 2k 2 .
Thus, b2 is even implying that b is even.
Thus a and b are both even, thatis, they have a common factor of 2. This
leads to a contradiction. Hence, 2 is irrational.
Example. A diophantine equations: equations for which you seek only integer
solutions.
Theorem 7. There are no positive integer solutions to x2 y 2 = 1.
Proof. Suppose for contradiction that there are positive integers x, y such
that x2 y 2 = 1. Then, x2 y 2 = (x y)(x + y) = 1.
Since x, y Z, then EITHER x y = 1 and x + y = 1 OR x y = 1 and
x + y = 1. If the first condition holds then x = 1 and y = 0 and we get a
contradiction. If the second condition holds, then x = 1 and y = 0 and we
also get a contradiction. Thus, the original statement must be true.

3.3

Proof by Cases (Exhaustion)

We use this method of proof when a hypothesis naturally divides itself into
different cases. We divide what we want to prove into cases and prove each
separately. We need to make sure that all the cases are exhausted.
Theorem 8. For a, b R, then |ab| = |a||b|.
Proof. Four cases arise:
1. a > 0, b > 0 then ab > 0, |a| = a, |b| = b. Then |ab| = |a||b|.
2. a > 0, b < 0 then ab < 0, |a| = a, |b| = b. Then |ab| = ab =
a b = |a||b|.
3. a < 0, b > 0 then ab < 0, |a| = a, |b| = b. Then |ab| = ab =
a b = |a||b|.
4. a < 0, b < 0 then ab > 0, |a| = a, |b| = b. Then |ab| = ab =
(a)(b) = |a||b|.

20

Theorem 9. Let x Z, then x2 + x is even.

Proof. Two cases arise
1. If x is even, then x = 2n for some n Z. Thus,
x2 + x = 4n2 + 2n = 2(2n2 + n)
which is even.
2. If x is odd, then x = 2n + 1 for some n Z. Thus,
x2 + x = (2n + 1)2 + 2n + 1 = 4n2 + 6n + 2 = 2(2n2 + 3n + 1)
which is even.
Since every integer must be either even or odd but not both, we have exhausted all the cases.

3.4

Existence Proofs

Existence proofs are proofs of the form x, P (x). Here we aim to find a c
such that P (c) holds. There are three ways to show the existence of such c.
1. Constructive Here we construct such a c. In otherwords, we demonstrate how to actually find or construct a specific element c for which
P (c) is true.
Example. A square exists that is a sum of two squares.
Proof. Pythagorean triple. We find a square 25 and we show that it is
a sum of two squares 9 and 16. That is, 32 + 42 = 52 .
2. Nonconstructive Here we show that such a c exists but we do not
actually find it.
3. Contradiction Here, we assume that no such c exists and then we
arrive at a contradiction.

21

3.5

Uniqueness proofs

A theorem may state that there is only one value c such that P (c) holds. We
prove such a theorem in two parts. Existence: We first show that such a value
does indeed exist using any of the methods of the last section. Uniqueness:
We show that there is only one such value.
Example.
Theorem 10. If 5x + 3 = 0 has a solution in R, then it is unique.
Proof. We first find a solution. Solving 5x+3 = a yields the solution x =
Question: Is this a constructive or nonconstructive proof?

a3
.
5

Next, we show that if there are two solutions x and y to this equation, then
they must be equal. So we equate, 5x+3 = a = 5y +3. Thus, 5x+3 = 5y +3
and this yields that x = y. And thus, we have proved uniqueness of the
solution.

3.6

Proof of Universal statements

Universal statements are of the form: x D, P (x). We prove such statement using
1. Direct proof: Take an arbitrary element x in D. Then show that P (x)
is true.
2. Contradiction: Assume that there is some c D such that P (c) is false.
Show that a contradiction results.

3.7

Proof of Statements of the form p (q r)

To prove statemetnts of this form, instead of attempting to prove it directly,

we replace this problem by the problem of showing that r follows from p
and q: that is p (q) r OR that q follows from p and (r): that is,
p (r) q. Either approach would do.
Example
Theorem 11. For all x, y R, if xy = 0 then x = 0 or y = 0.
Proof. Let x, y R and x 6= 0, we prove that y = 0. Since x 6= 0, the
reciprocal x1 exists and we have
xy = 0

1
1
xy = 0 y = 0.
x
x

22

3.8

Principle of Mathematical Induction

Mathematical induction is a powerful technique used for proving statements

about large sets, such as the set of natural numbers. If we can prove that every natural number n has a certain property P , then we have proved infinitely
many theorems P (1), P (2), P (3), . . ., etc. The principle of mathematical induction allows us to do this in finitely many steps. Let P (n) denote the
integer n has property P .
The principle of mathematical induction (1st version) Suppose P is
a property of the natural numbers for which the following statements hold:
1. P (1) is true.
2. for each k N, the following implication is true: P (k) = P (k + 1).
Then, P (n) holds for every n N.
In otherwords, it is enough to show that 1 has the property, and to show that
whenever some number k has the property then k + 1 also has the property.
P (1) is called the base step and P (k), the induction step.
Example. Prove that 1 + 2 + . . . + n =

n(n+1)
.
2

.
Proof. put P (n) : 1 + 2 + . . . + n = n(n+1)
2
1(1+1)
Base step: P (1) : 1 = 2 = 1
Induction step: Suppose that P (k + 1) holds. That is suppose
1 + 2 + . . . + k = k(k+1)
.
2
We show that P (k + 1) holds:
k(k + 1)
+k+1
2
1
= (k + 1)(k + 2)
2
1
= (k + 1)((k + 1) + 1)
2

P (k + 1) : 1 + 2 + . . . + k + k + 1 =

So P (k + 1) holds. Hence, P (n) holds for all n N.

Example. Find the sum of the first n odd natural numbers. Prove your result
by mathematical induction.
Solution:
The odd natural numbers are 1, 3, 5, 7, . . . where the nth term is given by
23

Un = 1 + (n 1)2 = 2n 1. Their sum to n terms is

Sn = n2 (2a + (n 1)d) = n2 (2 + (n 1)2) = n2 2n = n2 .
Set P (n) : 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + . . . + (2n 1) = n2 . Then,
P (1) : 1 = 12
Suppose P (k) holds, that is 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + . . . + (2k 1) = k 2 . Then,
P (k + 1) : 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + . . . + (2k 1) + (2(k + 1) 1) = k 2 + 2k + 2 1
= k 2 + 2k + 1
= (k + 1)2
So P (k + 1) holds. Hence, P (n) holds for all n N
Example. Prove that 1 + r + r2 + . . . + rn =
Proof. P (1) : 1 = 1r
=1
1r
P (k) : Suppose 1 + r + r2 + . . . + rk =

1rn+1
;
1r

1rk+1
1r

r 6= 1 for all n N.

P(k+1):

1 rk+1
+ rk+1
1r
1 rk+1 + (1 r)rk+1
=
1r
k+2
1r
=
1r
1 r(k+1)+1
=
1r

1 + r + r2 + . . . + rk + rk+1 =

So, P (n) holds for all n N and r 6= 1 by induction.

Example. Prove by induction: for all n 1, 13 + 23 + . . . + n3 =
Proof. P (1) : 1 =

12 2
2

= 1.

P (k). Suppose 13 + 23 + . . . + k 3 =

k(k+1)
2

24

2

n(n+1)
2

2

Then, P (k + 1):
2
k(k + 1)
1 + 2 + . . . + k + (k + 1) =
+ (k + 1)3
2
k 2 (k + 1)2
=
+ (k + 1)3
4 

k2
2
+ (k + 1)
= (k + 1)
4
 2

k + 4k + 4
2
= (k + 1)
4
2
2
(k + 1) (k + 2)
=
4
2

(k + 1)(k + 2
=
2

2
(k + 1)((k + 1) + 1)
=
2
3

So P (k + 1). Hence P (n) holds for all n 1.

Exercises. Prove:
1. 12 + 22 + . . . + n2 =

n(n+1)(2n+1
6

for all n N.

2. for every integer n 2,

1
1
1
1
+
+ ... +
=1 .
12 23
(n 1)n
n
3.

3.9

Pigeon Hole Principle

THis is often used in proofs of existence.

Suppose you have n pigeon holes, but more than n pigeons. If you are to
put all your pigeons in the holes then the pigeon hole principle says that in
at least one hole you will have to put more than one pigeon.
Mathematically,
Let A be a finite set with order |A| = n. Pigeon hole principle: If A and
B are finite sets with |A| > |B| and f : A B is a function, then f is not
one-to-one. That is, there exists x, y A, x 6= y such that f (x) = f (y).
25

3.10

Counter Examples and General Comments

Given a universally quantified statement, find a single example which is not

true. This is disproving a universal statement by a counter example.
Every integer is the square of another integer. False
Counter example: the square root of 5 is 2.236 which is not an integer.
Note:
1. You CANNOT prove a statement by an example.
2. You can only prove an existential by an example.
3. You can only disprove a universal by an example.

3.11

Exercises

Where there are problems, there is life. Zinoviev (1980)

1. Prove by direct method
(a) For any two positive numbers x and y,

xy

x+y
.
2

(b) If a, b R then 2ab z 2 + b2 .

(c) The sum of two rational numbers is rational.
(d) If r1 , r2 , r3 are three distinct roots of a polynomial p(x) = x3 +
bx2 + cx + d then r1 r2 + r1 r3 + r2 r3 = c.
(e) Every odd integer is the difference of two squares.
2. Prove by contraposition
(a) If 3n5 is an odd integer, then n is an odd integer.
(b) If x, y Z are such that xy is odd then both must be odd.
(c) Let a, b R, if ab is an irrational number, then either a or b must
be an irrational number.
(d) For any integers a and b, we have that a + b 15 implies that
a 8 or b 8.
3. Prove by contradiction.

(a) The number 3 2 is irrational.

(b) There are no positive integer solutions to the diophantine equation
x2 y 2 = 10.
26

(c) If a Q and b
/ Q then a + b
/ Q.
(d) There do not exist integers x and y such that 9 = 4x + 2y.
4. Proof by cases: Prove that for all n Z, we have n2 n is even.
5. Prove by contraposition: If f is increasing on an interval I, then f is
one-to-one on I.
6. Prove: If x, a, b, R such that xa = xb, then either x = 0 or a = b.
7. Given A and B sets such that A B and A * C. Prove that B * C.
8. Prove or disprove: If x, y R are irrational then x + y is irrational? xy
is irrational?
9. Use direct method and contraposition to prove: Let A, B and C be sets
with A B and B C. Show that A C. Compare the effectiveness
of each approach.
10. Describe the general approach you would take to prove these theorems.
(a) If S R is compact, then S is closed and bounded.
(b) If A and B are sets such that A B is finite, then A is finite and
B is finite.
(c) THe subset 2Z of R consisting of all even integers is closed under
addition and multiplication.
Note that it is not necessary to know the meaning of technical terms
such as bounded in order to solve this question.

4
4.1

Relations
Ordered pairs and cartesian products

An ordered pair (a, b) is such that a is the first element and b is the second
element. Order is important in the sense that (a, b) 6= (b, a). Ordered pairs
are also called 2-tuples. Note also that (a1 , b2 ) = (a2 , b2 ) if and only if a1 = a2
and b1 = b2 .
Let A and B be sets. The Cartesian product A B consists of all ordered
pairs (a, b) with a A and b B. That is,
A B = {(a, b) : a A, b B}.
Examples.
27

1. Let A = {3, 4, 5} and B = {b, c}. Then AB = {(3, b), (3, c), (4, b), (4, c), (5, b), (5, c)}
and B A = {(b, 3), (b, 4), (b, 5), (c, 3), (c, 4), (c, 5)}.
2. R2 = R R = {(x, y) : x, y R}.
Cartesian product is not commutative: A B 6= B A except when
1. A = B. Example A = B = {a, b} Then, A B = B A =
{(a, a), (a, b), (b, a), (b, b)}
2. OR when A or B is empty. Example: A = {1, 2} and B = . Then,
A B = B A = .
Cartesian product is not associative. Exercise: Prove that (A B) C 6=
A (B C). (Hint: find a counter example).
If n(A) is the number of elements in A. Then, n(A B) =n(A)n(B). Also,
n(A B) is infinite if either n(A) is infinte or n(B) is infinite and the other
set is not empty.

4.2

Relations

In Mathematics, there are lots of ways in which an entity may be related to

another. Consider the following statements 5 < 10, 5|80, x 6= y, 6 Z. The
symbols < . |, 6=, - are relations. They express some relationship between
two entities.
Motivation
Consider the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. There is nothing special about this set.
It just serves as an example. Compare elements in A by <. That is, 1 < 4,
4 < 5, 2 < 3 etc.
Write down a set R by: (a, b) R if and only if a < b. This gives:
R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (3, 4), (3, 5), (4, 5)}.
The set R records the meaning of the relation < for elements in A. Note
that (x, y) R if and only if a < b. Example. (5, 2)
/ R since 5 2. The
set R, which is a subset of A A, completely describes the relation < for A.
Thus, the theory of relations is a part of set theory.
Definition 3. A relation R from a set A to a set B assigns to each ordered
pair (a, b) A B exactly one of
(a, b) R that is aRb; a is related to b.
28

 (a, b)
/ R that is a 6 Rb; a is not related to b.
Thus, R defines uniquely a subset of A B by R = {(a, b) : aRb}. On the
other hand, any subset R of A B defines a relation by: aRb if and only if
(a, b) R. Thus, there is a correspondence between subsets of A B and
relations from A to B.
Definition 4. A relation R from A to B is a subset of A B.
The domain of R is the set of all first elements of the ordered pairs belonging
to R. Domain of R = {a : (a, b) R} A}. The Range of R is the
set of all second elements of the ordered pairs belonging to R. Range of
R = {b : (a, b) R} B}.
A relation R from a set A to itself is called a relation on A and is a subset
of A A.
Example. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}. Let
R = {(1, 1), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (3, 2), (3, 1), (4, 4), (4, 3), (4, 2), (4, 1)} AA.
Then R is a relation on A. Note that (2, 2) R, so 2R2.
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Let R be the relation divides on A. That is,
(a, b) R if and only if a|b. Then, we have the set
R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6), (2, 4), (2, 6), (2, 2), (3, 3), (3, 6), (4, 4), (5, 5), (6, 6)}
Pictorially
Example. Let S be a set. Then S S is the universal relation on S and is
the empty relation on S. These relations are not interesting.
Example. An important relation on the set A is that of equality. That is
R = {(a, a) : a A}
This is called the identity or diagonal relation on A.
Let R be a relation from A to B. The inverse of R, denoted by R1 is the
relation from B to A which is given by R1 = {(b, a) : (a, b) R}. Note that
the domain of R is the range of F 1 while the range of R is the domain of
R1 .
Example. R = {(a, b), (c, d), (a, a), (c, c)}. Then, R1 = {(b, a), (d, c), (a, a), (c, c)}.
Properties of Relations
29

A relation xRy is a statement. It is either True or False. Since relational

expressions have true or false values, we can combine them with logical operators. Example. aRb bRa is a statement whose truth value depends on
the truth value of a and b.
Definition 5. Let R be a relation on a set S. Then,
1. R is reflexive if (x, x) R x S that is, xRx, x S.
2. R is symmetric if (x, y) R
xRy yRx.

(y, x) R x, y S that is,

3. R is transitive if (x, y) R and (y, z) R (x, z) R x, y, z S

that is, xRy and yRz xRz.
4. R is antisymmetric if (x, y) R and (y, x) R x = y x, y S
that is, xRy and yRx x = y.
Example. A = Z.
1. Reflexive: , =, |.
2. Not Reflexive: >, ,, 6=, -.
3. Symmetric:6=, =.
4. Not symmetric: .
5. Transitive , <, , >, =.
Let A = {b, c, d, e}. Then the relation R on A defined by
(b, b), (b, c), (c, b), (c, c), (d, d), (b, d), (d, b), (c, d), (d, c)
is not reflexive, is symmetric and is transitive.
Partitions
A partition of a set A is a set of nonempty subsets of A, such that the union
of all subsets equals A and the intersection of any two different subsets is .
Q
Q
In otherwords, A partition
of a set A is a family
= {Ai : i I} of
nonempty subsets of A such that
1. every element of A belongs to some Ai . So,
Y
Ai = A
iI

30

2. Ai Aj = for i 6= j That is, they are pairwise disjoint or nonoverlapping.

The A0i s are called the blocks of partition.
Example. A = {a, b, c, d}. One partition of A is {{a, b}, {c}, {d}} where
A1 = {a, b}, A2 = {c} and A3 = {d}. Note that, A1 A2 A3 = A and
A1 A2 = , a1 A2 = and A2 A3 = .
Other partitions of A are
1. {a, b}, {c, d}}
2. {{a, c}, {b}, {d}}
3. {{a}, {b}, {c}, {d}}
4. {{a, b, c, d}}.
Example. The oddness or evenness of an integer is called its parity. The
relation having the same parity as leads to a partition of Z into two blocks
1. A1 = set of odd integers
2. A2 = set of even integers.
every integer is either odd or even and no element is both odd and even.

4.3

Equivalence Relation

A relation R on a set A is called an equivalence relation if and only if it is

reflexive, symmetric and transitive. One frequently denotes an equivalence
relation by .
Example.
1. is equal to on the set of real numbers R.
2. has the same parity as on the set of integers Z.
3. R = {(1, 1), (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (1, 3), (3, 1), (2, 4), (4, 2)}
4. is congruent to on the triangles in the plane.

31

Example. Similarity of matrices.

Let A and B be two 2 by 2 matrices with entries in R. Define an equivalence
relation by A B if there is an invertible matrix P such that P AP 1 = B.
Example. With






2 5
1 2
18 33
A=
, B=
and P =
1 1
11 20
1 3
We see that A B since P AP 1 = B. Now let I be the 2 by 2 identity
matrix.
1. The relation is reflexive:IAI 1 = I 1 AI = A, thus A A.
2. The relation is symmetric: A B implies that there exists an invertible
matrix P such that P AP 1 = B. So, this gives, A = P 1 BP =
P 1B(P 1 )1 . Thus, B A.
3. Transitivity: A B and B C implies that there exists invertible
matrices P and Q such that P AP 1 = B and QBQ1 = C. Thus,
C = QBQ1 = QP AP 1 Q1 = (QP )A(QP )1 . Hence, A C.
Two matrices that are equivalent in this manner are said to be similar.
Definition 6. Let R be an equivalence relation on a set A. Given any element a A, the equivalence class of a is the set containing all the elements
of A that are related to a.
[a] = {x A : xRa} = {x A : (a, x) R}.
If is an equivalence relation on A, then the set of representatives is a subset
of A which contains exactly one element from each equivalence class. The
set of representatives is denoted by S/R and called the quotient set.
Properties of equivalence classes:
Theorem 12. Let [x] and [y] be two equivalence classes. Then,
1. x [x] i.e. an equivalence class contains its representatives.
2. x y [x] = [y] i.e. if two elements are related then their equivalence classes are equal.
3. [x] [y] = or [x] = [y]. i.e. two equivalence classes are either disjoint
or equal.
32

Proof. (1) and (2) are left as exercises.

We prove the third property. Notice that this is a proof of the type p (qr),
where
p : [x] and [y] are equivalence classes.
q : [x] [y] = .
r : [x] = [y].
Thus we prove instead, p and q implies r.
Now, Suppose [x] and [y] are equivalence classes and that [x] [y] 6= . Then,
there exists z [x] [y]. This implies that z x and z y. Thus, x z
and z y by symmetry. By transitivity, this yields, x y. Hence, by (2),
we have that [x] = [y].
Example. Integers modulo n
We know that 2 divides 10, i.e. 2|10, because we can write 10 = 2 5. When
we write a|b, we mean that a divides b without any remainder. If there is a
remainder, then a does not divide b. More formally, a|b if and only if there
is an integer k such that b = ka.
Fix a natural number n. Define a relation congruence modulo n denoted
by on the set of integers Z by a is congruent to b modulo n if and only if
n divides a b. That is,
a b( mod n) if and only if n|(a b).
Claim: The relation is congruent to modulo n is an equivalence relation
on Z.
Proof. We show that the relation is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
1. Reflexivity: Let x Z. Observe that n|0. So, n|(x x). Thus x x
mod n for every integer x.
2. Symmetry: Direct proof: Suppose x y mod n. Then by definition,
n|(x y). This implies that x y = na for some integer a. But this
gives that y x = n(a) for some integer a. Hence y x mod n.

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3. Transitivity: Suppose x y mod n and y z mod n. Then by

definition, n|(x y) and n|(y z). That is, x y = kn and y z = ln
for some integers k and l. Thus,
x z = x y + y z = (x y) + (y z) = kn + ln = (k + l)n = tn
where t = k + l Z. Hence, x z mod n.

Example. n = 3. We find the equivalence classes of the equivalence relation

mod 3.
1. Equivalence class of 0:
[0] = {x Z : x 0(mod 3)} = {x Z : 3|(x 0)}
= {x Z : 3|x} = {. . . , 3, 0, 3, 6, 9, . . .}
Thus the class of zero, [0] is the set of all multiples of 3. That is,
all integers which leave a remainder of 0 on division by 3. Note that:
x y [x] = [y]. Thus, [0] = [3] = [6]
2. Equivalence class of 1:
[1] = {x Z : x 1(mod 3)}
= {x Z : 3|(x 1)}
= {. . . , 5, 2, 1, 4, 7, 10, . . .}
Thus, the class of 1, [1] is the set of integers which leave a remainder 1
on division by 3.
3. [2] = {. . . , 4, 1, 2, 5, 8, 11, . . .}. Thus, the class of 2, [2] is the set of
integers which leave a remainder 2 on division by 3.
The equivalence classes are {[0], [1], [2]}. These form a partition of Z :
{{. . . , 3, 0, 3, 6, 9, . . .}, {. . . , 5, 2, 1, 4, 7, 10, . . .}, {. . . , 4, 1, 2, 5, 8, 11, . . .}}.
A set of representatives is {0, 1, 2}.
Similarly, we can show that the equivalence relation mod n has n equivalence classes: [0], [1], [2], . . . , [n 1]. These form a partition of Z.
Note: There are infinitely many different partitions of Z; one for each n N.
The next result gives a correspondence between equivalence relations and
partitions. We state the following theorem without proof.
Theorem 13. Given an equivalence relation on
Q a set A, the equivalence
classes of A form a partition of A. Conversely, if
= {Ai } is a partition of
A, then there is an equivalence relation on A with equivalence classes Ai .
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4.4

Exercises

1. Define a relation R on R2 by (a, b) (c, d) if and only if a2 +b2 c2 +d2 .

Show that is reflexive and transitive but not symmetric.
2. Define a relation on R2 by (x1, y1 ) (x2 , y2 ) if and only if x12 +y12 =
x22 + y22 . Show that is an equivalence relation. Describe geometrically
the equivalence classes.
3. Determine whether or not the following are equivalence relations on
the given set. If it is an equivalence relation, describe the partition, if
it is not, state why it fails to be one
(a) x y in R if x y.
(b) m n in Z if mn > 0.
(c) x y in R if |x y| 4.
(d) m n in Z if mn( mod 6).
(e) m n in Z if m n > 0.
(f) m n in Z if m + n = 10.
(g) m n in Z if m + n is even.
(h) m n in Z if gcd(a, b) = 1.
(i) R = {(0, 0), (1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)}
(j) R = {(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)}.
4. Create as many possible partitions of the integers Z as you can.
5. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}. Give a relation R on A that is
(a) Reflexive and symmetric but not transitive.
(b) Reflexive and transitive but not symmetric.
(c) Symmetric and transitive but not reflexive.
6. Let A be the set of all 2 by 2 matrices with entries in R. Define a
relation on A by
A B if there is an invertible matrix C such that B = CA.
Show that is an equivalence relation on A.
7. Let R be the relation is a cousin of: xRy if x is a cousin of y. Is R
symmetric? transitive?
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8. Let A = {1, 2, 3, . . . , 20}. Define a relation on A by aRb if a and b

have the same prime divisors. Give the set describing R. Represent
R pictorially. show that R is an equivalence relation. Describe the
equivalence classes of the corresponding partition of A.
9. Find all the equivalence classes of the equivalence relation mod 5.

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