Chapter 1- Memory

04/18/2013

Flow of information in memory:

Encoding (changing information to store in memory) storage (storing
information) Retrieval (recalling information from storage)
Multi store model
sensory store (hear,smell,see) short term store (hold approx. 7 items
for a limited time) long term store (holds a vast amount of information
for a long period of time)
Levels of processing
structural processing phonetic processing semantic processing

Multi-Store Memory
Peterson & Peterson
Aim: To see if rehearsal was necessary to store information in the short
term memory.
Method: A group of participants were given a set of three letters to
remember and were immediately asked to recall the information out loud
for different lengths of time. This prevents them from rehearsing. Then
they were asked to recall the letters in the correct order.
Results: The participants had forgotten virtually almost all of the
information after 18 seconds.
Conclusion: This shows that without rehearsal, we are unable to store
information in the short term memory.
Murdock
Aim: To provide evidence to support the multi store explanation.
Method: Participants had to remember a list of words presented one at
a time for two seconds per word. Then recall the words in any order.

Result: The words at the end of the list were well remembered because
it was processed into the short term memory. This is called the recency
effect. Also, the words from the start of the list was also well recalled
because it has flowed/processed into the long term memory. This is called
the primary effect. But the words in the middle were not recalled well.
Conclusion: This study shows enough evidence to separate short term
store and long term store.

Reconstructive Memory
Bartlett
Aim: To see if people will alter unfamiliar information.
Method: A group of participants were asked to read a story called The
War of Ghost. Later, they were asked to retell the story as accurate as
possible. This retelling was repeated several times during the following
weeks.
Results: The participants found it difficult to remember parts of the
story that interferes with ghost and changed some parts of the story so
that it made more sense to them. Each time they retold the story, it
changes a little.
Conclusion: Our memory is influenced by our own beliefs.
Wynn and Logie
Aim: To see if the recall of familiar stories will change/alter.
Method: The researchers asked some university students to recall the
details of their first week at university. This continued throughout the
year.
Results: The results showed that no matter how many times they were
asked to recall, the accuracy of their descriptions remained the same. This
is unlike Bartletts participants who changed every time they were asked
to recall.
Conclusions: Memories for familiar events will not change over time.

Levels of Processing
Craik & Lockheart
Aim: To investigate how deep and shallow processing affects memory
recall.

Method: Participants were given a list of words, one at a time and

asked about each word, which they had to answer with yes or no .
Some questions required structural processing, some required phonetic
processing and the remainder required semantic processing. They were
then given a longer list and were asked to identify the words they had
answered before.
Results: Participants identified 70 percent of the words by semantic
processing, 35 percent of the words by phonetic processing and 15
percent of the words by structural processing.
Conclusion: The more deeply information is processed, the more likely
it is to be remembered.

Forgetting (Interference)
Underwood & Postman (Retroactive Interference)
Aim: To see if new learning interferes with old information.
Method: Participants were divided into two groups. Group A were
asked to learn a list of word pairs. They were also asked to learn a second
list of word pairs. Group B were only asked to learn the first list of word
pairs.
Result: Group Bs recall was more accurate than Group A.
Conclusion: New learning interferes with participants ability to recall
the first list. (New learning blocks old information)

Context
Godden & Baddeley
Aim: To see if people who learn and are tested in the same
environment will recall more information than those who learn but are
tested in adifferent environment. (Context)
Method: Participants were deep sea divers. They were divided into four
groups. All of the groups were given the same list of words to learn.
Group 1: had to learn underwater and recall underwater
Group 2: had to learn underwater and recall on the shore
Group 3 had to learn on the shore and recall on the shore
Group 4: had to learn on the shore and recall underwater.
Results: Groups 1 and 3 recalled 40 percent more words than group 2
and 4.

Conclusion: Recall of information will be better if it happens in the

same context that learning takes place.

Eye Witness Testimonies

Loftus and Palmer (Leading questions)
Aim: To see if asking leading questions will affect the accuracy of
recall.
Method: Participants were shown films of car accidents. Some were
asked How fast was the car going when it hit the other car? Others were
asked How fast was the car going when it smashed the other car?.
Results: Those who heard the word smashed gave a higher speed
estimate than those who heard hit.
Conclusion: Leading questions will affect the accuracy of recall. The
word smashed led participants to believe the car was going faster.
Bruce and Young (Unfamiliar faces)
Aim: To see if familiarity affects the accuracy of identifying faces.
Method: Psychology lecturers were caught on security camera at the
entrance of abuilding. Participants were asked to identify the faces seen
on the security camera tape from a series of high quality photographs.
Result: The lecturers students made more correct identification than
other students and experienced police officers.
Conclusion: Previous familiarity helps when identifying faces.
Geiselman et al (context)
Aim: To see if reinstating the contact of an event will affect the
accuracy of witnesses accounts.
Method: Participants were shown a police training film of a violent
crime. Two days later they were interviewed about what they had seen.
For half of the participants, the context of the event was recreated during
the interview. For the other half of the participants, standard police
interview techniques were used.
Results: The participants who had the context recreated recalled more
accurate facts about the violent crime than the other interview techniques
were used.
Conclusion: Recreating context during interviews will increase the
accuracy of recall. This method is known as the cognitive interview.

Stereotypes can affect accuracy of

memory
Cohen
Aim: To see if stereotypes can affect memory
Method: Participants were shown a video of a man and a woman
eating in a restaurant. Half of the participants were told that the woman
was a waitress. The other participants were told she was a librarian. Later,
all the participants were asked to describe the womans behavior and
personality.
Results: The two groups of participants gave entirely different
descriptions which matched the stereotypes of a waitress or a librarian.
Conclusion: Stereotypes affect the accuracy of accounts of people.

Communication: Passing information from one person to another

Verbal Communication: Conveying messages using words or vocal
messages. This includes tone of voice, emphasis, intonation and grunting
etc.
Paralinguistics: Vocal features that accompany speech

Tone Of Voice: The way words are spoken to convey emotion

Emphasis: Giving prominence to some words more than others.
Intonation: Inflection in the voice when speaking
Non verbal communication: Conveying messages without using words
or vocal messages. This includes body posture, gestures, facial
expressions, eye contact etc
Body Language: Communicating without words. Expressing emotions
through actions/movements of body.
Posture: Position of the body
Postural echo: Mirroring another persons body position.
Closed posture: Positioning the arms so that they are folded across the
body and/or crossing legs.
Open Posture: Unfolded arms or legs.
Personal Space: The distance we keep between ourselves and other
people in our everyday lives.
Sex Differences: differences due to being either male or female, these
could affect personal space between individuals.

Individual differences: Factors that make one person not the same as
another person such as personality or age.

Verbal Communication
Argyle, Alkema, Gilmour
Aim: To see if tone of voice will have any effect when interpreting verbal
messages.
Method: Different groups of participants listened to either a friendly or
hostile message spoken in a friendly or hostile tone of voice. Some
participants listened to a friendly message in a hostile tone of voice
and some listened to a hostile message in a friendly tone of voice.
Results: Tone of voice had 5 times the effect of the verbal message
Conclusion: Tone of voice is extremely important in how people interpret
verbal messages.
Davitz & Davitz
Aim: To see the effect of paralinguistics on emotions.
Method: Participants were asked to listen to tape recording and to assess
the speakers emotions from the paralinguistics cues: tone of voice,
emphasis and intonation.
Results: There was a high level of accuracy in recognizing these emotions
- affection, amusement, disgust and fear.
Conclusion: Paralinguistics has great importance when judging emotions.
Criticisms: People usually focus more on words and it can only judge 4
emotions. (cannot be generalized enough)

Functions of Eye Contact

Kendon
Aim: To see if eye movements affect flow of conversation.
Method: Pair of participants were asked to get acquainted. Their
conversations were secretly watched by observers through a one way
mirror system.
Results: As one person was about to speak, they looked away from the
other person, avoiding eye contact. They would look at each others
face when they were about to finish what they were saying. When the
speaker gave the other person a prolonged look, it indicates the other
person can speak. There would be a pause in the conversation without
the prolonged look.
Conclusion: Eye movements signal turn taking in conversations.
Argyle
Aim: To see how interrupting eye contact affects conversation
Method: Pair of participants are being observed while having
conversation. In half the conversations, one of the participants wore
dark glasses which means no eye contact.
Results: There were more pauses and interruptions after the participant
puts on the dark glasses.
Conclusion: Eye contact is important to ensure the flow of conversation is
smooth.
Criticisms: Artificial situation; because the participants knew they were
being observed so they may have behaved differently.
Hess
Aim: To see the effect of pupil dilation on emotion
Method: Participants were shown two nearly identical pictures of the same
girl and were asked which picture was more attractive. One picture had
a girl with dilated eyes and the other picture had just a normal pair of
not dilated eyes.
Results: Most people said the picture with the dilated eyes was more
attractive
Conclusion: Pupil dilation has an unconscious but powerful effect.
Criticisms: Would not be socio-cultural impact because blind people
cannot use their pupils.

Facial Expressions
Sakeim:
Aim: To investigate the relationship between facial expressions and
hemisphere of the brain.
Method: There were pictures of different facial expressions but are cut in
the middle. Then they mirrored each half of the face. The new faces
were then shown to participants and were asked which picture they
liked better.
Results: Most participants preferred the picture of the left face and its
reflection. They said it looks warmer.
Conclusion: The left side of our face expresses more emotions than the
right side.
Criticisms: We do not stare at pictures to judge someones emotions, we
dont just look on one side of the face, pictures are artificial
Practical Implications: Could tell if someone is lying or not

Posture
McGinley
Aim: To see the effect of postural echo when having a comversatin.
Method: An actor of the experiment, makes conversation with people in
social setting. During the conversation, the echoed the other persons
posture then he stops echoing.
Results: When posture is echoed, people like it and thought the convo got
on well. When posture is not echoed, it was quite awkward.
Conclusion: Postural echo gives a friendly message out.
McGinley, Lefevre and McGinley
Aim: Effect of open and closed posture in a conversation
Method: An actor of the experiment makes conversation in a social
setting. In half of the conversations, the confederate made an open
posture. In the other half, the confederate made a closed posture.
Results: When showing an open posture, the confederate was seen as
friendly and attractive. When showing a closed posture, the
confederate was seen as unfriendly and less attractive.

Conclusion: The posture that someone makes can make a difference to

how much they are liked.

Gestures
Lynn And Mynier
Aim: To see the effect of gestures used by waiters/waitresses on the
tipping behavior of customers in a restaurant.
Method: Waiters/waitresses were either squatting or standing upright to
take food orders . A squatting gesture means making more eye contact
with the customers.
Results: Waiters/waitresses who were squatting down, received larger tips
than the waiters/waitresses who were standing upright when taking
orders.
Conclusion: The gesture of squatting down near a seated customer to
take orders will have a positive effect on tipping behavior.
Criticisms: The size of the bill usually affects the size of the tip, also
whether the customer was served by someone of the same or the
opposite sex might have been another factor.
Fisher, Rytting and Heslin
Aim: To see the effect of touch on peoples attitudes.
Method: Female students in a library were handed books by a librarian
who was a confederate of the experiment. Half of the students were
briefly touched on the hand by the librarian when the books were
handed to them. The other students were not touched by the librarian/
Results: When questioned later, the students who were touched had a
much more positive attitude towards the library and the librarian than
those who ere not touched. The interesting thing was that the students
were not aware that they had been touched.
Conclusion: Touch can have an unconscious and positive effect on
attitudes.
Criticisms: The participants were all female (cannot be generalized)
therefore we do not know if males would have been affected in the
same way.
Argyle And Dean
Aim: Too see if sex differences affect personal space
Method: One at a time, participants were asked to sit and have a
conversation with another person who was actually a confederate of
the experiment. Sometimes the confederate was the same gender as
the participant and sometimes its opposite gender. The confederate
sat at different distances from the participant and continually looked
into the participants eyes.

Results: The participants tended to break eye contact with the

confederate of the opposite gender at a greater distance apart than
when the confederate was the same gender. This was the point of
which personal space was being invaded.
Conclusion: We prefer to have a greater amount of personal space
between ourselves and members of the opposite gender during normal
conversations.

Individual Differences
Willis
Aim: To see if age has an effect on personal space
Method: Willis observed almost 800 individuals in different social
situations.
Results: Those he observed tended to stand closer to people their own
age and further away from people who were either very much older or
younger than themselves.
Conclusion: Age difference affects how close people stand to one another.
Williams
Aim: To see if personality has an effect on personal space.
Method: College students were given personality tests to see if they were
extrovert or introvert. They were then sent to an office one by one to
receive their college grades from a tutor. The researchers noted where
they chose to sit in the office when receiving their grades.
Results: Introverts sat further away from the tutor than extroverts.
Conclusion: Whether someone is extrovert or introvert will affect their use
of personal space.

Cultural Norms
Summer: To see if there are cultural differences in the use of personal
space.
Method: Summer observed groups of white English people and groups of
Arab people in conversation.

Results: The comfortable conversation distance for the white English

people was 1-1.5m, whereas the comfortable conversation distance for
the Arab people was much less than that.
Conclusion: The use of personal space in normal conversation varies with
culture.

Status
Zahn
Aim: To see if status has an effect on personal space
Method: Zahn observed people of equal status approaching each other to
have a conversation. He also observed people of unequal status
approaching each other.
Results: People of lower status did not approach higher status people with
the same degree of closeness as those of equal status.
Conclusion: The use of personal space varies with differences in status
when approaching other people.

Personality: The thoughts, feelings and behaviors that make an

individual unique.
Temperament: The genetic component of personality.

Longitudinal Study: A study carried out to show how behavior changes

over time.
Monozygotic Twins : Twins developed from one fertilized egg
Dizygotic Twins : Twins developed from two separately fertilized eggs
Type Theory: Personality types are thought to be inherited. They can
be described using related traits.
Extroversion: Personality type that describes someone sociable, open,
loud etc
Introversion: Personality type that describes people who are
unsociable, quiet, likes to be on their own.
Neuroticism: Personality type that describes people who are highly
emotional and show a quick and intense reaction to fear. (Anxious etc)
Personality Scales: Ways of measuring personality using yes/no
questions.
Psychoticism: a third dimension identified by Eyesenck. People who
score high on this dimension are hostile, aggressive, insensitive & cruel.
Eysenck Personality Inventory: Scale to measure Extroversion
introversion and neuroticism stability. It is made up of yes/no
questions

Stable Extrovert: Sociable, outgoing, talkative, responsive, easy going,

lively, carefree
Stable Introvert: calm, even tempered, reliable, controlled, peaceful,
thoughtful, careful
Unstable extrovert: touchy, restless, aggressive, excitable, changeable,
impulsive, optimistic
Unstable introvert: moody, anxious, pessimistic, reserved, unsociable
quiet
Antisocial Personality Disorder: A condition in which the individual does
not use socially acceptable behavior or consider the rights of others.
They lie, steal, are aggressive, difficult to act moral etc.
Amygdala: Part of the brain involved in emotion
Grey matter: the outer layer of the brain
Prefrontal cortex: the very front of the brain it is involved in social and
moral behavior and controls aggression.
Causes of APD: can be caused due to low family income, poor housing,
poor family background, poor parenting, low school achievement and
leaving school early at age.
Characteristics of APD: do not follow laws, lie, are impulsive, being
irritable, aggressive, often involved in physical fights or assaults, are
careless of safety, irresponsible, lack remorse, hurt other people.

Studies of Temperament

Thomas, Chess and Birch (LONGITUDINAL STUDIE)

Aim: To discover whether ways of responding to the environment
remain stable throughtout life.
Method: They studied 133 children from infancy to early adulthood.
The childrens behavior was observed and their parents were interviewed.
The parents were asked about the childs routine and its reactions to
change
Results: They found that the children fell into three types, easy,
difficult or slow to warm up. The easy children were happy, flexible and
regular. The difficult children were demanding, inflexible and cried a lot.
The children that were slow to warm up di not respond well to change or
new experiences to begin with, but once they had adapted they were
usually happy.
Conclusion: The three ways of responding to the environment stayed
with the children as they developed. Temperament is innate.
Evaluation: This is a longitudinal study of temperament. It allows the
researcher to support that temperament is innate. This is because if the
children still show the same reactions to situations as they get older, this
would suggest it is an inborn response. However, participants could drop
out halfway which could affect the results.
Criticisms: The parents are bias.

Buss and Plomin

Aim: To test the idea that temperament is innate.
Method: They studied 228 pairs of monozygotic twins and 172 pairs of
dizygotic twins. They rated the temperament of the twins when they were
five years old. They looked at three dimensions of behavior.
Emotionality how strong the childs emotional response was
Activity how energetic the child was
Sociability How much the child wanted to be with other people.
They then compared the scores for each pair of twins
Results: There was a closer correlation between the scores of
monozygotic twins than between the scores of the dizygotic twins.
Conclusion: Temperament has a genetic basis.
Criticisms: Cannot be generalized to whole population because the
experiment was done on twins only.
Kagan and Snidman

Aim: To investigate whether temperament is due to biological

differences.
Method: They studied the reactions of four month old babies to new
situations. For the first minute the baby was placed in a seat with
caregiver sitting nearby. For the next three minutes the caregiver moved
out of the bays view while the baby was shown different toy by the
researcher.
Results: Twenty percent of the babies showed distress by crying,
vigorous moment of the arms and legs and arching of the back. They
were classed as high reactive. Forty present of the babies showed little
movement or emotion. They were classed as low reactive. The remaining
infants fell somewhere between the two.
After 11 years later, they found there was still a difference in the way
the two groups reacted to new situations; the high reactive were shy
while the low reactives were calm.
Conclusion: The researchers concluded that these two temperaments
are due to inherited differences in the way the brain responds.
Evaluation: They used a large sample of population, which means it
can be generalized easier. The experimental setting was artificial.

Personality Scale
Eysenck
Aim: To investigate the personality of 700 servicemen
Method: Each soldier completed a questionnaire. Eysenck analyzed the
results using a statistical technique known as factor analysis.
Results: He identified two dimensions of personality: extroversion
introversion and neuroticism stability.
Evaluation: It was done on service men only (cannot be generalized),
only described a limited number of personality types, used questionnaire
to test personality which people could have been based on their moods at
the time.

Antisocial Personality Disorder

Raine et al
Aim: To support the theory that abnormalities in the prefrontal cortex
cause APD.
Method: Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was used to study 21 men
with APD and a control group of 34 healthy men. The subjects were all
volunteers.
Results: The APD group had an 11 percent reduction in prefrontal grey
matter compared with the control group.

Conclusion: APD is caused by a reduction in the brains grey matter.

Evaluation: Androcentric because they studied males only. His
participants were all volunteers which means, they all have something in
common.
Farrington
Aim: To investigate the development of offending and antisocial
behavior in males studied from childhood to the age of 50.
Method: Researchers carried out a longitudinal study of the
development of antisocial and offending behavior in 411 males. They all
lived in a deprived, inner city area of London. They were first studied at
the age of 8 and were followed up until the age of 50. Their parents and
teachers were also interviewed. Searchers were carried out at the similar
record office to discover if they or members of their family had been
convicted to a crime.
Results: Forty one present of the males were convicted of at least one
offence between the ages of 10-59. The most important risk factors for
offending were criminal behavior in the family, low school achievement,
poverty and poor parenting.
Conclusion: Situational factors lead to development of anti social
behavior.
Evaluation: Not a controlled experiment, biological factors were not
investigated, androcentric, parents can be bias.
Elander et al
Aim: To investigate the childhood risk factors that can be used to
predict antisocial behavior in adulthood.
Method: Researchers investigated 225 twins who were diagnosed with
childhood disorders and interviewed them 10-25 years later.
Results: The childhood hyperactivity, conduct disorders, low IQ and
reading problems were strong predictors of APF and criminality in adult
life.
Conclusions: Disruptive behavior in childhood can be used o predict
APM in adulthood.
Evaluation: They studied twins only which means it could have been
the genetics that affected their behavior and not situational factors.
Participants could have remembered their childhood experiences wrongly.

Stereotype: An oversimplified generalized set of idea that we have

about others, for example, secondary head teachrs are strict,
intimidating, scary and male.

Research into stereotyping

Williams and Best
Aim: To investigate the extent of sex stereotyping across 30 different
countries.
Method: Participants were given over 300 characteristics and asked to
state whether the characteristics were more likely to be associated with
men, women or both genders.
Results: Across countries, the same characteristics tended to be
associated with males and females. Females were described as
understanding, emotional and warm. Males were described as reckless,
hard headed and determined.
Conclusion: The findings of this cross cultural study suggests that
there are commonly held stereotypes of males and females.
Rubin Et Al

Reward & Punishment

SOCIAL LEARNING THOERY (BANDURA)

We do not just learn by observing from others
There can be a time lapse between stimulus (thing that happened)
and response(thing that you do)
No guarantee that the same stimulus will always elicit the same
response from each person
What is going on in our brain and our unique experience governs our
behavior and personality

 Reaction to behaviorism

Five capabilities distinguish human learning from animals

Symbolizing capability Think the word/sound etc means more than

what you see. We can think about things that are not physically
present.
Vicarious capability ability to feel/sense an experience we have not
experienced (other peoples experience)
Forethought We can think/plan ahead into the future

Self-regulatory capability Ability to control ourselves eg, hungry

but you are in a class so you will control yourself from your instincts
(can think of the consequences)
Self reflective capability Think of what we done at the end of a
day etc
Experiences dictating our response even if it is the same stimulus, it is
more than just stimulus and response.
For Modeling to occur, a behavior must be both learnt and performed.
We take in loads of behavior but will only do a bit of that. Cognitive
variables mediate modeling.
You have to pay attention to the model (ATTENTION)
Variables that influence this are
(1)
Persons state (eg hungry or cold)
(2)
Distractions (in your mind or externally)
(3)
Nature of the model (striking, prestigious, competent)

You have to remember the models behavior (RETENTION)

Variables that influence this are
(1)
Imagery
(2)
Semantic coding (the meaning you give it)
(3)
Organization ( your mental filing health settings)
(4)
Rehearsal (keep running it in your head)

You have to be able to do the behavior and practice

it(REPRODUCTION)
Variables include:
(1)
Time spent practicing
(2)
Individual beliefs and capabilities
(3)
Social facilitation will the circumstances around you effect
you?

You have to want to do the behavior (Motivation)

Variables include:
REINFORCEMENT would you expect some kind of
reward/punishment from doing the action

 could be from self experience

vicarious experience or imagined/promised reinforcement

Self REGULATION - self control

from self reflection,
Judgment against a standard,
self response (own reward/punishment)
may choose to escape and do nothing or compensate instead of doing
the behavior
Different male identities:
Big, buff male
Quiet
Well-dressed
Scruffy
Skinny, weak
Geeky
Mummys boy
Players

Different female identities:

Tomboy
Girly girl
Frumpy
Plastic
Plain girl
Sporty

Sex: Biological nature

Gender: Characteristics formed throughout life that differs between male
and female
Two X Chromosomes Sex
A penis sex
Tough minded gender
Emotional gender
A vagina sex
One X chromosome and one Y chromosome Sex
Tender minded gender
A womb sex
Testes sex

Uncaring gender
Oestrogen sex
Caring gender
Unemotional gender
Ovaries sex
Sex development
1) All fetus start as female but the Y chromosome switches the fetus to a
male route by ensuring the development of testes and not ovaries.
These produce hormones
2) Testes produce androgens including testosterone ensures
development of penis and scrotum and muscle cover
3) Ovaries produce oestrogen and progesterone which develop the womb
and vagina
Castration Is more important to determine gender
Sex Identity is the biological status of being male or female
Peoples behaviors towards a child changes depending to the gender
Gender roles are the expected behaviors and character traits that go with
being male or female in our society

Circumcision is done when the sex organ is unclear, deformed or not fully
formed.
How does gender identity develop
Men carry dull umbrellas whilst women carry girly umbrellas
Men dont hold hands with males friends whilst women do
Freud Study: Little Hans

Our behavior is beyond our conscious control

Boys haves stronger gender identity as they have more to lose (penis)
Inferiority of girls penis enby, less moral as less intense internalistion
of same sex parent

Gender schema theory

Sandra Bem
Some people are highly sex typed (gender typed)
These people see the world as being full of male stuff and female stuff
Some are not
Bem sees: MM and FF as highly gender typed
Androgynous: as possessing high levels of both
Undifferentiated: possess low levels of both
Heuristic cognitive shortcut (quick way to categorize people) relates
previous experience to new examples of those things schema
Gender schema a mental building block of knowledge that contains
information about each gender
Gender Stereotype Some people have a more rigid gender schema (eg, girls must wear
dress, long hair)
The Martin study suggests as you get older, your gender schema is
less stereotyped whereas the Levy and Carter study suggests there
are individual differences between people and age is not a factor.
Freudian Theory Implication: If boys develop from Oedipus complex
then children raised in single parent families are likely to develop poor
gender identities.
Freudian Theory Application: If child development clinics counselors
should advise single mothers to introduce a male role model into their
sons lives so that their gender development is not disturbed.
Social Learning theory on gender development Implication:
Children develop their ideas about gender from other people so
parents should be aware of imposing negative or restricting gender
ideas on their children.
Social Learning theory on gender development Application:
Since we know children acquire their ideas about gender appropriate
behavior from watching models, the makers of childrens TV or
magazines can introduce role models that are less stereotyped for each
gender, to reduce the restrictions both genders face for their behavior.
Biological theory of gender development Implication &
application (MONEY etc)
Implication: Our gender development is not learned but inherited. There
is an area inside the brain (SDM) that controls our gender
development; female has a shorter one and male has a longer one.

Application:
Gender schema theory of gender development Implication &
application
Implication: What do we mean about that
Application: what are we going to do about that

Aggression: Behavior aimed at harming others.

Hormones: Chemicals released by our endocrine system that affect
how our bodies function and how we behave
Limbic system: The part of the brain that causes aggressive behavior
Prefrontal cortex: the very front of the brain. It is involved in social
and moral behavior and control aggression
Brain disease: damage to the brain caused by illness or trauma.
Aggression: Biological, Hormonal, Genetic
Biological: Brain structures, genes and anti gens
BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATION FOR AGGRESSION:
(1) HORMONES studies have shown that mles are more aggressive
than females. Because of this, hormones are thougt to be responsible as
there are large difference between the hormones of men and women. Men
have much more testosterone than women. As a result, this hormone is
thought to be the cause of aggression in males. Key Study: Young et al
1959
(2)CHROMOSOMES There is a higher than normal proportion of
men with an extra Y chromosome amongst violent offenders. When the
23rd chromosome (the sex chromosome) fails to divide, some men end up
with an XYY arrangement. This has certain effects, including making men
more aggressive than normal.

 Aggression
Research Support: Megargee And Mendelsohn 1962
Interviewed and psychometrically tested violent criminals
Found that all seemed to have been over controlled and had
repressed
their angry. This caused a build up to explosion at minor trigger (But
frustration - aggression hypothesis goes against if our goal is blocked
we become angry
Criticisms: Cant measure strictness
It is intuitively correct an innate sense of what feels right

3 factors to explain aggression (Freuds theory)

Id (being controlled by Superego and ego to be moral)
pleasure principle : (libido)-Eros,Life force
(a) Survival (b)Death wish (thanathos)
Defence mechanism target of aggression, (displacement,sublimation)
Catharsis flushing out of aggression.
When death wish first emerge; want to kill dad/mum

 Evaluation:
Freud's theory is based upon case studies and not empirical
research.
Also, Freud based his theory on the recollections of his adult
patients, not on actual observation and study of children.
His theories are difficult to test scientifically. Concepts such as the
libido are impossible to measure, and therefore cannot be tested.
Quality of evidence
Does it explain all kinds of aggression (comprehensive, exceptions)
Relationship to the real world
Beautiful consistency + coherence
Might/might not still apply to the world now
Social cultural impact changed the world MAJORLY

Evaluation:
(1) They did it in a lab and the criminals cant display or show
aggression when they arent in an aggressive environment. (nothing will
trigger their aggression)
(2) Criminals arent able to withdraw (cant escape even if they are not
willing to do it)
(3) Psychological harm criminals are meant to learn and change in
prison but the study shows they are aggressive because of their brain.
(think they are born with an aggressive mind)
(4) if people are a little less inactive with the prefrontal cortex, it
doesnt mean they are aggressive.

Prisoners had extra wide chromosomes

ALL DONE ON MALE ANDROCENTRIC
If done on male and looking for it, youll find it - Confirmation bias (a
tendency of people to favor information that confirms their beliefs or
hypotheses.)
Intuitively correct able to apply to yourself

If the psychodynamic theory is correct then we should be able to

reduce aggression by participating in safe activities that can help to
release anger (thanatos) such as martial arts, taekwondo or give them a
psycho analysis therapy.
If the social learning theory of aggression is correct then we should
be able to reduce aggression by advising parents to not argue in front of
children, dont expose them to aggressive films and let them see
aggressive role models are punished for their actions. But sometimes, the
punishment is the reward for certain children.
If the biological theory of aggression is correct then we should be
able to reduce aggression by giving them support and help to control their
thoughts and feelings. (identify who needs help first) - psycho education
therapy

Freuds Theory Freudian Psychodynamic

Use your notes on Freud's theory we have already talked about
and read in your textbook about the Freudian (psychodynamic)
explanation for aggression. Then in your own words try to explain
why people become aggressive according to this theory and see if
you can use any evidence or anecdotes to support this
explanation. Make sure you have a good paragraph available to
read out next lesson

A possible reason why some people may turn to aggression based on

the Freudian Psychodynamic may be that aggression is part of our ID. It
could possibly be part of our basic instincts as aggression is said to be
part of our subconscious. Freud suggested that every person pushes down
their deepest desires into their subconscious while only presenting their
conscious. Aggression could be one of the parts of the unconscious drive
that we have (like our sexual behaviour). In psychosexual development,
aggression could possibly have a link with the Phallic Stage which is when
individuals find pleasure from penis. Girls then experience what is known
as penis envy. This happens when they feel like they are missing out on
something that they cant and wont have, in this case, a penis. This can
then lead to depression in girls, and depression itself can lead to
aggressive behaviour.

Defence mechanisms:
Displacement: being aggressive towards other people
Sublimation channelling our aggression into other acceptable
activities
Paragraph must include:
ID works on the pleasure principle sometimes known as libido
Libido is a sort of life force
Eros (erotic side) food and sex
In the libido there is the death wish thanatos
Constant tension between eros and thanatos in your libido
Controlling aggression through your superego and ego
Defence mechanisms: target of aggression
displacement: e.g. kicking your cat
sublimation: e.g. going to the gym
Both these things give you CATHARSIS flushing out of aggression
When the death wish first emerges, it will be put it on either you
mum/dad (Oedipus complex)
Research support:
Megargee and Mendelsohn (1962)
Interviewed and psychometrically tested violent criminals
Found that all seemed to have been over-controlled and had
repressed their anger this caused a build-up to explosion at
minor trigger (but frustration-aggression hypothesis goes against
if our goal is blocked we become angry)

Evaluation:
Confirmation bias
How to we measure what strict is?
Criminals are not reliable sources
Intuitively correct feels right/makes sense
Theory:
Intuitively correct
Evidence/if its been proven
Consistency and coherence does the theory hang together into one
whole? - yes
Quality of evidence
Comprehensive/exceptions?
Anecdotal evidence little scientific proof
Only based on case studies and not research experiments
Application to the real world
Socio-cultural impact did the theory change the world? - Yes it did
LEARNING

Social desirability acting in a way to look better in the society

Demand characteristics

Ambigious questions bad because questions are too complicatedshould only ask for 1 thing