CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 ORIGIN OF FM TRANSMISSION

In 1933 Edwin Armstrong, invented a new circuit to improve AM (Amplitude Modulation)

radio. He came up with the first practical system for transmitting radio signals, using FM.[1]
Armstrong generated a frequency modulated signal using a phase modulator in order to
overcome the inherent challenges of frequency-instability in the direct frequency modulation
method.

2.2 FREQUENCY MODULATION (FM) TRANSMITTER

FM signals can be produced by either directly varying the frequency of the carrier oscillator,
or by converting phase modulation to frequency modulation (indirect method). Depending on
the method employed, FM transmitters are classified into 2 types: Direct and Indirect
frequency modulation technique.

2.3 DIRECT FM TRANSMITTER

The frequency modulation is achieved by direct variation of the carrier signal by the
modulating signal. Direct frequency modulation is normally carried out at a lower frequency
and with a smaller frequency deviation, because frequency modulation at the carrier
frequency results in high frequency instability. In order to attain the carrier frequency, the
1

frequency modulated wave is passed through frequency multipliers. Fig 2.1 shows the typical
block diagram for a direct FM transmitter.

Freq. Modulator & Oscillator

Frequency MultiplierPower Amplifier
Modulating Signal

Antenna

Fig 2.1 Block Diagram of Direct FM Transmitter

2.3.1

ADVANTAGES OF DIRECT FM

It is easier to obtain high frequency deviation

It requires simpler circuitry. [2]

2.3.2

DISADVANTAGES OF DIRECT FM
Additional circuitry (i.e. Automatic Frequency Control loop) is required to achieve
good frequency stability.

Requires a Pre-emphasis stage to reduce hiss and high frequency noise.[3]

2.4 INDIRECT FM TRANSMITTER

Indirect FM transmitters produce the FM signal whose phase deviation is directly

proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal. With this method the phase angle

is varied while the frequency and amplitude remain constant. i.e. phase modulation. In
order to achieve frequency modulation from phase modulation, the modulating signal
must be of the same frequency as the carrier frequency.[4] This is commonly achieved by
first amplitude modulating the modulating signal in order to produce a constant frequency
signal with varying amplitude. The AM signal is then phase shifted by 900 and then added
to the carrier signal, which is usually generated by a crystal oscillator. Since both the
produced AM signal and the carrier signal have the same frequency the generated output
is a FM signal. The concept is best illustrated mathematically as shown:

A phase modulated signal is represented as:

epm = Ec sin (wc t + m cos wmt) ----- 1

[4]

The instantaneous angular frequency wp of the above phase modulated signal is given by:

wp =

d(t)
dt

------------------------------ 2;

where (t) = wc t + m coswm t

wp =

d
dt

[wc t + m coswm t ] ------------- 3;

wp = wc m sin wm t wm -------------- 4;
In terms of linear frequencies above equation can be written as:
fp = fc m fm sin(2fmt) ------------------- 5;

The 2nd term in the equation represents the frequency shift with respect to centre
frequency i.e. fc + f [4]

This shows that frequency of the phase modulated signal varies around the carrier
frequency fc with the deviation of f = m fm sin(2fmt). It can be seen that if modulating
frequency fm remains constant then frequency deviation is directly proportional to m.
Thus as long as the modulation frequency does not change, phase modulation produces
FM output. [4] This is the basis of indirect modulation.

2.4.1

2.4.2

ADVANTAGE OF INDIRECT FM
The crystal oscillator can be used; hence there is better frequency stability.

DISADVANTAGE OF INDIRECT FM
There is limited phase deviation; hence low modulation index.

2.5 REVIEW OF PROJECT WORKS ON FM TRANSMITTERS

a. Design of a Portable Miniaturised, Multichannel FM Transmitter by

Francis Mc_Swiggan. [5]
The circuit design of the Portable Miniaturised, Multichannel FM transmitter
employed the direct frequency modulation technique and implemented it using
a 2 stage transistor circuit. The first stage of the circuit was used as a pre-audio
amplifier while the 2nd transistor stage acts as an oscillator and modulator
circuit. The circuit works based on the transistor reactance modulator concept.
The reactance modulator is an amplifier designed so that its output impedance
4

has a reactance that varies as a function of the amplitude of the applied input
voltage.

The circuit was able to provide an effective tuning range of 6 MHz and an
effective range of 80 feet. The range achieved by this circuit is quite small and
would limit its applications.

Fig 2.2 The Portable Miniaturised, Multichannel FM Transmitter Circuit

b. Single Transistor FM Transmitter by D. Mohankumar [6]

The single transistor FM transmitter is based on the transistor reactance modulator
model. The circuit is simplified by excluding a pre-amplifier stage, while the
modulator and carrier oscillator stage are implemented on a single 2N3904 or BC547
5

general purpose transistors. The modulating effect is achieved by the specific

arrangement of the input resistor R1 = 4k7 and C1 = 1nF capacitor.
The single transistor FM Transmitter had a very poor range of about 9 - 15 meters,
and also the stability of the circuit was a bit poor, as the frequency often drifted off.

Fig 2.3 Single Transistor FM Transmitter D. Mohankumar

c. MAX2606 Mini FM Transmitter by P. Marian [7]

The mini FM transmitter by P.Marian is implemented using a Voltage Controlled
Oscillator built on an Integrated Circuit (IC) chip - MAX2606. MAX2606 is an IC
chip that functions as a high-performance intermediate frequency Volatge Controlled
Oscillator (VCO). It is specially designed for wireless communication circuits; the
low-noise IC features an on-chip varicap diode and feedback capacitances that avoid
the need for external tuning components.

The circuits is setup as described in the datasheet of the MAX2606, an inductor which
determines the carrier frequency is placed between the pin1 and pin 2 of the IC. The
IC accepts a DC power of 3 5v. When the audio signal (modulating signal) is
applied the IC varies the carrier frequency in relation to the amplitude of the
modulating signal

The circuit operates at a carrier frequency of 100MHz and provides a coverage of

about 20 meters with a 1.5 meter long copper wire antenna. Its output sound is quite
low due to low output power (about -10dbm) of the MAX2606 IC.

Fig 2.4 MAX2606 Mini FM Transmitter Circuit by P. Marian

2.3 EMPLOYED DESIGN APPROACH TO FM TRANSMITTER
It is our goal to build a low cost FM transmitter with good frequency stability and
enough power to transmit over a radius of 1KM. A 2 stage cascaded transistor circuit
design will be employed, in order to ensure better stability and a low noise general
purpose transistor BC107 with higher gain compared to the 2N3904 used by Francis
Mcswiggan will be used in the oscillator circuit, in order to generate higher power. A

yagi antenna will be used at the output for more efficient transmission and larger
coverage.

References
[1] Jerry C. Whitaker, The electronics Handbook, 2nd ed. CRC Press Taylor & Francis
group, 2005.
[2] Kellejian, Robert, Applied electronic communication: Circuits, systems, transmission.
Science Research Associates, 1980.
[3] H. Ward Silver, The ARRL Extra Class License Manual for Ham Radio. .
[4] Dr. J.S Chitode, Communication Theory, 5th ed. Technical Publications Pune, 2010.
[5] Miniaturised FM transmitter. [Online]. Available: http://pe2bz.philpem.me.uk/Comm/%20Transmitters/-%20FMx/FMx-902-PortableMiniSterio/Index. [Accessed: 24-Jan2016].
[6] Single Transistor FM Transmitter Design | electronics hobby. [Online]. Available:
https://dmohankumar.wordpress.com/2011/04/23/single-transistor-fm-transmitter-design/.
[Accessed: 24-Jan-2016].
[7] MAX2606 Mini FM Transmitter. [Online]. Available:
http://www.electroschematics.com/83/mini-fm-transmitter-max2606/. [Accessed: 24-Jan2016].