Basic Elex Notes

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Valance Electrons- The electrons in the outermost shell of an atom are called Valence electrons.
Energy Levels- Electrons revolve around the nucleolus in different shells. These electrons are bound to
the nucleus with some specific energy. Each electron shell exhibits a particular energy value called the
discrete energy level.
The discrete energy levels depend on the following parameters
Momentum of electrons in the orbits.
Distance of the orbit from the nucleus.
The energy levels of various shells are calculated using a simplified general formula:
En = -
eV
eV (Electron volt)- It is the energy gained by an electron when it passes through a potential difference of
one volt. 1eV= 1.6 x 10-19 Joule.
S.No.
Shell
Energy Level
K-Shell
-13.6 eV
L-Shell
-3.41 eV
M-Shell
-1.51 eV
N-Shell
-0.87 eV
5
O-Shell
5
-0.56 eV
The Negative sign in equation indicates that the electrons are bounded to the nucleus with an
attractive force. The energy gap between two consecutive shell is called the forbidden gap: an electron in
an isolated atom cannot have an energy in the gap.
Energy Band- The energy bands in solid can be as a set of energy levels closely placed such that the
energy band are considered to continuous ranges of permissible electron energy.
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Valence Band- The electrons in the outermost shell are called valence electrons, Consequently, The
energy band associated with the outermost shell is known as the valence band.
The valence electrons are loosely bonded with the nucleus: therefore, a small amount of
external energy is sufficient to free them from their atom.
Conduction Band- When the valence electrons are freed from the atom, these free electrons are
responsible for the conduction of current in solids and are therefore called conduction electrons / free
electrons. The bond occupied by these electrons is called the conduction band.
Therefore, the loosely bound valence electrons jump from the valence band to the conduction band
when sufficient external energy is supplied to the atoms.
The gap between valence band and conduction band is called the forbidden energy gap(Eg).
Eg > 5 eV
Examples Eg for Glass= 10 eV
Eg for Diamond = 6 eV
Eg < 3 eV
Eg for silicon = 0.72 eV
Eg for Germanium = 1.1 eV
Eg for GaAs = 1.41 eV
Eg = 0 eV
All Metals
Semiconductors
A semiconductor is a material which has electrical conductivity between that of a conductor
such as copper and that of an insulator such as glass.
The conductivity of a semiconductor material increases with increasing temperature.
All the elements of IV group of periodic table are semiconductors (C,Si,Ge) etc.
The energy band gap between valence band and conduction band is less than 3 eV
There are two types of semiconductor material
Intrinsic or Pure semiconductors.
Extrinsic or Doped Semiconductor.
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Intrinsic Semiconductors-An intrinsic semiconductor material is chemically very pure and possesses
poor conductivity. It has equal numbers of negative carriers (electrons) and positive carriers (holes).
Fig: Structure of intrinsic semiconductor

absolute zero temperature
Fig:Generation of electron-hole pair in an at

Intrinsic semiconductor
Extrinsic Semiconductor- The conductivity of intrinsic semi-conductor can be increased by adding some
suitable impurity atoms to the semiconductor. When a small amount of impurity atom is added to the
intrinsic semiconductor, it is called extrinsic or impurity semi-conductor and the process of adding
impurities to the semiconductor is known as doping.
P-Type- When a trivalent impurity atom is added to an intrinsic semiconductor, it is called P-type
semiconductor. trivalent impurities are Boron, Aluminum, Gallium and Indium. They are known as
acceptor impurities because the holes created can accept the electrons.
P-Type Semiconductor: -
a) Boron added to Silicon,
b) Creation of a hole.
N-Type- When a pentavalent impurity atom is added to

an intrinsic semiconductor, it is called N-type
semiconductor. pentavalent atoms are phosphorus,
arsenic and antimony. They are called donor impurities
because they donate one valence electron to the
semiconductor crystal.
N-Type Semiconductor
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Doping
Majority
Carriers
Minority
Carriers
Ions
N-Type
P-Type
Pentavalent Atoms(P, As,Sb,Bi)

Electrons
Trivalent Atoms (B,Al,Ga,In)

Holes
Holes
Electrons
Positive / Donor Ions
Negative / Acceptor Ions
P-N Junction Diode
Made by joining P-Type and N-Type Semiconductors

Two terminal device
Unidirectional Device
Non Linear Device
Basic Operation- as a SWITCH in electronic devices
Applications: Rectifier, Zener Diode, Clipper , Clamper etc
Unbiased P-N Junction Diode(V= 0 V)A P-N

Junction formed by injecting P-Type and N-Type
impurity atoms into the two halves of a single intrinsic
semiconductor crystal is called unbiased P-N-Junction.
The concentrations of the electrons and holes are
different across the junction. This is known as
concentration gradient; due to the concentration
gradient across the junction, some changes start taking
place as the P-N junction is formed.
The holes from the P-region cross the junction & the N-region where there is a scarcity of holes.
This is because the P-N junction tries to have an equal number of holes on both sides of the junction.
This process is called diffusion.
As soon as a hole from the P-region crosses the junction into the N-region, it confronts a free
electron generated by a donor ion. This hole recombines with the free electron, and the free electron
vanishes. The corresponding donor ion is now left without any electron associated with it. This donor ion
is called an uncovered charge. In this manner a large number of uncovered positive charges are produced
near the junction in the N-region.
The electrons from the N-region diffuse into the Pregion due to the concentration gradient across the junction.
These electrons are recombined with the free holes
associated with immobile acceptor ions near the junction,
uncovered negative charges are produced in the P-region
close to the junction.
The uncovered negative charges create a negative
electric field in the P-region & the uncovered positive
charges create a positive electric field in the N-region .
Now, if positively charged holes try to cross the junction
into the N-region, the positive field repels them back into
UNBIASED PN JUNCTION
the P-region. Similarly the electrons are prevented from
crossing the junction from N-region to the P-region, due to
a repelling force exerted from the uncovered negative
charges in the P-region.
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After some time, the transportation of mobile charges, electrons & holes stops due to a negative
electric field in the P-region and a positive electric field in the N-region.
Depletion Region- The region of uncovered positive and negative ions is called the depletion region due
to the depletion of free carriers in the region. In the absence of an applied bias across a semiconductor
diode, the net flow of charge in one direction is zero.
VB = 0.3V for Ge
VB = 0.7V for Si
Reverse Bias Condition (V< 0V) when the negative
terminal of the DC source is connected to the P-side & the
positive terminal of the DC source is connected to N-side
of the P-N junction. The P-N junction is known as a
reverse biased junction.
1- The Current does not flow because of majority carrier.
2- Due to an increase in positive & negative ions around the junction, the electric field around the
junction is increases, and as a result, the height of the potential barrier is increased.
3- The current that exist under reverse bias condition is called the reverse saturation current & is
represented by Is. (Because of minority carriers only)
Forward Bias Junction (V>0V)- If the positive terminal of
the voltage source is connected to the P-side & the
negative terminal of the source is connected to the N-side
of the diode, then the diode is said to be biased in the
forward direction or forward biased.
1- The current Flows because of majority carriers only.
2- Depletion layer decreases with the increase of voltage because effect of external electric field
is higher than internal potential barrier.
2
3
4
Forward Bias
P-Type Positive Terminal
Reverse Bias
P-Type Negative Terminal
N- Type Negative Terminal

Current Flows because of majority
carriers.
Depletion Layer decreases with increasing
voltage.
Less voltage required
N- Type Positive Terminal

Current Flows because of Minority carriers.
Reverse Saturation Current
Depletion Layer increases with increasing
voltage.
High Voltage required
V-I Characteristics of P-N Junction Diode

V-I characteristics of P-N junction diode shows the graphical relationship between voltage and flowing
current through diode
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Forward Bias- When a forward voltage is applied
at the terminals of a diode, the diode begins to
conduct. During conduction, the cut in or
threshold voltage exceeds the applied forward
voltage. The threshold voltage for a germanium
diode is 0.3V and for silicon diode is 0.7V. The
forward current (miliampere range) initially
increases
linearly
and
then
increases
exponentially for high currents.
Reverse Bias- When a a reverse voltage is applied,
a reverse saturation current flows through the
diode. The diode continues to be in the non
conducting state until the reverse voltage drops
below the zener voltage. As the reverse voltage
approximates the peak inverse voltage a
breakdown called as the Avalanche breakdown
occurs. During the breakdown, the minority
charge carriers ionize the stable atoms which are
followed by a chain ionization to generate a large
number of free charge carriers. Thus the diode
becomes short circuited and gets damaged.
Temperature Effect on V-I Characteristics

As the temperature increases, the electron pairs generated thermally also increases thereby increasing
the conductivity in both directions. The reverse saturation current also increases with the increase in
temperature. The change is 11% per C for a germanium diode and 8% per C for a silicon diode. On the
other hand the diode current is doubled for every 10C rise. With increase in voltage, the firing voltage
in forward characteristics is reduced while peak reverse voltage is increased.
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Diode Equation
The current that flows through a diode is given by the equation:
where
ID - diode current. (Positive for forward and negative for reverse)

IS - constant reverse saturation current
V - Applied voltage. (Positive for forward and negative for reverse)
- Factor dependent upon the nature of semiconductor.
(1 for germanium and 2 for silicon)
VT - volt equivalent of temperature which is given by T/11600. (T is
Temperature in Kelvin)
Diode Capacitance
Storage or Diffusion Capacitance- This capacitance originates due to diffusion of charge carriers in the
opposite regions. The capacitance which exist in a forward-biased junction is called a diffusion or
storage capacitance. It is called diffusion capacitance to account for the time delay in moving charges
across the junction by diffusion process.
CD =
Where CD = Diffusion capacitance

= Constant *1 for Si and 2 for Ge+
VT = volt equivalent of temperature
= mean life time of carrier
IF = Forward current
Hence CD is proportional to ID .
Depletion or Transition Capacitance- The capacitance which appears between positive ion layer in nregion and negative ion layer in p-region. The transition capacitance is very small as compared to the
diffusion capacitance.
When a PN junction is formed, there exists a depletion region at the junction. this
depletion region or layer consist of positive and negative immobile ions. This depletion layer is non
conductive and hence acts as a dielectric medium between P-region and N-region.
In reverse bias transition, the capacitance is the dominant and is given by:
where CT - transition capacitance

A - diode cross sectional area
W - depletion region width
Since the depletion layer width (d) increases with
increase in reverse bias voltage, the depletion
capacitance should decrease with the increase in
reverse bias.
Diode capacitance is given by
CT =
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where K is constant
Diode Capacitance Curve

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Diode Resistance
Static Resistance or DC resistance- Static Resistance is basically the DC resistance offered by a pn
junction diode and originates when it is connected in a DC circuit. It is the resistance offered by the
diode to the flow of DC current.
Mathematically, it is given as the ratio of the DC voltage across the terminals of
the diode to the DC current flowing through it.
Rf= =
Dynamic Resistance or AC resistance- Dynamic Resistance is the AC resistance offered by a pn junction
diode and originates when it is connected in an AC circuit. It is the resistance offered by the diode to the
flow of AC current.
Mathematically, it given as the ratio of the change in AC voltage across the
terminals of the diode to the resulting change in AC current flowing through it.
Rf= =
Breakdown Mechanism
If the reverse-bias applied to a P-N junction is increased; a point will reach when the junction breaks
down and reverse current rises sharply to a value limited only by the external resistance connected in
series. This specific value of the reverse bias voltage breakdown voltage (VZ). After breakdown voltage
depends upon the width of depletion layer. The width of depletion layer depends upon the doping
level.The following two processes cause junction breakdown due to the increase in reverse bias voltage.
1- Zener BreakdownOccurred when a heavily doped junction is reverse biased.
This is observed at V< 6 V.
Field Ionization (E= 3 x 106 V/cm) takes place in this mechanism.
Tunneling of electrons [ the valence electrons are pulled into conduction band]
V-I characteristics with zener breakdown is very sharp.
Negative temperature coefficient. (When T increases VZ decreases)
Tunneling Process- Due to intense electric field (E= 3 x 106 V/cm), the valence electrons are pulled into
conduction band by breaking covalent bonds. These electrons become free electrons which are available
for conduction. A large no. of such free electrons will constitute a large reverse current through the zener
diode and breakdown is said to have occurred due to the zener effect. A current limiting resistance should
be connected in series with the zener diode to protect it against the damage due to excessive heating.
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2- Avalanche BreakdownOccurred when a lightly doped junction is reverse biased.
Multiplication of electrons takes place in avalanche breakdown.
This is observed at V> 8 V
Impact Ionization.
This V-I characteristics with the avalanche breakdown increases gradually.
Positive temperature coefficient of voltage. (When T increases VZ increases).
Impact Ionization- In reverse biased condition, the conduction will take place only due to minority
carriers. As we increase the reverse voltage applied to the zener diode, these minority carriers tends to
accelerate. Therefore, the kinetic energy (
) associated with them increases. While travelling, these
accelerated minority carriers will collide with the stationary atoms and impart some of the kinetic energy
to the valence electrons present energy these valence electrons will break their covalent bonds and jump
into the conduction bond to become free for conduction. Now these newly generated free electrons get
accelerated. They will knock out some more valence electrons by means of collision. This phenomenon is
called as carrier multiplication. In a very short time, a large number of free minority electrons and holes
will be available for conduction and carrier multiplication process become self sustained. This self
sustained multiplication is called avalanche effect .a large reverse current starts flowing through the
zener diode and the avalanche breakdown is said to have occurred.
Zener Diode
Zener diode is a reverse biased heavily doped P-N junction diode which operates in the breakdown
region. The reverse breakdown of a P-N junction may occur either due to zener effect or avalanche effect.
Conduction direction of zener diode - For the zener diode the
direction of conduction is opposite to that of the arrow in the
symbol. Zener diode equivalent circuit-
Complete
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The complete equivalent circuit of the zener diode in the zener region includes a small dynamic
resistance and dc battery equal to the zener potential. Generally, the zener resistance value is quite small
than external resistance of the circuit in which zener diode is connected. Therefore zener resistance may
be neglected generally.
On State (V>VZ) If the reverse bias voltage across a zener diode is equal to or more than breakdown
voltage VZ, the current will increase sharply. Hence, in this region the current will be almost vertical.
V>VZ
Equivalent zener diode at ON state
Off State (0<V<VZ) If the reverse voltage across the zener diode is less than VZ but greater than 0V.
the zener diode will be in the off state.
0<V<VZ
Equivalent zener diode at OFF state
Application of ZENER DiodesZener diode is used as a voltage regulator.

Zener diode is used as a peak clipper in waveshaping circuit.
Zener diode is used as a fixed reference voltage in transistor biasing circuits.
Zener diode is used as for meter protection against damage from accidental application of
excessive voltage.
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Voltage Multiplier Circuits
A voltage multiplier is that of circuit which produces an output d.c. voltage whose value is multiple of
peak a.c. input voltage (i.e 2Vm , 3 Vm , 4Vm.). a voltage multiplier circuit is a combination of two or more
peak rectifier circuits. Each peak rectifier contains a diode and a capactor.
Voltage Doubler- A voltage multiplier circuit, whose output d.c. voltage is double of the peak a.c. input
voltage, is known as voltage doubler.
(i)
Half Wave voltage doubler
(ii)
Full- Wave voltage doubler
(i)
Half Wave voltage doubler- During the positive half cycle of the input signal the diode D1
conducts (and diode D2 is cut-off), charging the capacitor C1 upto the peak rectified voltage
(Vm). During negative half cycle, the diode D1 is cut-off and diode D2 conducts charging
capacitor C2
-Vm - VC1 + VC2 = 0
-Vm - Vm + VC2 = 0
[VC1 = Vm]
VC2 = 2 Vm
On the next positive half cycle, diode D2 is non conducting and capacitor C2 will discharge
through the load. If no load is connected across capacitor C2 , both capacitors stay charged stay
charged - C1 to Vm and C2 to 2 Vm .
(ii)
Full- Wave voltage doubler - During the positive half cycle of a.c. input voltage, the D1
conducts charging capacitor C1 to a peak voltage Vm , the diode D2 is cut-off at this time.
During the negative half-cycle, the diode D2 conducts (while D1 is at cut-off)
charging capacitor C2 to Vm. If there is no load is connected across the output then the
output voltage is equal to 2Vm . However, if the load is connected then the voltage will be
less than 2Vm . the peak inverse voltage ( PIV) across each diode , in a full wave voltage
doubler is equal to 2Vm.
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Rectifier- A rectifier is a circuit which is used to convert A.C. voltage into the pulsating D.C. voltage.
1- Half-wave rectifier(HWR)
2- Full- wave rectifier (FWR)
1- Half-wave Rectifier-
During the interval t=0 T/2 - The Diode is in state of forward bias, Diode will behave as a short
circuit.
Vo = Vi
During the interval t=T/2 T - The diode is in state of reverse bias, diode will behave as open circuit.
Vo = 0
2- Full Wave Rectification Full wave rectifier is that type of rectifier which utilizes both the half
cycle of a.c. input voltage.
(i)
(ii)
(i)
Centre-tap full wave rectifier

Full wave Bridge rectifier
Centre-tap full wave rectifier- it contains two diodes with a centre- tapped transformer to
establish the input signal across each section of the secondary of the transformer.
During positive portion of Vi applied to the primary of the transformer, D1 is short circuit & D2 is open
circuit.
During the negative portion of the input , diode D2 is forward bias & D1 is reverse bias.
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(ii)
Bridge Rectifier- The dc level obtained from a sinusoidal input can be improved 100% using
a process called full wave rectification.
In +ve half cycle D2 & D3 diodes are conducting while D1 & D4 are in off state.
In -ve half cycle D1 & D4 diodes are conducting while D2 & D3 are in off state.
Full Wave
S.No.
Parameter
Half Wave
No. of diodes
Centre-Tap
2
Bridge
4
Transformer
Necessary
No
YES
NO
Efficiency
40.6 %
81.2 %
81.2 %
Ripple Factor
1.21
0.482
0.482
Peak Inverse Voltage
Vm
2Vm
Vm
Output Frequency
fi
2 fi
2 fi
RMS Current
Im /2
DC Current
Im/
Im /
2Im/
Im /
2Im/
Ideal Diode-: VON= 0, Rr=and Rf= 0. In other words, the ideal diode is a short in the forward bias
region and an open in the reverse bias region.
Practical diode(silicon): VON= 0.7V,Rr<(typically several M), Rfrd(typically < 50).
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Diode Equivalent Models
Clipper
A circuit which cutoff voltage above or below are both specified level is called clipper. A clipper which
removes a portion of positive half cycle of the input signal is called positive clipper. A clipper circuit that
removes the negative half cycle is called negative clipper.
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Figure (a) shows the circuit of a positive clipper. Itconsists of a diode D and a resistor R with output
taken across the resistor. During positive half cycle the input voltage, the terminal A is positive with
respect to B. This reverse biases the diode and it acts as an open switch. Therefore all the applied
voltage drops across the diode and none across the resistor. As a result of this, there is no output
voltage during the positive half cycle of the input voltage.
During the negative half cycle of the input voltage, the terminal B is positive with respect to A. Therefore
it forward biases the diode and it acts as a closed switch. Thus, there is no voltage drop across diode.
During negative half cycle of the input voltage. All the input voltage is drop across the resistor as shown
in the output waveform.
Figure (b) shows the waveform of the input voltage. During the positive half cycle of the voltage, the
terminal A is positive with respect to the terminal B. Therefore the diode is forward biased; as a result all
the input voltage appears across the resistor. During negative half cycle of the input voltage, the
terminal B is positive with respect to the terminal A. Therefore the diode is reverse biased and hence
there is no voltage drop across the resistor during negative half cycle.
Clamping
A clamper is a network constructed of a diode, a resistor and a capacitor that shifts a waveform to a
different dc level without changing the appearance of the applied signal.
Analysis- During reverse biased, the diode is open circuited (i.eoffstate). The voltage will be Vo=0
since the current is shorted through diode. The voltage across R will be VDC+ VC= -V+(-V)=-2V .
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Example Draw the output waveform for the following circuit.
Solution:
Step-1- Start the analysis when diode is in forward bias and
find VC and VO .In interval t1 to t2 , diode is in forward bias
At 2nd interval (t1 t2), the diode is short circuited, the
voltage across R will be the same as across the battery
(parallel) Vo= 5V
The voltage that charge up the capacitor, Applying KVL
-20V +Vc-5V =0 , then VC=25V
Step-2
The third interval will make the diode open circuited again
and current start to flow in the resistor (discharged the
capacitor). Applying the KVL
+10V +25V Vo=0
Vo= 35V
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Diode Ratings
1- Average Current:- it is defined as average value of periodic function given by area under one
cycle of the function divided by the base.
2- Maximum Forward Current:- The maximum value of diode forward current, which a PN
junction diode can carry without damaging itself, is known as maximum forward current.
3- Peak Inverse Voltage(PIV):- The maximum value of reverse bias that a PN junction can
withstand without damaging it is called its Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV).
4- Maximum Power Rating:- The maximum power that a P-N junction can dissipate without
damaging . it is called as maximum power rating.
5- Reverse Saturation Current:- The amount of current through the diode in reverse-bias
operation, with the maximum rated inverse voltage applied (VDC). Sometimes referred to as
leakage current.
Applications of Diode:
1234-
Signal rectifier
Diode gate
Diode clamps
Limiter
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5678-
As a Clipper
As a Clamper
AM Detection
Voltage Multiplier
9- Freewheeling Diodes
10- Precision rectifier using Op-Amp
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Content: - Special Purpose two terminal Devices: Light-Emitting Diodes, Varactor (Varicap)Diodes, Tunnel Diodes,
Liquid-Crystal Displays.
1- Light Emitting Diode (LED)

Light Emitting Diode is a photo electronic device which converts electrical energy to light energy.
It is heavily doped P-N junction diode which under forward biased emits spontaneous
radiation. The diode is covered with a transparent cover so that the emitted light may come out.
Construction- In an LED, the upper layer of p-type semiconductor is deposited by diffusion on n-type
layer of semiconductor. The metalized contacts are provided for applying the forward bias to the P-N
junction diode from battery B through resistance R which controls the brightness of light emitted.
Fig: LED construction
Working of LED
The LED works on the principle of electroluminescence.
When a P-N junction is forward biases, the electrons in N- region cross the junction &
recombines with holes in P-region.
When electrons recombine with the holes, they move from conduction band to valence band
which is at lower energy level.
While moving, the additional energy is released by the free electrons which appear in the form
of light due to the special material used in the LED.
The energy released depends on the forbidden gap energy which determines the wavelength &
the colour of the emitted light.
Materials of LED
The materials which are the mixtures of Gallium, Arsenic & Phosphorus are used in LED to obtain
different coliour of light.
S.No.
Material
Symbol
Colour
1
2
3
Gallium Arsenide
Gallium Phosphide
Gallium Arsenide Phosphide
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GaAs
GaP
GaAsP
Infrared(Invisible)
Red or Green
Red or Yellow
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Output Characteristics- The amount of power output translated into light is directly propotional to
the forward current If , more forward current If , the greater the output light.
LED Symbol
Fig: Typical output characteristics of LED
Advantages of LEDs
Applications of LEDs
LED has less power & low operational voltage.
In Burglar- Alarm System.
LED has fast action & requires no warm up

time.
LED is cheap & easy to handle
The LEDs are light in weight.
The LEDs are available in various colours.
The LEDs have long life.
In calculators & Digital watches.

In the field of communication.
In computers & remote control.
In picture phones & video displays.
In traffic light.
2- Varactor Diode (VARICAP)

Varactor Diode can be used as variable capacitors in microwave circuits.
In reverse bias , the P-region & N-region act like the plates of capacitor while the depletion
region acts like dielectric. Thus, there exists a capacitance, space charge capacitance or
depletion region capacitance.
Mathematically
= permittivity of semiconductor
CT =
A= area of cross section
W= width of depletion region.
As the reverse biased applied to the diode increases, the width of the depletion region (W) increases.
Thus the transition capacitance CT decreases.
In short, the capacitance can be controlled by the applied voltage.
Fig: Variation of CT according to VR
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Reverse Biased P-N Junction
Expression for varactor diode-The diode capacitance (CT) as a function of applied reverse-bias potential described as.
Where, CT= diode capacitance C= diode capacitance at unbiased condition

V= applied potential
Vb=barrier potential
m= constant that is material dependent
K= a constant (often 1)
Equivalent Circuit
Fig: Equivalent Circuit of tunnel diode

The series resistance & diode capacitance determine the maximum operating frequency according to
the relationship.
Where K= cut-ff freq in hertz
F=
Rs= series resistance in
CT= diode capacitance in farads
Applications of Varactor Diode

A varactor diode is used as an automatic control device in a receiver.
Varactor diodes are also used as frequency modulator.
Varactor diodes can also be used as frequency multiplier.
It can be used as phase shifter.
3- Tunnel Diode
A tunnel diode is a semiconductor P-N junction device which is extremely heavy doping on both the side
of junction & abrupt transition from p-side to n-side .i.e. the depletion width is very small. Hence the
carriers are tunnel through the potential barriers, even if they do not have sufficient kinetic energy to
cross it.
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Due to the depletion region, an electron penetrates through the barrier. This is called tunneling &
hence such high impurity density P-N junction devices are called tunnel diodes.
Characteristics of tunnel diode

Characteristics shows that at first forward current rises sharply as voltage is applied up to point P. The
voltage associated with this point P is called as peak voltage VP & current associated with this point is
called as peak current IP.
As the forward bias is increased further, the forward current drops continuously up to point V. The
voltage & current associated with this point is called as valley voltage(VV) & Valley Current (IV)
respectively. If voltage is increased further, the current through diode increases at shown in figure.
When tunnel diode is reverse biased. It acts as a good conductor.
Fig: Tunnel Diode Characteristics

Tunnel Diode Construction-Semiconductor material used in tunnel diode is germanium (Ge), gallium
antimonide (GaSb) or Gallium arsenide (GaAs).
Fig: Tunnel Diode

A very small tin dot is soldered to a heavily doped pellet of N-type Ge, GaSb or GaAs. The pellet is
soldered on Kovar anode contact, The cathode contact is also Kovar, which is connected to the tin dot
via a mesh screen to eliminate inductance. The diode has a ceramic body & is hermetically sealed.
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Tunnel Diode Equivalent Circuit
Where
Rs= Series resistance. Is a combination of ohmic contacts & spreading resistance in wafer.
Ls= Series inductance being a function of conduction of diode & surrounding circuit geometry.
Cj= Junction capacitance corresponding to space charge depletion width & varies with applied bias.
Rj= Non- linear differential resistance of tunnel diode.
Application of Tunnel Diode

As a high speed switch
In negative resistance & high frequency (microwave) oscillator.
In pulse & digital circuits.
In switching network.
In timing & computer logic circuitry.
Design of pulse generators & amplifiers.
Symbol
4- Liquid crstal display(LCD)

The liquid crystals are one of the most fascinating material systems in nature, having properties
of liquids as well as of a solid crystal. The term liquid crystal refers to the fact that there
compounds have a crystalline arrangement of molecules, yet they flow like a liquid.
Liquid crystal display do not emit or generate light, but rather alter extremely generated
illumination. Their ability to modulate light when electrical signal is applied has made them very
useful is flat panel display technology.
The crystal is made up of organic molecules which are rod-like molecule defines the director
of the liquid crystal.
The different arrangements of these rod like molecules leads to three main categories of liquid
crystals
1- Smectic
2- Nematic
3- Cholesteric
Smetic- In this structure the rod-like molecules are arranged in layers & within each layer there is
orientational order over a long range.
Nematic- In this structure, the potential order between layer of molecules is lost, but the orientation
order is maintained.
Cholesteric- In these crystals the rod-like molecules in each layer are oriented at a different angle
within each layer.
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Types of LEDs
1- Dynamic scattering
2- Field effect
1-Dynamic Scattering- It consists of two glass plates with a liquid crystal fluid in between. The back
plate is coated with thin transparent layer of conductive material, when as front plate has a photo
etched conductive coating with seven segment pattern.
Fig: Dynamic scattering Type LCD

In the absence of the electrical signal , orientation order is maintained in the crystal allowing light to
transmit. This makes LCD display clear.
2-Field Effect DisplayIn these nematic liquid crystals are used.

It consists of two glass plates, a liquid crystal fluid, polarizers & transparent conductors.
The liquid crystal fluids sandwiched between two glass plates.
Each glass plate is associated with light polarizer; the light polarizers are placed at right angle to
each other.
Advantages of LCDs
Disadvantages of LCDs
Less power consumption.

Low cost.
Uniform brightness with good contrast.
Low operating voltage & current.
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Limited temperature range.
Poor visibility in low ambient temperature.
Slow speed.
Requires an A.C. drive.
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Field Effect Transistor: Construction and Characteristic of JFETs. Transfer Characteristic. CS,CD,CG amplifier and
analysis of CS amplifier
MOSFET (Depletion and Enhancement) Type, Transfer Characteristic,
FET(Field Effect Transistor)

Field Effect Transistor (FET) is a voltage controlled device. i.e. the output characteristics of
this device are controlled by the input voltage and not by the input current.
FET is unipolar device. i.e. the operation of FET depends upon the flow of
majority carriers only. For the FET, an electric field is established by the charges present that
will control the conduction path of the output circuit without the need for direct contact
between the controlling and controlled quantities.
JFET (Junction Field Effect Transistor)-JFET is a three terminal device with one terminal capable of controlling
the current between the other two.
There are two types of JFET
1- N-channel JFET
2- P-Channel JFET
N-channel JFET- It consists of an N-type semiconductor substrate with P-type
heavily doped regions diffused on opposite sides of its middle part. The space
between the junctions is called a channel. The top of the N-type channel is
connected through an ohmic contact to a terminal referred to as the Drain(D),
while lower end of the same material is connected through an ohmic contact
to a terminal referred to as the source(S). The Two P-type materials are
connected together and to the gate (G) terminal. In the absence of any applied
potentials the JFET has two P-N junctions under No-Bias Conditions.
JFET Volt-Ampere (V-I) Characteristics

There are two types of JFET Characteristics
1- Drain Characteristics
2- Transfer Characteristics
Drain CharacteristicsCase-1 - When VGS= 0 V and VDS= 0 V.In this condition the drain current is zero.
Fig:N-Channel
Case-2 - When VGS =0 V and VDS > 0 V. i.e. some positive value.
The gate and source are connected directly i.e. VGS = 0 V. In this situation ID= IS (i.e. VDS= VDD).
Under this condition the flow of charge is relatively uninhabited and limited only by resistance of the N-Channel
between drain and source.
Depletion region is wider near the drain side as compared to source side because when current lows in silicon
bar, there occurs a voltage drop across the channel along whole length due to this bias voltage.
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Fig: Working of N-channel
Fig: Non-Uniform Distribution of Depletion Layer
Pinch-Off- If VDS is increased to a level where it appears that the two depletion regions would touch , this
condition referred to as pinch-off will result. The drain to source voltage (VDS) at which the channel pinch
off occurs, is known as pinch-off voltage (VP).
IDSS- IDSS is the maximum drain current for a JFET and is defined by the conditions VGS=0 V and VDS> |VP|.
Fig: Drain Characteristics when V GS = 0V

Case -3 When VGS< 0 V and VDS>0.
Under this condition P-N Junction being reverse biased and
increase the width of the depletion layer. Now, If VGS is increased more
negatively then the situation of pinch-off occurs. At this instant, IDmax also
decreases because channel becomes narrower due to reverse bias.
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When VGS= -VP then ID= 0 mA. Device is turned-off.

The Level of VGS that results in ID= 0mA is defined by VGS=VP with
VP being a negative voltage for N-channel devices and a positive
voltage for P-Channel JFETs.
P-Channel Drain & Transfer Charcteristics
Symbols
Note:
IG= 0 is the important characteristics of JFET .The drain current I D depends upon following factorsNo. of majority carriers.
Length of the channel.
Cross- sectional area of the channel.
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Transfer Characteristics- Following equation governs the transfer characteristics of JFET
ID= Drain current
IDSS= saturation (max value) of drain current at V GS= 0 V
VGS= Gate to Source Voltage
VP= Pinch-off voltage
Fig: Transfer Characteristics of N-channel JFET
Fig: Transfer Characteristics of P-channel JFET
Important points regarding drain characteristics of N-channel JFET.

Drain current is maximum when VGS = 0 V i.e. ID = IDSS and VDS |VP|.
In FET, generally avalanche breakdown occurs.
VP is a particular value of VGS with either positive or negative sign dependaing upon the type of the FET.
i.e. whether it is P-Channel or N-Channel.
For P-Channel VP is positive.
For N-Channel VP is negative.
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For gate to source voltages VGS less than (more negative than) the pinch-off level, the drain current is
OA (ID = 0A).
VGS
ID
0V
IDSS
0.3 VP
IDSS/2
0.5 VP
IDSS/4
VP
0 mA
MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor)

1- Depletion Type MOSFET
N-Channel- A slab of P-Type material is formed from a silicon base
and is referred to as the substrate. The source (S) and drain (D)
terminals are connected through metallic contacts to N-doped regions
linked by an N-channel. The Gate is also connected to a metal contact
surface but remains insulated from the N-Channel by a thin silicon
dioxide (SiO2) layer.
This SiO2 layer acts as a dielectric that sets up
opposing electric fields within the dielectric when exposed to an
externally applied field.
There is no direct electrical connection between the gate terminal
& the channel of a MOSFET
It is the insulating layer of SiO2 in the MOSFET concentration that
accounts for very desirable high input impedance of the device.
Working
Case-1- VGS = 0 V and VDS > 0 the result is an attraction
for the positive potential at the drain by the free electrons of the
N-channel and a current similar to that established through the
channel of the JFET.
Case-2- VGS = -ve and VDS > 0 In this case, electrons
move towards P-type substrate & attracts holes from P-type
substrate.
Depending on the magnitude of the negative bias established by
VGS, a level of recombination between electrons and holes will
occur that will reduce the number of free electrons in the Nchannel available for conduction. The resulting level of drain
current is therefore reduced with increasing negative bias for VGS.
Case-3- VGS = +ve and VDS > 0 For +ve value of VGS , the
positive gate will draw additional electrons (free carriers ) from the
p-type substrate due to the reverse leakage current and
established new carriers through the collisions resulting between
accelerating particles.
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Fig: Drain & Transfer Characteristics of N-Channel Depletion type MOSFT

P-Channel Depletion Type MOSFET
Fig: Drain & Transfer Characteristics of P-Channel Depletion type MOSFT
Fig: P-Channel D- MOSFET
Symbol: Depletion (D) Type MOSFET
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2- Enhancement type MOSFET
N-Channel- the N-channel enhancement type MOSFET consists of a
lightly doped P-type substrate into which two highly doped N-regions
are diffused. The absence of a channel between the two N-doped
region.
Case-1- VGS= 0 V If VGS is set at 0 V and a voltage applied between
the drain and source of the device, the absence of an N-channel will
result in a current (ID) effectively 0 A.
Case-2- When both VGS > 0 V and VDS> 0 V when both VGS and V DS
have been set at positive voltage greater than 0V., establishing the
drain and gate at a positive potential with respect to the source.
As the positive potential is applied between gate & source due
to the presence of SiO2 layer which acts as a dielectric, is attracts the
charge carriers (electrons) from substrate.
As VGS increases in magnitude the concentration of electrons near
the SiO2 surface increases until eventually the induced N-type region
can support a measurable flow between drain & source, resulting the
formation of inversion layer, this inversion layer. This inversion layer
is formed when a certain gate to source voltage (VGS) is applied. Thus,
the minimum value of gate voltage at which inversion of
semiconductor surface takes place is known as threshold voltage
(VT).
Since the channel is no-existent with VGS= 0V and enhanced by
the application of a positive gate to source voltage. This type of
MOSFET is called Enhancement type MOSFET.
Drain and Transfer characteristics of N-Channel Enhancement

type MOSFET.
r levels of VGS > VT the drain current is related to the applied
gate to source voltage by the following non-relationship.
ID = K (VGS- VT)2
Where
VGS =applied gate to source voltage

VT = Threshold Voltage
ID = Drain Current
K = Constant
The values of K can be determined from the following

equation. ID(on) & VGS (on) are the values for each at a
particular part on the characteristics of the device.
K=
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Fig: Drain and Transfer characteristics of N-Channel Enhancement type MOSFET
Symbols: Enhancement Type MOSFET
Important Points for FET Biasing

IG 0 mA.
ID = IS
For JFETs and Depletion Type MOSFET
ID = K (VGS- VT)2
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Unit III Operational Amplifiers
Introduction, Differential Amplifier Circuits, Op-Amp Basic, Practical Op-Amp Circuits (Inverting Amplifier,
Non inverting Amplifier, Unit Follower, Summing Amplifier, Integrator, Differentiator).Differential and
Common-Mode Operation
OP-Amp (Operational Amplifier)

Introduction
1. Op-Amp is a important linear Integrated circuit.
2. It is a multi-terminal device, which internally is quite complex.
3. An Op-Amp is a direct-coupled high-gain differential amplifier usually consisting of one or more
differential amplifier and usually followed by a level translator and an output stage.
4. The output stage is generally a push-pull or push-pull complementary- symmetry pair.
5. The Op-Amp is a versatile device that can be used to amplify DC as well as AC input signal and was
originally designed for computing mathematical function such as addition, subtraction, multiplication,
integration and differentiation etc.
6. Op-Amp can be used for a variety of applications such as ac and dc amplification, active filter,
comparators, regulations etc.
Basic Circuit Symbol
Single Ended Input
Inverting Input
Vo = - A x Vin
Non- Inverting
Input
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Double- Ended (Differential) Input
Differential Amplifier- A differential amplifier is a type of electronic amplifier that multiplies the difference
between two inputs be same constant factor.
Block-Diagram of Op-Amp
1. Input Stage:- The input stage is the dual input balance output (DIBO) differential amplifier. This stage
generally provides most of the voltage gain of the amplifier and also established the input resistance
to the Op-Amp.
2. Intermediate Stage: this stage is usually another differential amplifier, which is driven by the output of
the first stage. In most of amplifier this stage is dual input unbalanced output.
3. Level Shifting Stage (LSS): The level shifting circuit is used after the intermediate stage to shift the dc
level at the output of the intermediate state downward to zero with respect to ground.
4. Output stage: this is final stage which is usually consist of a push-pull complementary amplifier. The
output stage increase the output voltage swing and raise the current supplying capability of the OpAmp..
Ideal Op-Amp Characteristics
1- Infinite input resistance (Rin = )
2- Infinite Open loop voltage gain (A = )
3- Infinite Bandwidth
4- Infinite Slew Rate
5- Infinite CMRR (common mode rejection ratio)
6- Zero output resistance (Ro = O )
7- Zero offset voltage
8- Zero power supply rejection ratio (PSRR)
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Practical Equivalent circuit of an Op-Amp
12345-
A
Ri
B.W.
S.R.
Ro 0
CMRR (Common mode rejection ratio)

It is defined as the ratio of the differential voltage gain Ad to the common-mode voltage gain Acm ,
CMRR =
Ad
ACM
Where the differential voltage (Ad)is defined as Ad = VO /Vid and common mode voltage gain is defined as
ACM = VOCM / VCM
Common Mode Signal- the signal which is present at both the input terminals of a differential amplifier is
called as common mode signal.
Significance of CMRR- CMRR is the ability of a differential amplifier to reject the common mode signal
successfully. It is called figure of merit of a differential amplifier. The higher the CMRR, the better
A very high value of CMRR means that the differential gain AV(d) is high and the common-mode gain ACM is low.
The CMRR is often expressed in decibels (dB) as:
CMRR(db) = 20 log
Ad
ACM
Slew Rate (SR)-Slew rate is the maximum rate of change of output voltage with respect to time.
dVO
max
dt
The unit of the slew rate is V/ S (volt per microsecond). It is the cause of non linear distortion at the output.
Significance of Slew Rate:- Slew rate decides the capability of Op-Amp to change its output rapidly, hence it
decides the highest frequency of operation of a given Op-Amp.Slew Rate should be ideally infinite and
practically as high as possible.
Inverting Amplifier/ Voltage-Shunt feedback
SR =
Concept of Virtual Ground- The potential at the point

becomes same as ground potential
Open loop gain
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Where
so, A=
Vid = V1 V2
Vo
V1 V 2
V1 V2 =
Vo
A
Vo
=
=0
V1 V2 = 0
V1 = V2
Given V1 is ground so V2 = 0 , means Inverting terminal is virtual ground.
Close Loop Voltage Gain for Inverting Amplifier
From circuit Iin = If
Iin
VIN V2
R1
and
If
V2 VO
Rf
So,
VIN V2
V VO
= 2
Rf
R1
By concept of virtual ground
V2 = 0
VIN
VO
=
Rf
R1
Rf VO
VO =
R1
Rf
Vo
Closed loop voltage gain Af =
=
Vin
R1
Close Loop Voltage Gain Non Inverting Amplifier
Voltage at point V2
V2 =
R1 VO
R1 R f
VO R1 R f
=
V2
R1
(By voltage divider rule)

1
But Vo = A (Vin- V2)
If A=
V2 = Vin
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Putting this value in equation 1
VO R1 R f
=
Vin
R1
So, Closed Loop voltage gain Af = 1+
Feedback Factor
So, for inverting amplifier
Rf
R1
1
Af
=-
R1
Rf
and
For non inverting amplifier

=
R1
R1 R f
Unity gain amplifier/Voltage Follower

We know that closed loop voltage gain for non inverting amplifier is Af = 1+
Rf
R1
Now let Rf = 0 (shorting)

R1 = (opening)
So,
VO
Vin
Af = 1+0 =1
=1
Vo =Vin
So, output voltage is equal to input voltage and both are in phase, therefore this configuration is called OpAmp voltage follower amplifier.
Sign Changer or Inverter
Tthis configuration is an inverting amplifier but gain of the circuit is made unity by selecting precisely equal
resistors RF = R1
If RF= R1
Than, Af = -
Rf
R1
Af = -1
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Applications Of Operation Amplifier
1- Adder/ Summer
Due to virtual ground V1 =V2 = 0V
I1 + I2 + I3 = If
Va 0
R1
Vo
Vb 0
R1
Rf
Rf
Va
R1
Vo
Rf
Vc 0
R1
R2
Rf
Vb
R3
Vc
If R1 =R2 =R3 =R , then
Rf
Vo
Va
Vb
Vc
IfR=Rf , then the output voltage Vo is equal to the negative sum of input voltages. i.e.
Vo
Va
Vb
Vc
2- Subtractor
The Subtractor circuit can be implemented by using
Op-Amp differential configuration. i.e. by applying the
voltages, to be subtracted. at the both (inverting and non
inverting ) terminals simultaneously.
Vo= Va Vb
3- IntegratorAn integrator is a circuit in which the output voltage
waveform is the integral of the input voltage waveform.
Due to virtual ground V1 = V2 =0 & IR = IC
Vin
V2
R
Vin 0
R
IC
IC
IC
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But IC = current through the capacitor
Current through a capacitor may be expressed as
IC
dVC
dt
Therefore
dVC Vin
=
dt R
But VC = V2- VO
d V2 VO Vin
=
R
dt
By concept of virtual ground V2= 0
VO Vin
=
R
dt
Integrating both sides of above equation with respect to t ,we get
VO= 4- Differentiator
A differentiator is a circuit in which the output voltage waveform is the
differential of the input voltage waveform.
Due to vertical ground V1= V2= 0
IC= IR
dVC
=
dt
dVC
=
dt
dVin V2
=
dt
dVin 0
=
dt
Vo=-R C
By concept of virtual ground V2=0
dVin
dt
Parameters of Practical Op=Amp
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1- Input offset voltage -Input offset voltage is defined as the voltage that must be applied between the
two input terminals of an OPAMP to null or zero the output.
2- Input offset Current: The input offset current Iio is the difference
between the currents into inverting and non-inverting terminals
of a balanced amplifier.
Iio = | IB1 IB2 |

3- Input Bias Current: The input bias current IB is the average of the current entering the input terminals
of a balanced amplifier i.e.
IB = (IB1 + IB2 ) / 2
4- Differential Input Resistance: (Ri) Ri is the equivalent resistance that can be measured at either the
inverting or non-inverting input terminal with the other terminal grounded.
5- CMRR- previously described
6- Slew Rate: previously described
Transostorised Differential Amplifier
The transistorized differential amplifier basically uses the emitter biased circuits which are identical in
characteristics.
The two transistors Q1 and Q2 have exactly matched
characteristics. RC1 = RC2 and RE1 = RE2 .
+VCC and VEE are also same. The differential amplifier can
be obtained by using such two emitter baised circuits. This
is achieved by connecting emitter E1 of Q1 to the emitter E2
of Q2.Due to this, RE1 appears in parallel with RE2 and the
combination can be replaced by a single resistance
denoted as RE. The base B1 of Q1 connected to input 1
which is VS1 while the base B2 of Q2 is connected to the
input 2 which is VS2. The balanced output is taken between
the collector C1 of Q1 and the collector C2 of Q2 . Such an
amplifier is called emitter coupled differential amplifier.
The two collector resistances are same hence can be
denoted by RC.
Dual Input balanced output

Differential amplifier
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Two modes: 1-Differential mode amplifier 2- Common mode operation
Differential mode amplifier- In the differential mode,
the two input signals are different from each other.
Consider the two input signals which are same in
magnitude but 180 degree. Out of phase. These signals,
with opposite phase can be obtained from center tap
transformer.
Common mode operation- In this mode, the

signals applied to the base Q1 and Q2 are derived
from the same source. So the two signals are equal
in magnitude as well as in phase.
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Unit- IV
Digital Voltmeter: Introduction, RAMP Techniques &Digital Multimeters

Oscilloscope: Introduction, Basic Principle, CRT , Block Diagram of Oscilloscope, Simple CRO,
Measurement of voltage , current phase and frequency using CRO
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope(CRO)

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope is probably the most versatile tool for development of electronic circuits and systems.
CRO allows the amplitude of electrical signals, whether they are voltage, current or power to be displayed
as a function of time. CRO depends on the movement of an electron beam, which is bombarded on the screen,
coated with a fluorescent material, to produce a visible spot. If the electron beam is deflected on both the
conventional axis. I.e. X-axis & Y-axis, atwo dimensional display is produced.
The oscilloscope is a kind of voltmeter which uses beam instead of a pointer and a kind of recorder which uses an
electron beam.
The heart of CRO is cathode ray tube (CRT) which makes the applied signal visible by the deflection
of a thin beam of electrons.
Fig: Cathode Ray Tube

Constructional features of CRT
1- Glass Envelope- It is conical highly evacuated glass covering & maintains vacuum inside & support the
various electrodes. The inner walls of CRT between neck & screen are coated with conducting materials
called aquadag. This coating is electrically connected to the accelerating anode so that electrons which
accidentally strikes.
2- Electron Gun Assembly- Electron gun in CRT is combined name for indirectly heated cathode, a control grid,
a focusing anode& an accelerating anode. The control grid is held at negative potential w.r.t. cathode
whereas the two anodes are maintained at high positive potential w.r.t. cathode.
3- Control Grid- Control grid in the CRT is cylindrical with a small aperture in line with the cathode. The
electrons emitted from the cathode emerge from this. The negative bias voltage applied to the grid, controls
the beam current. The intensity (or brightness) of spot depends on the beam current.
There are two anodes Focusing Anode (Focuses the beam) and Accelerating Anode (accelerates/increses
the speed of beam)
4- Focusing Anode- The beam of electron is converged and focused on the screen by two anodes, which form an
electronic lens. The first anode (focusing anode) is kept highly position with respect to the cathode, wider
cylinder following the first. Both the cylinders have narrow apertures in lines with the electron beam.
5- Accelerating Anode-The second anode is still operated at higher positive potential (about 10,000V) and does
most of the acceleration of the beam, and increases in velocity.
6- Deflection Plate Assembly- Electrostatic deflection of an electron beam is used in a general purpose
oscilloscope. The deflecting system consists of a pair of horizontal (H1& H2) and vertical deflecting plates (V1
& V2).
When the plates are at zero voltage, the beam is midway between them and the spot is in the
centre of the screen.
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When H1 is made positive with respect to cathode and
all other plates are at zero voltage. It attracts he beam
and the spot moves horizontally to the right.
Similarly when V1 is made positive, the spot moves
vertically and where V2 is made positive. It moves
vertically downwards.
7- Screen-screen is coated with fluorescent material such as Zinc Orthosilicate, Zinc Oxide etc. The bombarding
electrons striking the screen, release secondary emission electrons. These electrons are collected or trapped
by an aqueous solution of graphite called Aquadag which is connected to the second anode.Collection of
the secondary electrons is necessary to keep the screen in a state of electrical equilibrium.
Block Diagram Of CRO
The CRO consists of the following component:

(i) CRT (ii) Vertical amplifier
(iii) Delay line (iv) Horizontal amplifier
(v) Time-base generator
(vi)Triggering circuit
(vii) Power supply
(i)
CRT- This is a cathode ray tube which emits electrons that strikes the phosphor screen internally to
provide a visible display of signals.
(ii)
Vertical Amplifier-Vertical amplifier determines the sensitivity and bandwidth of an oscilloscope.
Sensitivity, which is expressed in terms of V/cm of vertical deflection at the mid-band frequency.
(iii)
Delay Line-It is used to delay the signal for some time in the vertical sections till the time horizontal
amplifier also receives signal.
(iv)
Time-Base Generators-The CRO is used to display a waveform that varies as a function of time. If the
wave form is to be accurately reproduced, the beam should have a constant horizontal velocity. It is used
to generate the saw tooth voltage required to deflect the beam in the horizontal section.
(v)
Horizontal Amplifier- This is used to amplify the saw tooth voltage before it is applied to horizontal
deflection plates.
(vi)
Trigger Circuit-This is used to convert the incoming signal into trigger pulses so that the input signal and
the sweep frequency can be synchronized.
(vii)
Power Supply-There are two power supplies, a Ve high voltage (HV) supply and a +ve low voltage (LV)
supply. The Ve supply is from -1000V to -1500V. This voltage is passed through a bleeder resistor at a
few mA. The intermediate voltages are obtained from the bleeder resistor for intensity, focus and
positioning controls resistor for intensity.
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Working of CRO: The electron beam generated from an electron gun will be accelerated toward a phosphorous
screen by a potential difference between the electron gun and the screen. As the beam emerges from the gun, it
passes through a set of parallel plates (the vertical deflection plates) oriented horizontally. The voltage to be
displayed is amplified by a vertical amplifier, and applied across these plates producing an electric field which
deflects the path of the electron vertically. The polarity of the signal determines whether the deflections will be up or
down and the magnitude of the signal determines the amount of vertical displacement of the electrons. After the
beam has passed through the vertical deflection Plates, it passed through a second set of similar plates that are
oriented horizontally. A potential difference applied to these plates produce an electric field which deflects left or
right. Under normal configuration, these horizontal deflection plates are connected to a time-base circuitry. This
circuit can control how fast the electron beam sweeps from the left to right (use Sweep Knob). Adjusting the sweep
speed, the resulting trace on the screen can be spread out or compressed.
Types of CRO
1- Dual Beam CRO
2-
Dual Trace CRO
Application of CRO
(a) Examination of waveforms.
(e) Frequency measurement.
(b) Voltage measurement.

(f) Phase measurement.
(c) Current measurement.
Measurement of voltage and current

Voltage Measurement-For measurement of direct voltage, firstly the spot on the screen without applying any voltage
signal in the deflection plates. Then direct voltage to be measures is applied between a pair of deflection plates and
deflection of the spot is observed on the screen. The magnitude of the deflection multiplied by the deflection factor
gives the values of direct voltage applied.
Current Measurement- For measurement of current, the current under measurement is passed through a known
non-conductive resistance and the voltage drop across it is measured by CRO. The current can be determined simply
by dividing the voltage drop measured by the value of non-inductive resistance.
Measurement of frequency-The pattern obtained on CRO screen is called Lissajous Pattern. They are stationary on
the screen of CRO. They are used to know unknown frequency of a signal.
The unknown frequency can be accurately determined with the help of a CRO.
Steps1. A known frequency is applied to horizontal input and unknown frequency to the vertical input.
2. The various controls are adjusted.
3. A pattern with loops is obtained.
4. The number of loops cut by the horizontal line gives the frequency on the vertical plates(fV) and the number
of loops cut by the vertical lines gives the frequency on the horizontal plates(fH).
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Measurement of Phase Difference- The two sinusoidal voltage signals of equal frequency having some phase
difference are applied to the deflection plates of a CRO, a straight line or eclipse appears on the screen.
Let there is two sinusoidal voltage signals given by expressions
h= Vh sin t & v = Vv sint (t+)
where is the phase difference.
Since deflection is directly propotional to amplitude of voltage.
dh= Dh sin t& dv= Dv sin(t+)
at t=0, values of dh and dv are
dho = 0 &
Where dvo=Vertical deflection, at t = 0
Sin =
dvo= Dv sin
Dv=Maximum vertical deflection.
(a) First Signal
(b) Phase shifted

Second signal
(c) CRO display

(on screen)
Digital Voltmeter
Digital voltmeter(DVM) is an indicating device. it measures the voltage passing between any two points. DVM is often
used in data processing system. An ideal voltmeter has an infinitely high input resistance so that it does not draw any
current from the circuit.
RAMP TECHNIQUE-The block diagram of a ramp type digital voltmeter has three stages.
Signal propagation- It modifies the signal amplitude according to the requirement and it also protects from
loading. Hence, resistive attenuator is used to decrease the large incoming signal and amplifier is used to
amplify the small incoming signal to the measurable range.
Analog to digital conversion- it converts analog information to digital or in discrete form.
Display Unit- It displays the measured value of voltage via display devices.
Signal Propagation:
Fig: Simplified or basic building blocks of digital voltmeter

Digital voltmeter employs operational amplifier Op-Amp is
multistage integrated circuit is used in input circuit in DVM.
Gain of Op-Amp
A= -
Fig: Input circuit of DVM

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Analog to Digital Converter (ADC)- in ADC unit, the analog input signal is typically converted into digital signals in the
form of binary or BCD data and displayed in the display unit.
Fig Block Diagram of Analog to Digital converter

V input is positive voltage but Vc comes out to be negative ramp.
Vc= -
The output from the integrator is compared with zero volt reference in the comparator.
The output from the comparator will be positive voltage.
The AND gate is opened & during this period T, the pulses from the crystal clock oscillator is counted in the
counter.
At the end of known time period T, the counters are reset by the control circuit and it activates the reflection
switch so that the negative known reference voltage VR is applied to the input of the integrator.
In this case, the output from the integrator will be a positive going ramp.
With valuesVc=
xt
At the end of this time period t, Vc is equal to zero volts.
At this time, this counter is counter is counting and hence t, can be known
T =
Vin =
t
The unknown voltage Vin could be known from it.
-Vc
Fixed Time
Fixed Slope
Vc= T Vc=
xt
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Digital Multimeter
Multimeter is used to measure voltage, current at resistance. It has high input resistance, greater accuracy, better
resolution and easy readability.
Block Diagram
Fig: Block Diagram of Multimeter

Measurement of voltage- this multimeter is used to measure unknown input voltage as same as digital voltmeter.
Measurement of Current-Sensing resistance or a series of current sensing resistors are used to measure either a.c.
or d.c. current. The current is to be measured is passed through one of the sensing resistor and DMM digitizes the
voltages developed across the resistors.
Vs= -Is Rf
Applying KVL,
Where, Rf= feedback resistance (Known values)
Vs= It is output voltage proportional to unknown source current Is.
Is= displayed on the display unit
Measurement of resistance- DMM measures the resistance by applying a known current from an internal current
source to the unknown resistance and then digitizing the voltage developed in the resistance.
Vo= -
Vi
Vi, Ri are known parameters.

The output voltage which is proportional to the unknown
resistance Rf is applied to DVM section of DMM and the
value of unknown resistance Rf is displayed.
Multimeter is also used to test whether the diode, transmitter or SCR is good or faulty and to check the
continuity.
Display unit used in voltmeter or multimeter can be either liquid crystal display(LCD), Light Emitting
Diode(LED) or Seven segment display.
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Deflection Sensitivity of CRT- The shift of spot of light on the screen per unit change in voltage across the deflection
plates is known as deflection sensitivity of CRT.
The deflection sensitivity depends not only on the design of the tube but also on the voltage applied
to the accelerating anode. The deflection sensitivity is low at high accelerating voltages and vica-versa.
Example-1:The deflection sensitivity of a CRT is 0.01 mm/V . Find the shift produced in the spot when 400 Vis applied
to the plate (vertical).
Solution: voltage is applied to vertical plates so spot moves vertically.
Spot Shift = deflection sensitivity x Applied Voltage
Spot shift= 0.01 x 400 = 4 mm
Example-2: The deflection sensitivity of a CRT is 0.03 mm/V. If an unknown voltage is applied to horizontal plates.
The spot shifts 3 mm horizontally. Find the values of unknown voltage.
Solution:
Sensitivity=
Applied voltage =
=100 V
Example-3: The vertical gain control of a CRO is set at a deflection sensitivity of 5V/cm. the unknown a.c. voltage is
supplied to Y- input. A 10cm long straight line trace is observed. Find a.c. voltage.
Solution:
Unknown voltage = sensitivity x length of trace = 5 x 10 = 50 V.
This 50V is peak to peak voltage value so, for only one direction either positive or negative is
Vpeak=
= = 25 V
RMS value of 25V =
= 17.667 V
Example-4: Find the unknown frequency for the following pattern. When fh = 100Hz.
=4
So , fv(Unknown frequency) = 4 x fh =4 x 100 =400 Hz
Theory Questions
Explain working of Ramp type DVM.
Explain briefly the working principle of a DMM with block diagram.
Explain the working of CRO with help of a block diagram.
Sketch a cathode ray tube used in a CRO.
State the main application of a CRO. Briefly explain each of them. Explain how you will quickly measure the
frequency of waveform displayed on the CRO.
How you measure current, voltage, frequency and phase from CRO?
Explain Lisaajous Pattern.
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Content:- Fundamentals of Communication Engineering : Elements of a Communication System, Need of modulation,
Unit V (Communication
System)
electromagnetic spectrum and typical applications,
terminologies in communication
systems, Basics of signal representation and
analysis, Fundamentals of amplitude and angle modulation, modulation and demodulation techniques.
Communication System:- A Communication is a set up used in the transmission & reception of information from one
place to another place.In communication system, transmitter is located at one place & receiver is located at another
place & the communication channel connects the transmitter & receiver. the channel is physical mediums.
Elements of Communication System

Channel
Fig: 1: Block Diagram of Communication System
Elements
1- Information Source 2-Transmitter
3=Communication channel
4- Noise
5- Receiver 6-Destination
Description
1. Information Source- The information source provides a message signal being non- electrical signal like voice
signal. The transducer converts the non-electrical voice signal into electrical form.
2. Transmitter- The transmitter is a collection of electronic circuit designed to convert the information into a
signal suitable for transmission over a given communication medium.
3. Communication Channel- The communication channel is the medium by which the electronic signal is
transmitted from one place to another.
4. Noise- Noise is random, undesirable electrical energy that enters the communication system via medium &
interferes with transmitted message. Some noise is also produced in the receiver.
5. Receiver- A receiver is a collection of electronic circuits designed to convert the signal back to the original
information.
Terminology in Communication System

1. Signal- It is a signal valued function of time that carries the information. It is in the electrical form suitable for
transmission. Signals may be analog or digital signal.
2. Transducer- Transducer is a device, which is used to convert non electrical signal to the electrical signal.
3. Noise- It refers to the disturbance or distortion in the transmission & processing of message signals in
communication system.
4. Transmitter- The transmitter is a collection of electronic circuits designed to convert the information into a
signal suitable for transmission over a given communication medium.
5. Receiver- A receiver is a collection of electronic circuits designed to convert the signal back to the original
information.
6. Spectrum- The spectrum is the entire range of wavelengths of electromagnetic radiations . The spectrum of
frequency component is the frequency domain representation of the signal.
7. Amplification- In this process, The strength of the transmitted signal is increased by using some electronic
circuit.
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8. Attenuation- It refers to the loss of signal strength during its propagation through the communication channel.
9. Baseband Signal- The information/ message signal in its original frequency range is known as baseband signal.
10. Modulation- Modulation is the process of super imposing the low frequency message signal (modulating signal)
on a high frequency wave (called the carrier signal). The Resulting wave is the modulated wave which is
transmitted over the channel.
11. Demodulation- A reverse process of retrieve the information from the modulated wave at receiver is known as
demodulation.
12. Bandwidth- Bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies over which communication system works.
13. Broadband Signal- This information/ Message signal in its modulated frequency range is known as broadband
signal.
14. Broadband Transmission- The Transmission of information/ Message signal in the modulated frequency range is
known as broadband transmission.
Electromagnetic Spectrum & Typical Applications

Radio Frequency- Radio Frequency or RF refers to that portion of the electromagnetic spectrum in which
electromagnetic waves can be generated by alternating current fed to an antenna. The radio frequency range is divided
by the ITU (International Telecommunication Unit) into a number of bands of frequencies, where all frequencies in the
band exhibit similar properties. The bands are ELF, VF, VLF, LF, MF, HF, VHF, UHF, SHF & EHF.
S.No. Frequency Band
Frequency
Applications
1
Very Low Frequency (VLF)
3 KHz - 30 KHz
Long distance point to point communication
2
Low Frequency (LF)
30 KHz 300 KHz
Marine & navigational purpose
3
Medium frequency (MF)
300 KHz 3 MHz
Marine & broadcasting purpose
4
High Frequency (HF)
3 MHz 30 MHz
Communication of all types landline telephony
5
Very High frequency (VHF)
30 MHz 300 MHz
FM, TV, radar & Air navigation
6
Ultra High Frequency (UHF)
300 MHz 3000 MHz
Radar & microwave communication
7
Super High Frequency (SHF)
3 GHz 30 GHz
Wireless LAN, Radar, Radar relays & navigation
purpose
8
Extremely High Frequency (EHF) 30 GHz 300 GHz
Optical fiber communication
Modulation & Demodulation

In electronic communication system, a high frequency signal called the carrier signal is used to transmit original signal to
the destination.
Modulation- The process by which the baseband signal modifies the carrier signal is called Modulation & the resulting
signal is called modulated signal.
Demodulation- At the receiving end, the original signal & carrier signal are separated from modulated signal by the
process of demodulation.
Need of Modulation
The original signal either in analog or digital form (baseband signals) are incompatible for direct transmission over the
medium. They cannot travel longer distances in air. For ex. Voice signal. Therefore, we have to use modulation
technique for the communication of baseband signal.
To decrease the length of transmitting & the receiving antenna.
Long distance communication is possible.
To obtain higher value of signal to noise ratio for modulation.
To have frequency division multiplexing where large number of signals is transmitted at different frequencies.
Avoids mixing of signals.
Allows multiplexing of signals.
Allows Adjustments in the bandwidth.
Improves Quality of reception.
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Height of Antenna The height of antenna required for transmission & reception of radio waves in radio transmission is a
function of wavelength of the frequency used. The minimum height of the antenna is given as /4. The wavelength is
given as
where c velocity of light
=
f frequency
Modulation
It is defined as the process by which some characteristics of signal called CARRIER is varied in accordance with a
modulating signal or base-band signal or message signal. The result of the modulation process is referred as
modulated wave. At the receiving end of the system we reconstruct the original base-band signal & this is
accomplished by using a process called DEMODULATION.Demodulation is the reverse process of Modulation.
Continuous Wave Modulation
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Angle Modulation
Frequency Modulation (FM)
Phase Modulation (PM)
Amplitude Modulation (AM)

In AM, the maximum amplitude of the high frequency carrier wave is
varied in accordance to the instantaneous value (amplitude) of the
modulating or base-band signal.
Equation for AM: Let C(t) = Ac Cos ct .is a carrier wave having
Where Ac= carrier amplitude
c= carrier frequency
& m(t)=modulating signal band limited to maximum frequency m.

Hence c=2fc >> m
Now the AM wave is described as
Where, A=Ac +m(t)
X (t)= A Cos t
AM
So,
XAM(t)= [Ac +m(t)] Cos ct

= Ac[1+Kam(t)] Cos ct
Where Ka= constant called amplitude sensitivity of modulation
Also, we can write
XAM(t)= Ac Cos ct + m(t) Cos ct
Sinusoidal AM:
C(t) = Ac Cos ct .Carrier Wave

m(t) = Am Cos mt . Modulating Wave
Then after modulation, we get
XAM(t)= A Cos ct
Where A= Ac + Am Cos mt
So we get,
XAM(t)= Ac [1+
Cos mt] Cos ct
XAM(t)= [Ac + Am Cos mt] Cos ct
so,
Let
XAM(t)= Ac [1+ ma Cos mt] Cos ct
Where ma=
= modulation index
Frequency Spectrum: The Modulated carrier has new signals at different frequencies, called side frequencies or
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sidebands, which occur in the frequency spectrum directly above & below the carrier frequency.
We know that
XAM(t)= Ac [1+ ma Cos mt] Cos ct
= Ac Cos ct + ma Ac Cos mt Cos ct
XAM(t)= Ac Cos ct + ma Ac Cos (c + m)t +

Full Carrier
ma Ac Cos (c - m)t
Upper
Side band
Lower
Side band
Modulation Index: In Amplitude modulation, the modulation index is defined as the ratio of maximum amplitude of
modulating signal to the maximum amplitude of the carrier signal.
M a=
% modulation = ma x 100
Modulation index gives the depth to which the carrier signal is modulated.
for
0 ma1
Am Ac
Power Relation in AM wave:
Where PT= Total Power

PC= Carrier Power
Transmission Efficiency ():
Current Relation in AM wave: Let R be the resistance into which the current flow.
where
It = Total transmitted current

Ic= Carrier current
m = Modulating index
Effective Modulation Index: If a carrier is modulated by more than a single sine wave, the effective modulation index
is given by:
Note that the total modulation index must not exceed 1 or distortion will occur.
meff can be used in all previously developed equations using m.
Bandwidth of AM wave:
BW= 2fm
Bandwidth required for the amplitude modulation is twice the frequency of modulating signal.
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Angle Modulation
Total phase angle of high frequency carrier wave is varied in accordance with the modulating or message signal.
Let C(t) = A Cos(ct + a) = A Cos (t)
Where (t)= total phase angle of carrier
(t)= ct + a
= c
so,
The time dependent angular frequency= instantaneous angular frequency.
i =
so,
(t)=
i dt
If angle is varied according to instantaneous value of m(t). the carrier signal C(t) is then said to be angle modulated.
Frequency Modulation(FM)
In FM, the frequency of the high frequency carrier wave is varied in
accordance to the instantaneous frequency of modulating or base-band
signal. In frequency modulation i is varied linearly with the modulating
signal m(t) about an unmodulated carrier frequency c.
he derivative of phase angle is varied in accordance with the m(t).
We have,
(t)= + k m(t)
I
So, Instantaneous value of frequency of modulated FM wave.

Kf = frequency sensitivity of the modulator
= rad/sec/volt = Hz/volt
Since, C(t)= Ac Cos (t) where (t)= it + a
(t)=
c dt for instantaneous phase angle
i(t)=
So,
After FM, the carrier signal is as
c dt
C(t)= Ac Cos i(t)
Now, if we take limit of integration as t 0 to t 1 , then,

i(t) =
*c t + kFm(t)] dt
i(t)= c t + kF
m(t)] dt
Now the general expression for FM wave is given as
XFM(t)=Ac Cos [c t + kF
m(t)] dt]
Sinusoidal FM
Let c(t)= Ac Cos ct A carrier Signal
m(t)= Am Cos mt .. A message signal
So,
i(t)= c + Kf Am Cos mt
= maximum frequency deviation = Kf Am
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f=
(Hz)
In terms of modulation index

XFM (t) = Ac Cos i(t)
XFM (t) = Ac Cos *ct + Sin mt]
Where modulation index
=
Bandwidth of FM
BW= 2 (+1)m
Where =
BW= 2 (+1)fm
, = modulation index or deviation ratio
Phase Modulation(PM)
In PM, the phase of the high frequency carrier wave is varied in
accordance to the instantaneous phase of modulating or base-band
signal The phase modulating signal m(t) about an unmodulated
phase angle ct.
i(t)= ct + Kp m(t)
Instantaneous value of phase angle of modulated PM wave

So,
Where Kp= phase sensitivity of modulator in rad/volt
Let C(t)= Ac Cos (t) , is an unmodulated carrier .
Now after PM, we may write
XPM(t) = Ac Cos i (t)
So the general expression for PM wave is given as
XPM(t)= Ac Cos [ct + Kp m(t)]
A.M Modulators/Demodulators
AM Modulator is one which is used for superimposing a low
frequency signal on a high frequency carrier signal. In this
modulator the amplitude of a carrier is varied in accordance
with instantaneous value of message signal.
Linear Modulators- This is achieved by multiplying

message signal m(t) by carrier signal Ac Cos ct
using analog multipliers whose output is
proportional to the product of two input signals.
Fig:-Multiplier based AM modulator
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Non-Linear Modulators- In non-linear modulators, non- linear devices like diode and transistors are used.
Fig: Block Diagram for non linear modulators
AM Demodulator
Envelop Detector- This is essentially just a half wave rectifier which charges a capacitor to a voltage to the peak
voltage of the incoming AM waveform S(t) . When the input wave's amplitude increases, the capacitor voltage is
increased via the rectifying diode. When the input's amplitude falls, the capacitor voltage is reduced by being discharged
by a bleed resistor, R. The main advantage of this form of AM Demodulator is that it is very simple and cheap! Just one
diode, one capacitor, and one resistor. That's why it is used so often. However, it does suffer from some practical
problems.
Fig: Envelop Detector

Solved Examples
Question-1
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Question-2
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Question-3
Question-4
Question-5 A 400kHz sinusoidal carrier of amplitude 5V is frequency modulated by a 3kHz sinusoidal information signal
of amplitude 3V. The behaviour of the carrier is governed by the frequency deviation per volt and for this system is
25kHz per volt. Describe how the resulting FM signal changes with time.
Solution: The FM carrier will change in frequency from 400 kHz to 475 kHz to 400 kHz to 325 kHz and back to 400 kHz,
3000 times per second. This is because the frequency deviation fc = 3 x 25 kHz = 75 kHz. The amplitude of the carrier
will remain fixed at 5 V.
Question-6 In national radio broadcasts using FM, the frequency deviation of the carrier
f c , is chosen to be 75 kHz,
and the information baseband is the high fidelity range 20 Hz to 15 kHz.

Solution: The modulation index,
given by:
is 5 (i.e. 75 kHz 15 kHz), and such a broadcast requires an FM signal bandwidth
BandwidthFM
Radio
2( f c
f i (max))
2(75 15)
180kHz
Question-7 A 10 MHz carrier is frequency modulated by a pure signal tone of frequency 8 kHz. The frequency deviation
is 32 kHz. Calculate the bandwidth of the resulting FM waveform.
Bandwidth 2( f c
f i (max))
2(32 8)
80kHz
BY:
B yAnukaran
: - N a Khanna
vnee
t Pal
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Fig: Structure of intrinsic semiconductor

Fig:Generation of electron-hole pair in an at

a) Boron added to Silicon,

N-Type- When a pentavalent impurity atom is added to

Pentavalent Atoms(P, As,Sb,Bi)

Trivalent Atoms (B,Al,Ga,In)

Positive / Donor Ions

Negative / Acceptor Ions

P-N Junction Diode

Made by joining P-Type and N-Type Semiconductors

Unbiased P-N Junction Diode(V= 0 V)A P-N

N- Type Negative Terminal

N- Type Positive Terminal

V-I Characteristics of P-N Junction Diode

Temperature Effect on V-I Characteristics

ID - diode current. (Positive for forward and negative for reverse)

Where CD = Diffusion capacitance

where CT - transition capacitance

Diode Capacitance Curve

Equivalent zener diode at ON state

Equivalent zener diode at OFF state

Application of ZENER DiodesZener diode is used as a voltage regulator.

Centre-tap full wave rectifier

Peak Inverse Voltage

1- Light Emitting Diode (LED)

Fig: LED construction

Fig: Typical output characteristics of LED

LED has less power & low operational voltage.

In Burglar- Alarm System.

LED has fast action & requires no warm up

In calculators & Digital watches.

2- Varactor Diode (VARICAP)

Fig: Variation of CT according to VR

Reverse Biased P-N Junction

Where, CT= diode capacitance C= diode capacitance at unbiased condition

Fig: Equivalent Circuit of tunnel diode

Applications of Varactor Diode

Characteristics of tunnel diode

Fig: Tunnel Diode Characteristics

Fig: Tunnel Diode

Application of Tunnel Diode

4- Liquid crstal display(LCD)

Fig: Dynamic scattering Type LCD

2-Field Effect DisplayIn these nematic liquid crystals are used.

Less power consumption.

FET(Field Effect Transistor)

JFET Volt-Ampere (V-I) Characteristics

Fig: Working of N-channel

Fig: Non-Uniform Distribution of Depletion Layer

Fig: Drain Characteristics when V GS = 0V

When VGS= -VP then ID= 0 mA. Device is turned-off.

P-Channel Drain & Transfer Charcteristics

Fig: Transfer Characteristics of N-channel JFET

Fig: Transfer Characteristics of P-channel JFET

Important points regarding drain characteristics of N-channel JFET.

MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor)

Fig: Drain & Transfer Characteristics of N-Channel Depletion type MOSFT

Fig: Drain & Transfer Characteristics of P-Channel Depletion type MOSFT

Fig: P-Channel D- MOSFET

Symbol: Depletion (D) Type MOSFET

Drain and Transfer characteristics of N-Channel Enhancement

VGS =applied gate to source voltage