OE4680 2014 - Lecture 4 - Ice Physics

29April,2014
MScOffshore&DredgingEngineering
FacultyCEG,DepartmentHydraulicEngineering
Faculty3mE,DepartmentMaritime&TransportTechnology
Overviewofpast&cominglectures
Uptonow,wehavelearnedabout:
Environmentalissues&theArctic
RegionsfordevelopmentintheArctic&Subarctic
Fixed&FloatingstructuresintheArctic
TheIceFeaturesandRegimesthatweencounter
Inthecominglectures,itisouraimtoobtainthenecessaryunderstandingofice
andicestructureinteractiontobeabletocalculateloadsduetoice:
Molecularproperties&crystallographyofice
Icegrowth&formation
Icemechanics&mechanicalpropertiesofice
Iceactions&actioneffects,ISO19906
Iceloadreductionmethods&icemanagement
Modeltesting&scalinglaws
29April,2014
IcePhysics
OE4680ArcticEngineering
Contents
Todayslectureonicephysicsdiscussesthefollowingtopics:
1. Materialpropertiesoficevs.water
Whydoesicefloat?
Weightvs.buoyancy,freeboard
2. Molecularproperties&crystallography
Icetypes
Defectsinice
3. Iceformation&growth
Developmentandstagesoficecover
Heterogeneity&Anisotropy
Brine
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IcePhysics
Whydoesicefloatonwater?
Thedensityoficeislowerthenthedensityofwater:
Densityofpurewater: 1000,0kg/m3 (at3,98C)
Densityofpureice:
1916,7kg/m3 (at0 C,theoretical)
Formostmaterialshowever,thesolidphaseis
denserthantheliquidphase.Forexample,
Aluminiumhasthefollowingdensities:
Inliquidform:
2375,0kg/m3
Insolidform:
2700,0kg/m3
Intheprocessoffreezing,theaverage distancebetweenadjacentwatermolecules
growsasthecrystallographicstructureoficeisformed.
Therearesomeotherexamplesofsubstanceswherethedensityinthesolidphaseis
lowerthanthatinitsliquidphase:Silicon,Germanium,Plutonium.
29April,2014
IcePhysics
Whydoesicefloatonwater?
Thedensityoficeislowerthenthedensityofwater:
Densityofpurewater: 1000,0kg/m3 (at3,98C)
Densityofpureice:
1916,7kg/m3 (at0 C,theoretical)
Thedensityofpureiceasafunctionoftemperature:
(T)[kg/m3] =916,7 0,13T[C]

Thus,asicebecomescolderitsdensityincreases.
ThisrelationholdsforatemperaturerangeT=40C0C
ThedensityofpureiceatT=180C isapproximately934kg/m3.
Ifwewouldusetheabovewerelationwewouldfindthat:(180)940kg/m3.
29April,2014
IcePhysics
Densitiesofdifferenttypesofice
Densitiesofpurewaterandice:
Densityofpurewater:
1000,0kg/m3 (at3,98C)
Densityofpureice:
1916,7kg/m3 (at0C,theoretical)
Theicethatweencounteronearth(outsidelabs)and
thusintheArcticandSubarcticisneverpure
SeaWaterw/salinity35ppt at+4.0C: =1025kg/m3
SeaIcew/salinity35ppt at2.0C:
=910kg/m3
Avg.densityofseawater: 1027kg/m3 (10201029)
Avg.densityofseaice:
1910kg/m3 (904916)
Avg.densityofglacialice: 1900kg/m3 (600900)
seaice <pureice duetosalinityandporosity

glacialice <pureice duetoairenclosedinthecompactedsnow
29April,2014
IcePhysics
Buoyancyofice
Thedifferencebetweenthedensitiesofseawater
andseaorglacialiceisrelativelysmall.
Therefore,accordingtoArchimedesprinciple,
mostoftheiceissubmergedasitfloatsonthe
seasurface.
Freeboard
Asaruleofthumb:
About10%ofthevolumeofapieceoficefloating
intheseaisemergedabovethewaterline,while
about90%issubmerged.
Theheightoftheiceabovethewateris
referredtoasthefreeboard.
Forsomeshapesoficebergsandforlevelicethe
freeboardcanbecalculatedusingArchimedes
principle.
29April,2014
IcePhysics
Submerged
Freeboard
Consideratabularicebergbrokenofffrom
anAntarcticiceshelf,whichcanbeassumed
constantoveritsareaduetoitstabularshape.
Letsassumethattheicebergconsistsonlyof
glacialice,theratiobetweenthesubmerged
heightoftheicebergandthefreeboardthen
followsfromArchimedesprincipleas:
hsub
ice
hice
water
hsub hice
Freeboard
ice
water
Thefreeboardthenbecomes:
hfreeboard hice hsub
Or,wecanfindthefreeboarddirectlyas:
hfreeboard hice
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IcePhysics
water ice
hice sub
water
water
8
Freeboard:examplecalculation
Consideratabularicebergbrokenofffrom
anAntarcticiceshelf,whichcanbeassumed
constantoveritsareaduetoitstabularshape.
Letsassumetheicebergtobe60mthick
andusethedensitiesgivenpreviously,i.e.
ice =900kg/m3
water =1027kg/m3
Freeboard
127
7, 42 m
1027
Wethenfindthefreeboardas:
hfreeboard 60
Andthesubmergeddepthas:
hsubmerged 60
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IcePhysics
900
52,58 m
1027
9
TheH2Omolecule
H2Ois1oxygenatomthatiscovalently
bondedto2hydrogenatoms.
95,84 pm = 0,96
Oxygen
104,45
Hydrogen
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IcePhysics
=ngstrm orAngstrom
1Angstrom=11010 m=100pm=0.1nm
Theanglebetweenthehydrogen
atomsisNOT alwaysthesameand
dependsonthephasethemoleculeisin.
Here,anisolatedH2Omoleculeisgiven.
Hydrogen
Hydrogen:
atomicnumber:
atomicweight:
1
1,008g/mol
Oxygen:
atomicnumber:
atomicweight:
8
15,999g/mol
10
TheH2Omolecule
95,84 pm = 0,96
Oxygen
104,45
Hydrogen
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IcePhysics
Hydrogen
Hydrogen(usually)consistsof:
1proton
0neutrons
1electron
Thishydrogenisotopeisknownasprotium
Hydrogen isotopedeuterium heavywater
Oxygenconsistsof:
8protons
8neutrons
8electrons
Inthewatermolecule,the10electrons pairup
intofive'orbitals:
1pairclosetotheoxygencore,
2pairsassociatedwiththeoxygenatom
as'outer'electrons,and
2pairsformingeachofthetwoidentical
OHcovalent bonds.
11
TheH2Omolecule
_
Oxygen
+
Hydrogen
Hydrogen
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IcePhysics
12
TheH2Omolecule
Thesizeofamoleculedependsonits
electroniccharge.Consequently,when
hydrogenatomsaremissingoradded(ions),
thediameterchanges:
O2
=2,80
OH =2,74
H2O =2,75
H3O+ =2,76
Theseionsexist inallphases,sincetheH20
moleculesarecontinuouslyexchanging
hydrogenatomsbetweeneachother,
(i.e.protonationordeprotonation)
2H2O H3O+ +OH
AH2Omoleculestaysintactforonlya
millisecondinwater
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IcePhysics
13
TheH2Omoleculeindifferentphases
DistanceH2Omolecules
HOHangle
CovalentOHlength
Vapor(gas)
300
104,47
0,957
Water(liquid)
2,98
105,9 0,4
0,991 0,07
Ice(solid)
2,76
106,6 1,5
0,966 0,24
TheshapeofanH2Omoleculeisneverconstant:
Inice,thedistancebetweenany2H2Omoleculesin1directionis2,76,butin
otherdirectionsthisdistanceislargerduetoitscrystalstructure.
Theexactpolycrystallinestructureoficedependsonthetypeconsidered
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IcePhysics
14
IceTypes
Thereare16(known)crystallinephasesofice;
Acrystallinephase:thesituationwheretheoxygenatomsareinafixedposition
relativetoeachother,whilethehydrogenatomsmayormaynotbeproton
ordered butarealwaysobeyingthesocalledicerules.
Theicerulesare:
Therearealways2hydrogenatomsneareachoxygenatom,
(i.e.thewatermoleculestaysintact)
EachH2Omoleculehas4neighbours,
Thereisonly1hydrogenatombetweenany2oxygenatoms.
Nexttothecrystallinephasesofice,thereare3noncrystallinephases;
Thisissocalledamorphousice.Amorphousiceisformedifwateriscooled
extremelyquick(aroundatemperaturechangerateof106 K/S),sothattheH2O
moleculesdonothavetimetoformthecrystallattice.
AmorphousiceisthemostcommonformofH2Ointheuniverse;onearth
however,itonlyexistsinlaboratories.
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IcePhysics
15
IceTypes
Hexagonalice(Ih)isthe
generaltypeoficeonearth.
Cubicice(Ic)isoccasionallyfound
intheearthsupperatmosphere.
Atnormalatmosphericpressure:
IceIh existsat80C0C
IceIc at273C80C
Iceeleven(XI)hasbeenfoundon
earthinancientAntarcticiceof
100010000yearsoldandis
basicallyaprotonorderedand
slightlydenserversionofhexagonal
ice(Ih).
1
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IcePhysics
Icepolymorph
Density1(kg/m3)
Protons
Crystalstructure
Amorph(LDA,HDA,VHDA)
940,1170,1250
Disordered
Noncrystalline
Ih,Hexagonalice
917
Disordered
Hexagonal
Ic,CubicIce
917
Disordered
Cubic
II
1170
Ordered
Rhombohedral
III
1140
Disordered
Tetragonal
IV
1270
Disordered
Rhombohedral
1230
Disordered
Monoclinic
VI
1310
Disordered
Tetragonal
VII
1500
Disordered
Cubic
VIII
1460
Ordered
Tetragonal
IX
1160
Ordered
Tetragonal
2510
Symmetric
Cubic
XI
920
Ordered
Orthorhombic
XII
1290
Disordered
Tetragonal
XIII
1230
Ordered
Monoclinic
XIV
1290
Mostlyordered
Orthorhombic
XV
1300
Disordered
Pseudoorthorhombic
at atmospheric pressure
16
Thephasediagramofwater
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IcePhysics
17
Hydrogenbonding
Ahydrogenbond(Hbond)isachemicalbondingthatoccurswhenahydrogen
atomfindsitselfbetween2highlyelectronegativeatoms,suchasN(Nitrogen),O
(oxygen)andF(Fluorine).
_
WhentheHbondforms,thehydrogennucleus
remainsbondedtotheclosestoxygenatom.
TheHbondis(mainly)anelectrostaticbond.
+
InaHbond,thehydrogenatomisknownas
Acceptor
anHbonddonorandtheelectronegativeatom
Donor
isknownastheHbondacceptor.
ThestrengthoftheHbondisabout5%ofa
covalentbondandvariesdependingonthe
Hydrogen Bonds
Donor
orientationofsurroundingH2Omolecules
Hydrogenbondingishighlydirectionaland
therebyrestrictsthenumberofadjacent
H2Omoleculesto(about)4;Inliquids,thereisroomforalargernumber.
29April,2014
IcePhysics
18
Tetrahedralshape
ThedifferentH2Omoleculesinhexagonal
icearehydrogenbonded to4adjacent
H2Omoleculesinatetrahedralshape.
TheOOdistanceis2,75at0K(273C),and
about2,76at0C(+273K).
Hydrogen Bonds
Theangle ofaperfecttetrahedron:
2 tan1 2 109, 47
TheOOOangle:
Inhexagonalice:
Incubicice:
=109,47 0,16
=109,47 (exactly)
2,76
106,6
109,47
NotethattheHOHangle isNOTexactly
equaltotheOOOangle,althoughthey
areoftendepictedasbeingequal.
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IcePhysics
19
BernalFowlerrules
TheBernalFowlerrulesareanextensiontothegeneralicerulestospecifically
describethecrystalstructureof(pure)hexagonalice.
TheBernalFowlerrulesare:
1. TheH2Omoleculeispreserved;ergo,2hydrogenatomsresideneareach
oxygenatom(andthelengthofthecovalentOHbondis0,96),
2. EachH2Omoleculeishydrogenbondedto4adjacentH2Omoleculesina
tetrahedralshape,
3. Thereisalwaysonly1hydrogenatombetweenany2oxygenatoms,
4. IceIh isprotondisordered,i.e.thelocationofthehydrogenatomsisnot
fixed.Consequently,rules13maybesatisfiedinanyconfiguration.
Availableconfiguration
optionsthatobeythe
BernalFowlerrules
29April,2014
IcePhysics
20
Crystalstructureofhexagonalice
View of the
Basal plane
Basal
planes
Side view
c-axis
Side view
Basal planes
29April,2014
IcePhysics
principal
hexagonal,
c-axis
or
optical axis
21
CrystalstructureofCubicice
View of cubic ice
along the c-axis
Hexagonal view
of cubic ice
29April,2014
IcePhysics
22
CrystalstructureofHexagonalice
View of the
Basal plane
Basal
planes
Unit Cell
Side view
60
c-axis
Side view
Basal planes
29April,2014
IcePhysics
principal
hexagonal,
c-axis
or
optical axis
23
UnitcelloficeIh
Theunitcellisthefundamentalbuildingblockofthe
crystalstructureofice;Bystackingunitcellsfaceto
faceinperfectalignment,thecomplete3D
crystallographicstructureisconstructed.
a
a
Propertiesoftheunitcell:
Aparallelepiped(6parallelograms).
The8Oatomsontheverticesareeach
sharedbetween8unitcells.
The4Oatomsontheedgesareeach
sharedbetween4unitcells.
Thereare2Oatomswithintheunitcell.
Consequently,thereareexactly4Oatoms
inaunitcell.(81/8+41/4+2=4)
Thebasalplanesatthetopandbottomare
sharedbetweenstackingunitcells.Thus,
thereare2basalplanesinsidetheunitcell.
29April,2014
IcePhysics
c-axis
24
PropertiesoftheiceIhcrystal
a
EachOatomhas3Hbonds inthebasal
plane,andonly1Hbond perpendicularto
theBasalplane,i.e.alongthecaxis.
Consequently,fracturealongthebasal
planeinvolvestheruptureof2Hbonds in
theunitcell,whilefracturealonganyplane
normaltothebasalplanerequiresthe
breakingofatleast4Hbonds.
c-axis
Thus,hexagonalicefailsbyglidingand
cleavingalongthebasalplane,ratherthen
byfracturingalongthecaxis.
Thus,iceisanisotropic
29April,2014
IcePhysics
25
PropertiesoftheiceIhcrystal
ThecrystallinestructureoficeIh causesicetoformintothetypicalhexagonalshapethat
isalsorecognizedinsnowflakes.
Snowflakebranchingoccursbecausebranchessproutfromthecornersoftheinitial
hexagonalprismasH2Omoleculesmosteasilyattachthemselvesthere.
Thefinalshapeofasnowflakedependsonthetemperatureofthesurrounding.
Theicedepictedhereis
protonordered
Prism faces
29April,2014
IcePhysics
Basal face
c-axis
26
Protonordering
Protonorderediceisicewitharegulararrangementandplacementofthehydrogen
atoms;i.e.thereisasequenceintheplacementofhydrogenatoms.
Inprotondisorderedice,thehydrogenatomsareNOTarrangedregularly.
TheironlyorderingisgivenbythesatisfactionoftheBernalFowlerrules.
Sincethebreakupofprotonorderingdoesnottakelotsofenergy,protonordered
icecanonlyexistattemperatures<80 C(193K).
Hexagonaliceisprotondisordered.
29April,2014
IcePhysics
27
Defectsinice
IcethatobeystheBernalFowlerrulesistermedanidealcrystalstructure.Usualoccurrences
oficehowever,arenotidealcrystalstructures,asanidealcrystalstructurewouldbe
extremelydifficulttodeformwhenallHbondsareinplace.
TheseerrorsinthecrystalstructureoficeareviolationsoftheBernalFowlerrulesandare
knownasdefects:
Somedefectsmayoccurduetoprotonation(H3O+)ordeprotonation (OH).
Duetoshearingofbasalplanesalongeachotherinicethatisprotondisordered,D
orLdefectsintheidealcrystalstructureoficecanoccur.
(fromGerman:DoppelandLeer).
Ideal
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IcePhysics
D-defect
L-defect
28
Defectsinice
Nexttodefectsduetomisplacedprotonsorhydrogen
atoms,theremayalsooccurdefectsthatinvolvecomplete
molecules.
Forexample,anH2Omoleculemaybe
missingcompletely.(vacancy)
Or,thereisamoleculeotherthanH2Ositting
inalocationwithinthestructurewherean
H2Omoleculeshouldbe.(impurity)
Additionally,insideeachboxofhexagonal
ice,thereisenoughemptyspacetocontain
aweakhydrogenbondedH2Omolecule;
Thisisasocalledinterstitial molecule.
Asicegrowsolder,itscrystalstructurebecomes
moreidealandthusstronger.
29April,2014
IcePhysics
29
Defectsinice:Overview
Defects
Type
Remarks
H3O+
H2Omoleculewithanadditionalproton
OH
H2Omoleculewithaprotonmissing
Ddefect
OObondwithtwoprotonsonornearit
Ldefect
OObondwithnoprotononit
Vacancy
H2Omoleculemissingfromicestructure
Interstitial
H2Omoleculenotatastructureposition
Impuritymolecule
MoleculeotherthanH2Oataicestructureposition
Electronexcitation
Placewhereanelectronisexcitedfromitsgroundstate
Linedefects
Dislocation
Boundarylineofaregionwherepartofthecrystalhasbeen
displacedrelativetoanother
Planedefects
Stackingfault
Aplaneonwhichthestackingsequenceisnotwhatitshould
beinthestructure
Pointdefects
29April,2014
IcePhysics
30
Iceformationandicegrowth
Nowthatweknowallaboutthecrystallinestructureofice,
letsusethisknowledgetounderstandhowiceformsandgrows
29April,2014
IcePhysics
31
Iceformation
Thefreezingpointofseawaterislowerthan
thefreezingpointofpurewater(0C),dueto
thepresenceofcompoundsotherthenwater;
thisisknownasfreezingpointdepression.
Inthiscase,theabundantcompoundin
seawaterotherthenH2Oissodium
chloride(NaCl),togetherwithothersalts.
Seawaterwithasalinityof35(ppt)
hasafreezingpointof1,93C.
Salt
NaCl
68,10
MgCl2
14,44
Na2SO4
11,37
CaCl2
3,19
KCl
1,19
NaHCO3
0,55
other
0,44
Astheairaboveanoceanstartscoolingdowntheseasurfacebelowitsfreezing
point,theupperlayeroftheseabecomes(slightly)supercooled andthefirst
moleculesintheseawaterstartforminghexagonalcrystalsofice.
Asupercooled liquidisaliquidatatemperaturebelowitsfreezingpoint
withoutitbecomingasolid(yet).
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IcePhysics
32
Iceformation
Whenseawaterfreezes,thesaltisexpelledcompletelyfromthefirstflatice
plateletsthatform.Theseplateletsthereforeexistofalmostpureice.
Duetotheirsize,NaCl orsaltionscannot be
incorporatedintothehexagonalcrystallattice
oftheiceandneither dotheyfitintotheice
crystalasinterstitialmolecules:
V(H2O) 1303,OOdistance2,76
V(NaCl) 1793,ClCldistance5,64
Therefore,thesaltcrystalsarerejectedfromthe
icewhiletheicecrystalsareforming.
Consequently,theformingoficeonthewatersurfaceisaccompanied
byanincreaseofsalinity inthesurroundingwater.
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IcePhysics
33
Iceformationincalmwaters
Whentheoceaniscalm,onlyathintoplayerissupercooled:
Theinitiallyformedicecrystalswillgrow
intohexagonalneedleswhosecaxes
areparalleltotheneedleaxis.
Theorientationoftheseneedleformed
crystalsinwaterisgenerallycompletely
random.
c-axis
Theneedleswilltendtogrowalongthe
basalplaneintothewater,i.e.acrossthe
widthoftheneedle.
29April,2014
IcePhysics
basal plane
34
Iceformationincalmwaters
Atsmalltemperaturegradients,crystallizationproceedsslowly:
Theinitialneedleswillfloathorizontally,and
Thecaxiswilltakeahorizontalorientation
Atlargertemperaturegradients(usual),thereisamorerapid
solidification:
Theinitialneedleswillinterlock,and
Thecaxiswillbecomerandomlyorientated
Independentofthetemperaturegradient,thehexagonalneedles
willgrowintodiscoids orfinespiculae oficethatstayatthewater
surface;thisisknownasfrazilice.
29April,2014
IcePhysics
Horizontal thin sections of ice

photographed through crossed
polarising filters.
35
Iceformationinroughwater
Usuallyatsea,windandwaveswillagitatethesurface
layer,mixingtheinitialicecrystalsneartheairwater
interfacewiththewaterbeneath,causingsuper cooling
toextendtodeeperlevels.
Thus,insteadoftheinitialicecrystalsstayingnear
theairwaterinterface,theyaresuspendedinthe
supercooled watercolumn.Thissuspensionoficecrystals
mayoccuruptoseveralmeters.
Naturalnucleationoftheinitialcrystalsinthe
supercooled watercolumnwillthencausetheformation
offrazilparticlesintheformofsmalldiscoids orfine
spiculae.
Inthiscase,thefrazilice particlesstaysuspendedinthe
supercooled watercolumn.
Frazilicehasagrainsize<2mm,andabrasionand
rotationofthefrazilparticlesrelativetooneanother
resultsinarandomcaxisorientation.
29April,2014
IcePhysics
Size discoids 1 mm
36
PrimaryorNewice
Whilethefrazilparticlesgrow,theywillrandomly
adheretoeachotherandcoagulatetoformasoupy
mixofsaltwaterandiceclumps;thiscompliant
highlysalineiceisknownasgreaseice.
Contrarytofrazilice,greaseicefloatsattheocean
surface,itreflectslittlelightandhasamattandoilyappearance.
Incorrespondencewithfrazilice,itscaxisisrandomlyorientated.
Eveninliterature,frazilandgreaseicearemixedupand/orusedtorefertothesame
typeofice:
greaseiceisonlyfoundinsaltwaterenvironments,while
fraziliceformsinturbulentfreshwaterenvironmentsaswell.
FrazilandgreaseicearebothconsideredastypesofPrimary(P)orNewice.
Nexttofrazilorgreaseice,newicecanformfromsnowthatissaturatedasitmixeswith
water,thistypeoficeisknownasslush(ice).
Incontinuingagitatedseas,slush,frazilorgreaseicemayformintoshuga;
anaccumulationoficeintospongywhiteicelumpsafewcentimetresacross.
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IcePhysics
37
NilasandPancakeice
Whiletheicecontinuestogrowthicker,itforms
acontinuousthinelasticcrustoficethateasily
bendsonwavesandswell.Thisisknownasnilas.
Nilasmayexistas:
Darknilas;<5cmthick
Lightnilas;510cmthick
Duetoturbulenceattheseasurface,theeffective
supercooling isreducedsothatinsteadofforminga
continuouslayerofice,greaseice,slushorshuga may
formintoagglomeratesassmalldiscshapedpiecesof
ice.ThisisknownasPancakeice.
AtypicalfeatureofPancakeicearetheraisedrims,due
tothevariouspiecesstrikingintoeachother.
Pancakeiceisuptoabout10cmthickandthedisc
shapedpiecehaveadiameterof30cmto3m.
Pancakeicemayalsoform asaresultfrom
thebreakingofNilas.
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IcePhysics
38
Consolidationofpancakeice
Whilepancakeiceformsinroughorturbulentwaters,piecesofpancakeice
mayraftorevenformridges.
Astheiceconcentrationincreases,theroughnessoftheseastateisreduced
andasaresult,thepancakeicestartstocoagulateandconsolidate.
29April,2014
IcePhysics
39
Thetransitionzone
Theinitiallayeroficethatnowcoversthesea
surfaceispolycrystalline,i.e.composedofmany
crystallites ofvaryingsizeandorientation.
Asthecrystallitesinice(i.e.domainsoficewitha
singlecrystalstructure)grow,themoleculesinthe
liquidphasepreferablyattachthemselvestothe
existingcrystallitesattheedgeofthebasalplane,
rathertheninthedirectionofthecaxis.
Therefore,crystalliteswiththeircaxisvertical
willmostlybewedgedoutbythecrystallites
withthemorepreferableorientations.
Associatedwiththiscompetitionbetweenthe
crystallitesisarapidincreaseingrainsize.
Theverticaldomainbelowtheinitialskim,where
thecrystalorientationhasarapidchangeis
knownasthetransitionzone.(530cm)
29April,2014
IcePhysics
basal planes
c-axis
40
Secondaryorcongelationice
Asicegrowthcontinuousbelowthetransitionzone,thedominanticecrystalshave
theircaxescompletelyhorizontal.Consequently,theorientationofbasalplanesis
vertical,causingtheicetogrowdownverticallyintothewaterbeneaththeicefloe.
Thispartoftheiceisknownasthecolumnarzone.
Inthecolumnarzone,eachindividualcrystalissubdividedintoanumberofice
plateletsthatarejoinedtogethertoproduce
aquasihexagonalnetwork.
Attheicewaterinterface,theindividualice
plateletsextendintotheseawaterlikefingers,
typically<0.25mmthickand>10mmwide.
Itsverticaldomainisabout10to50mm
andknownasthegrowthzoneorthe
skeleton(SK)layer.
Thetransition,columnarandgrowthzone
togetherareknownassecondaryor
Source: Lset et al.
congelationice.
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IcePhysics
41
Plateletspacing
Thecharacteristicspacingbetweenplatelet
boundariesd0 isafunctionofthegrowth
velocity :
d0
d 0 const
Duringformationoficecrystalsinthegrowth
zone(SKlayer),thesupersaturatedbrinethat
replacestheseawaterslowssolidification.
Astheicegrowthisslowingdown,d0 becomes
largeratthebottomoftheicesheetasitgrows,
thustheiceplateletsbecomethickerastheice
sheetgrowsuntilacertainequilibrium.
Althoughthegrainsizechangesinthecolumnar
zone,thechangeisnotstriking.Themajorpartof
firstyearicesheetsconsistofsuchcolumnarice.
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IcePhysics
42
Brine
Astheindividualiceplateletsjointogethersomegas
andsocalledbrinebecomesentrapped:
Brineiswaterthatissupersaturatedwithsalt.
Saltisexpelledfromthefirstplateletsthatform,
increasingthesalinityofthesurroundingwater.
AstheiceplateletstakeinH2Omoleculesfromthe
seawaterongrowth,theseawatersalinityincreases
further.
Then,duetothegrowthprocessintheSKlayer,
thesaltinseaiceaccumulatesandisincluded
alongtheplateletboundariesintheformof
liquidorsolidinclusions.
Thenowisolatedbrineinclusionsarecalled
brinepockets.Thebrineinthebrinepocketsremains
liquidbecausemuchlowertemperatureswouldbe
requiredtofreezethehighlysalinebrine.
29April,2014
IcePhysics
43
Brinedrainage
drainage tube
Astheicesheetcontinuestogrowandbecomes
colder,thebrinebetweentheiceplatesdrains
outleavingbehindairpockets,thisisdueto:
Freezingofwaterinthebrine,
Expulsionanddrainageprocessesaidedbygravity.
Brineexpulsionanddrainagealwaysoccuralongaflowroute
thatresemblesthetrunkandbranchesofatree;respectively
calledthedrainagetubeanddrainagechannels.
drainage
channels
Asaresultofthis,thesalinityofseaicedecreases
asitbecomesolder.
And,asicebecomesolderitsdensityincreases.
Inseaice,thesalinityvarieswithdepth;thesalinity
islowerinthemiddle,whilethesalinityatthetop
andbottomishigher.
29April,2014
IcePhysics
44
Brinicles
29April,2014
IcePhysics
45
Summaryoftheicegrowthprocess
Calm water
(congelation path)
Frazil Ice
Rough water
(pancake path)
Grease ice
Shuga
Nilas
Pancake ice
Rafting
Rafting or Ridging
Congelation ice
Cementing and
consolidation
Smooth bottom
29April,2014
IcePhysics
First year
level ice
Rough bottom
46
Structureoffirstyearlevelice
Primaryice:
InitialSkim
Secondaryice:
TransitionZone
ColumnarZone
SkeletonLayer
Brine Drainage
Channels
Nexttoprimaryandsecondaryice,
thereisalsosuperimposedice;
Thisisicethatformsontopofthe
initialicelayer;Itusuallyforms
fromprecipitation,butmayalso
formduetoflooding.
Ref: Weeks, 1982
29April,2014
IcePhysics
47
Sympagic Ecosystem
Whilebrineandairpocketsform,organisms,suchasbacteria,diatoms,algaeand
plankton,livingintheseawatergetenclosedandengageinphotosynthesis.Throughout
thelifeofanicefloetheselifeformsremainwithinthebrinesystem.
Atthebottomoftheicesheet,animalslikesocalledflatwormsandcrustaceansenter
thebrinechannels.Thesesympagic wormspecies
arecommonlyknownasiceworms!
Asicegrowsolderandthebrinegetspushedout,
thesympagic ecosystem remainsnearthe
bottomoftheicesheet.
29April,2014
IcePhysics
48
Developmentandstagesoficecover
Stage
Descriptionandsubdivision
Recentlyformedice
Frazilice
NeworPrimaryice
Greaseice
Finespiculaeorplatesofice,suspendedinwater.
Alaterstageoffreezingthanfrazilicewhenthecrystalshavecoagulated.Greaseicereflectslittlelight
givingtheseaamattappearance.
Slush
Snowwhichissaturatedandmixedwithwateronlandoricesurfaces.
Shuga
Accumulatedspongywhiteicelumps,afewcentimetersacross.Theyareformedfromfraziliceorslush.
Athinelasticcrustofice(<0.1mthick),easilybendingonwavesandswell.
Nilas
Darknilas
<0.05mthick.
Lightnilas
>0.05mthick.
Icerind
Pancakeice
Abrittleshinycrustoficeformedonaquietsurfacebydirectfreezingorfromgreaseice,usuallyinwater
oflowsalinity.
(<0.05mthick)
Predominantlycircularpiecesoficefrom0.33mindiameter,anduptoabout0.1minthickness,withraisedrimsduetothepieces
strikingagainstoneanother.Itmaybeformedonaslightswellfromgreaseice,slushorshugaorasaresultofthebreakingoficerind,
nilas,or,underseverconditionsofswellorwaves,ofgreyice.
Iceinthetransitionstagebetweennilasandfirstyearice,0.1 0.3mthick
Youngice
Greyice
Greywhiteice
Youngiceof0.1 015mthick.Lesselasticthannilasandbreaksonswell.Usuallyraftsunderpressure.
Youngiceof0.15 0.30mthick.Underpressuremorelikelytoridgethantoraft.
Seaiceofnotmorethanonewintersgrowth,developingfromyoungice.
Firstyearice
Thinfirstyearice
0.3 0.7mthick.
Mediumthickfirstyearice
0.7 1.2mthick.
Thickfirstyearice
1.2 2.0mthick.
Seaicethathassurvivedatleastonesummersmelt.Mosttopographicfeaturesaresmootherthanonfirstyearice
Oldice
Secondyearice
Multiyearice
29April,2014
IcePhysics
Oldicesurvivingonlyonesummersmelt(<2.5mthick)
Oldiceupto3mormorethickwhichhassurvivedatleasttwosummersmeltandhasalowsalinity.
49
Oldice
Roger Andersen, Polar Science Centre
29April,2014
IcePhysics
50
Icethicknessgrowth
Thegrowthoficethicknessduringacertaintimeperiodisinfluencedbythemean
airtemperatureandtheheightofsnowontopoftheicesheet.Anempirical
equationforicethicknessgrowthwasfoundbyDoronin &Kheisin in1975as:
h m
Where:
m h0
405 Ta
Ta : mean daily air temperature

m : empirical coefficient depending on snow height
h0 : initial ice thickness
h : resulting ice thickness
The sum is taken over the number of days in the period
29April,2014
IcePhysics
51
Maximumicethickness
Themaximumthicknessofundisturbedlevelicegrownin1wintercanbefoundas:
h aCFDD b
Where: h
: ice thickness
: site specific constant
b
: heat conduction exponent, b 0,5 for linear heat conduction
CFDD : accumulated freezing degree days
Themaximumthermallygrownlevelseaicethicknessesareintherangeof2
meterfortheArcticregion.
Theheatfluxinwaterhasasignificantinfluenceonicethicknessgrowth;when
theheatfluxthroughtheseaisequaltothefluxthroughtheice,theice
thicknessgrowthstops
29April,2014
IcePhysics
52
Freezingdegreedays
Accumulatedfreezingdegreedays(CFDD)forawinterisameansof
characterizingthegeneralseverityoficeandweatherconditions.
ThenumberoffreezingdegreedaysisthenumberofCthatthemeanair
temperatureisbelowthefreezingpointofwater.
Where:
CFDD
Ta
mean daily air temperature in C
Tb :
the freezing point of water in C,
Tb
1, 76C for sea water of 32 ppt salinity,

1,93 C for sea water of 35 ppt salinity
The sum is taken over the number of days in winter
Onlythedayswithanaveragetemperaturebelowfreezingpointareused
29April,2014
IcePhysics
53
Localconditions
29April,2014
IcePhysics
54

OE4680 2014 - Lecture 4 - Ice Physics

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29April,2014

(T)[kg/m3] =916,7 0,13T[C]

seaice <pureice duetosalinityandporosity

hfreeboard hice hsub

Horizontal thin sections of ice

Ref: Weeks, 1982

Roger Andersen, Polar Science Centre

Ta : mean daily air temperature

mean daily air temperature in C

the freezing point of water in C,

1, 76C for sea water of 32 ppt salinity,

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