Basic Electronics Fundamentals

BASIC ELECTRONICS
Enabling a
Microelectronic
World
MODULE 1:
2005 Amkor Technology, Inc.
Amkor Confidential / Proprietary Business Information
JULY 2005, HR OD-T
What is ELECTRICITY?
It is the flow of electrical charge or power. It

is the invisible force that produces heat, light,
motion, and many other physical effects.
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To understand the flow of electrical charge, let us first

understand the composition of an ATOM.
An atom is the smallest, indivisible piece of matter.
nucleus
Electrons
ATOM
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Protons
(neutrons are also included
in the nucleus)
The First Law of Electrostatics

The negative charge of the electron is equal, but opposite
to, the positive charge of the proton.
Unlike charges attract each other, like charges repel.
(Coulombs Law)
- +
+ -attract
+
protons
repel
No. of protons = No. of electrons

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When an external force is applied, electrons located at

the outer shell may likely detached from the atom (due to
weaker force of attraction) and may be transferred to
another atom.
Free electrons
External
force
(voltage)
There will be flow of free electrons
(electricity)
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ELECTRIC CHARGE (Q)

The force of attraction or repulsion.
Unit: Coulomb (C)

1 C = amount of electric charge carried by a
current of 1 ampere flowing for 1 second.
1 C = 6.241018 electrons (or protons)
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VOLTAGE (V, E or EMF)
Can be thought of as the force or the push that gets

electron moving through a conductor.
Unit: Volt (V)
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CURRENT (I)
It refers to the number of electrons passing a given
point in 1 second.
Unit: Ampere (A)

1 A = 6.241018 electrons pass a certain point
in one second.
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RESISTANCE (R)
The opposition to the flow of electrons or current
in the circuit.
Unit: Ohm
1 ohm of resistance will allow only 1 ampere of
current when the circuit is supplied with 1 volt.
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DC CIRCUIT WATER ANALOGY
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VOLTAGE - PRESSURE ANALOGY
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GROUND - RESERVOIR ANALOGY
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CURRENT - FLOWRATE ANALOGY
A large pipe offers very

little resistance to flow
A wire offers very little

resistance to charge flow
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RESISTANCE TO FLOW
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OHMS LAW
The potential difference (voltage) across an ideal
conductor is proportional to the current through it.
V=IxR
Where:
V - voltage
I - current
R - resistance
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POWER (P)
The amount of electrical work that voltage and current
has exerted in a circuit.
P=VxI
Unit: Watt
1 watt of power used in 1 second is equivalent
to 0.24 calories of heat energy.
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Ohms Law Pie Chart
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EXERCISES
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DIRECT CURRENT (DC)

Electrical current is flowing in only one direction
in a circuit.
Sources: Batteries, DC Power Supply,

Solar cells, fuel cells, etc.
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HOW IS DC CURRENT PRODUCED?
While the battery remains unconnected the

electrons on the negative terminal cannot
reach the positive terminal.
If the two terminals of the battery are connected

together electrons are then able to pass long the
wire from the negative terminal to the positive
terminal to attempt to balance the electrical charge.
This is a DC current.
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ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC)

Electrical current flowing in a circuit is constantly
being reversed back and forth.
This is the type of electricity that we get from
plugs in the wall.
Sources: AC Generators,
AC outlet
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HOW IS AC CURRENT PRODUCED?

Electric Generator
As the wire rotates in the magnetic field,

the changing strength of the magnetic
field through the wire produces a force
which drives the electric charges
around the wire.
The faster the loop rotates the larger
the force on the electric charges and
the larger the electric current.
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Power plant
generates electricity
Transmission line
carries electricity
long distances
Transformer steps
up voltage for
transmission
Distribution line
carries electricity to
house
Neighborhood
transformer steps
down voltage
Transformer on pole
steps down voltage
before entering
house
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FREQUENCY (f)
Defined as the number of complete cycles that
occurs in one second.
Unit : Hertz (cycles per second)
1 second
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PERIOD (T)
The amount of time it takes to complete a single
cycle.
T=1/f
Unit : seconds
Period (T)
Period and Frequency are inversely related.

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PEAK TO PEAK VOLTAGE (Vp-p)

The peak to peak voltage is the voltage measured
from the positive peak to the negative peak value
of the signal.
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PEAK VOLTAGE (Vp)

The peak voltage is the voltage measured
from the zero mark to either the positive (+)
peak or the negative (-) peak value
of the signal.
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AVERAGE VOLTAGE (V ave)

For AC signal with equal positive and negative
alternations, V ave = 0V
For AC signal without positive or negative
alternations, V ave = 0.318 Vp
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RMS VOLTAGE (Vrms)

The equivalent DC or the effective value of
an AC waveform.
Vrms = 0.707 Vp
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EXERCISES
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MODULE 3:
A device that does not a require source

of energy for its operation
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RESISTORS
They are specifically designed to limit the current.
Symbol:
Potentiometer
Fixed resistor
Rheostat
Variable Resistor
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RESISTOR PARAMETERS
Resistance Value - refers to the amount of opposition a
resistor offers to the flow of current,
expressed in ohms.
Tolerance - refers to the maximum change in resistance
from the nominal or rated value.
Power Rating - refers to the continuous power, in watts,
that a resistor can dissipate at temperature
as high as 70 degrees Celsius.
Temperature Coefficient of Resistance (TCR) - indicates
how resistance changes with temperature. It
is expressed as a percentage change in the
nominal value at 25 degrees Celsius for each
degree Celsius or in ppm/degree Celsius.
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CLASSIFICATION OF RESISTORS
A. Fixed Resistors
1. Carbon Composition
Fine granulated carbon (graphite) is mixed with clay and
hardened. The resistance depends on the proportion of
carbon to clay; the higher this ratio, the lower the resistance.
Resistance:
1 ohm - 100 Mega ohm
Power Ratings:
1/8 to 2 Watts
TCR:
high (>500ppm/C)
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2. Film Type
Composed of a resistive material deposited evenly onto a highgrade ceramic rod. The resistive film may be carbon (carbon film),
nickel chromium (metal film), a mixture of metals and glass (metal
glaze), or metal and insulating oxide (metal oxide).
Carbon film
Metal Glaze film
Metal Oxide film
Metal film
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3. Wirewound Type
These are made from wrapping resistance wire around a
ceramic or other high-insulating cylinder. The assembly is
then covered with enamel glaze and baked.
They are used in circuits which carry large currents, or in
circuits where accurate resistance values are required.
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4. Resistor Networks
Resistors in various configurations packed in the dual-in-line
package (DIP) or single-in-line (SIP) and are used for integrated
circuits. DIP typically contains 14 to 16 pins.
SIP Resistor Networks
5. Chip Resistors
This type of fixed resistor is in the category of SMT (surface
mount technology) component. It has the advantage of a very
small size for compact assemblies.
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CLASSIFICATION OF RESISTORS
B. Variable Resistors
1. Single-turn Potentiometer
It is used as gain, treble or bass control in an amplifier and
as brightness and contact control in TV receivers.
Resistance:
50 ohms and higher
Power Rating:
Between 2W and 3W
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2. Multiple-turn Potentiometer
This is used in application that requires precise setting of
a resistance value.
3. Trimmer Potentiometer
This is used generally for one-time adjustment of resistance.
Available for single or multiple-turn units.
Resistance:
few ohms to 5 Mega ohms
Tolerance:
+/- 10%
Power Rating:
1W
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RESISTOR COLOUR CODING
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LETTER CODING
Significant digits
5W 2K2J
Tolerance
Multiplier
Power rating
The resistor has a value

of 2.2 K ohms, +/- 5%
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RESISTOR TEST PROCEDURES

A. Fixed Resistors
Interpret the color code of the resistor.
Measure the resistance of the resistor by
connecting an ohmmeter in parallel with
the device.
Indications
Good if within the tolerance range
Open resistor if resistance is INFINITE.
Out-of-tolerance if resistance is not within
the color range value (manufacturers defects)
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RESISTOR TEST PROCEDURES

B. Variable Resistor (potentiometer)
b
a
c
c
ab
Ra-b and Rb-c vary as shaft is rotated, potentiometer

is in good condition.
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GOOD if Ra-c = rated resistance

a
b
c
OPEN if Ra-c = infinite

SHORTED if Ra-c = 0 ohms
Caution:
Never perform resistance measurements in a live
circuit. This will cause damage to an ohmmeter.
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CAUSES OF FAILURES
A. Fixed Resistors
High temperatures
High voltages
B. Variable Resistors
High voltages
Accumulation of dirt, moist, foreign substances
to resistive elements
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RESISTORS IN SERIES
I total = I 1 = I 2 = I 3 = = I n
V total = V1 + V2 + V3 + +Vn
R total = R1 + R2 + R3 + +Rn
P total = P1 + P2 + P3 + +Pn
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RESISTORS IN PARALLEL
I
total = I 1 + I 2 + I 3 + + I n
V supply = V1 = V2 = V3 = =Vn
1
1
1
1
1
R total = R1 + R2 + R3 + +Rn
P total = P1 + P2 + P3 + +Pn
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When rules of series and parallel circuits cannot be

applied, more general methods of analysis become
necessary.
KIRCHOFFS LAW
Kirchoffs Current Law
The algebraic sum of the currents
entering and leaving any point in
a circuit is equal to zero.
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Kirchoffs Voltage Law

The algebraic sum of the voltages around any
closed path of the circuit is zero.
The sum of the voltage drops will exactly equal
the total sum of the voltage rises.
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ACTIVITIES
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Activity # 1: TESTING A FIXED RESISTOR

Objectives
Upon completion of this activity, the students must be
able to
1. Interpret the resistors color code.
2. Properly use the VOM as an ohmmeter to measure
resistance..
3. Identify a good resistor by comparing its measured
resistance and color code resistance.
Materials
Resistor Module
Calculator (optional)
AVOM (Analog Volt-Ohm-Milliammeter)
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Activity # 2: USING POTENTIOMETER IN A CIRCUIT

Objectives
able to
1. Use the potentiometer as a variable current limiter
2. Use the potentiometer as a voltage divider
Materials
DC Power Supply
VOM
Plug-in Module
Connecting Wires
Resistors: 1 K Ohm potentiometer
Lamp: 12 V (1)
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Activity # 3: MEASURING VOLTAGE, CURRENT

AND RESISTANCE IN A SERIES CIRCUIT
Objectives
able to
1. Measure the voltage, the current, and the total resistance in
a series circuit.
2. Evaluate the characteristics of a series circuit.
Materials
DC Power Supply
VOM
Plug-in Module
Connecting Wires
Resistors: 270 ohms, 330 ohms, 470 ohms
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Activity # 4: MEASURING VOLTAGE, CURRENT

AND RESISTANCE IN A PARALLEL CIRCUIT
Objectives
able to
1. Measure the voltage, the current, and the total resistance in
a parallel circuit.
2. Evaluate the characteristics of a parallel circuit.
Materials
DC Power Supply
VOM
Plug-in Module
Connecting Wires
Resistors: 270 ohms, 330 ohms, 470 ohms
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Activity # 5: MEASURING VOLTAGE AND FREQUENCY

USING THE OSCILLOSCOPE
Objectives
Upon completion of this activity, the students must be able to
measure voltage and frequency using the oscilloscope.
Materials
VOM
Oscilloscope
Audio Generator
Plug-in Module
Connecting Wires
Resistors: 2.2 K ohms, 3.3 K ohms
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CAPACITOR
It stores electricity, or electrical energy.
Symbol:
capacitor
Polarized capacitor
variable capacitor
trimmer capacitor
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CAPACITOR PARAMETERS
Capacitance (C) - refers to the ability of the device to store a
certain amount of electric charge.
Unit:
Farad (F)
Factors affecting the capacitance:

1. Plate area - larger plate area increases
the capacitance.
2. Dielectric thickness - thicker dielectric
decreases the capacitance.
Working Voltage - maximum voltage that can be impressed
across a capacitor for continuous operation.
This rating must indicate whether the voltage
is DC or AC.
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Ambient Temperature
- the variation in capacitance expressed as a percentage of its
specified value at 25 degrees Celsius is referred to as nominal
value.
Temperature Coefficient
- the change in capacitance per degree in temperature. It
generally expressed in parts per million per degree Celsius.
DC Leakage
- refers to the minute direct current that flows in a capacitor
at a specified direct voltage. Leakage is due to the presence
of a few free carriers of charge in the dielectric. For this reason,
a charge in a capacitor cannot be stored indefinitely, and it
ultimately leaks off.
Capacitive Reactance (Xc)
- the opposition in ohms, offered by a capacitor to the alternating
current.
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CLASSIFICATION OF CAPACITORS
A. Fixed Capacitors
1. Mica Capacitors
These consists of alternate layers of metal foil and thin
sheets of mica. The metal foil forms the plate, with
alternate foil sheets connected together to increase
plate area. This mica/foil stack is encapsulated in an
insulating material such as bakelite-mica.
Capacitance:
1 pF to 0.1 microFarad
Voltage Ratings:
100 - 2500 Vdc
Temp. Coefficients:
-20 to +100 ppm/C
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2. Ceramic Capacitors
These capacitors utilize ceramic dielectric, commonly available
in a ceramic disk form in a multi-layer radial-lead configuration.
Capacitance:
1 pF to 2.2 microFarad
Voltage Ratings:
6 Vdc
Temp. Coefficient:
200,000 ppm/C
3. Paper Capacitors
Made of flat thin strips of metal foil conductors that are separated
by waxed paper (the dielectric material).
Capacitance:
300 pF to 4 microFarad
Voltage Ratings:
up to 600 Vdc
(A) - construction
(B) - cardboard-encased capacitor
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4. Electrolytic Capacitors
Used where a large amount of capacitance is required.
Capacitance:
up to over 200,000 microFarad
Voltage Ratings:
350 Vdc maximum
DC Leakage:
High
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CLASSIFICATION OF CAPACITORS
B. Variable Capacitors
1. Air Capacitors
Variable caps with air dielectric are sometimes used as
capacitors in applications requiring frequency selection.
These capacitors are constructed of several plates that
are meshed together.
Capacitance varies when the shaft is rotated.

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2. Trimmers and Padders

This are adjustable capacitance normally have screwdriver
adjustments and used for very fine adjustments in a circuit.
Ceramic or mica is a common dielectric in these types of
capacitors.
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CAPACITOR OPERATION
Time Constant - the time it takes for the capacitor to charge to
approx. 63% of the applied voltage.
Charging Time - the time it takes for the capacitor to charge 100%
of the applied voltage.
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Time Constant = R x C
Charging Time = 5 x time constant
Where, R = resistance, ohms
C = capacitance, Farad
If supplied by AC source
Capacitor will tend the current to lead the voltage by 90
degrees. A capacitor introduces an AC resistance called
the capacitive reactance (Xc) and also expressed in ohms.
Where; f = frequency
C = capacitance
= 3.14156
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CAPACITOR TESTING
1. Decode capacitance value.
2. Select proper range of Ohmmeter.
Capacitance in microfarad Ohmmeter Setting
below 0.01 - 1
x 10K
1 - 50
x 1K
50 - 1000
x 10
1000 - above
x1
3. Discharge the capacitor.

4. Connect the ohmmeter across the capacitor. Observe proper
polarity when capacitor is polarized.
5. Observe needle deflection.
Good
Open
Shorted
Leaky
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CAPACITORS IN SERIES
CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL
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ACTIVITIES
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Activity # 6: TESTING A CAPACITOR USING

AN OHMMETER
Objectives
able to
1. Identify a ceramic, mylar, tantalum, and electronic capacitor
2. Identify the value capacitor.
3. Identify the condition of a capacitor whether good or defective
by using an ohmmeter.
Materials
VOM
Capacitors: 10 different varieties of capacitors (electrolytic, tantalum,
mylar and ceramic).
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INDUCTOR
A component that stores energy in the form
of a magnetic field.
It is a coil of wire on a former, and may have
a core of air, iron or ferrite. When an electric
current flows in the coil, a magnetic flux is
produced in the core.
Inductors are mainly used in tuned circuits and
to block high frequency AC signals (they are
sometimes called chokes). They pass DC easily,
but block AC signals, this is the opposite of
capacitor.
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Symbol:
Fixed inductor
Variable inductor
Classification according to type of core material:
Air-core inductor
Ferrite-core inductor
Iron-core inductor
Common Inductors:
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NATURE OF INDUCTORS
Induce a voltage across itself with any change
in current in its windings.
Oppose any change in current in its windings.
Oppose AC and pass DC signals.
Store energy in the form of a magnetic field.
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SELF-INDUCTANCE
When a length of wire is formed into a coil, it becomes
a basic inductor. Current through the coil produces an
electromagnetic field. The magnetic lines of force form
a strong magnetic field within and around the coil.
Direction of magnetic field is from North to South

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Facts on Inductance:
1. When there is current through an inductor, an
electromagnetic field is established.
2. An increase in current expands the field, and a
decrease in current reduces it.
3. A changing current produces a changing electromagnetic field around the inductor (coil).
4. The changing electromagnetic field induces a voltage
across the coil in a direction to oppose the change in
current.
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INDUCTANCE (L)
A measure of a coils ability to establish an induced
voltage as a result of change in its current and that
induced voltage is in direction to oppose that change
in current.
Unit: Henry (H)
Where: L = inductance, Henry
N = number of turns
= permeability
A = cross-sectional area
l = coil length, m
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PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
1. Core Material
Coils are wound on either non-magnetic or magnetic
materials. Air, wood,copper, plastic and glass are
examples of non-magnetic materials. Iron, nickel,
steel, cobalt, or alloys are ferromagnetic materials.
2. Permeability
Determines how easily a magnetic field can be
established.
3. Number of turns
The greater the number of turns, the greater will
be the inductance.
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4. Cross-sectional area
A larger cross-sectional area means the core is
larger and there is more room for magnetic flux,
means more self-induced voltage (greater L).
5. Length of coil
The length of coil is inversely proportional to the
inductance. The compactness of the shorter coil
provides shorter distances over which magnetic
flux must span. As a result, the magnetic field is
stronger and more intense.
6. Inductive Reactance XL
The opposition to sinusoidal current in an inductor.
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TEST PROCEDURES
Using an ohmmeter:
1. If ohmmeter reading is infinite, OPEN COIL.
2. If ohmmeter reading shows the winding

resistance, GOOD.
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3. If ohmmeter reading is low resistance winding

or near zero, SHORTED.
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INDUCTORS IN SERIES
INDUCTORS IN PARALLEL
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USES OF TRANSFORMER
1. Power Supplies
2. Protection Circuits
3. Impedance Matching
TRANSFORMER RATINGS
1. Primary Voltage = 220-240V
2. Secondary Voltage = 12V,12-0-12,15-12-9, 6-3-0 V
3. Current Capacity (Icap) = 5A
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HOW TRANSFORMER WORKS

The function of a transformer is to transfer current,
voltage and power from one series of windings (coil)
to another.
The two series of windings are linked magnetically.
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TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION
Transformer are basically made up of from two coils
which are wound over a common core material formed
into a closed magnetic circuit.
Primary
Winding
Secondary
Winding
Types of core: Air, Iron and Ferrite
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TURNS RATIO
The ratio of the number of turns in the secondary
winding (Ns) to the number of turns in the primary
winding (Np).
=
s
p
This can also be expressed in terms of voltage

and current.
=
Vs
Vp
Ip
Is
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PRIMARY POWER EQUALS SECONDARY POWER

For an ideal transformer, the power in the
secondary equals the power in the primary.
When the losses are considered, the secondary power is always less.
Ps = Pp
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CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSFORMERS
Air-core
Iron-core
Ferrite-core
Air-core and ferrite-core transformer generally

are used for high-frequency applications. Iron-core
transformer are used for audio frequency (AF) and
power applications.
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TYPES OF TRANSFORMERS
1. Step-Up Transformer
Np < Ns
Rp < Rs
Ip > Is
Vp < Vs
2. Step-Down Transformer
Np > Ns
Rp > Rs
Ip < Is
Vp > Vs
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3. Isolation Transformer
Np = Ns
Rp = Rs
Ip = Is
Vp = Vs
Other types of transformers

1. Tapped transformer
2. Multiple-winding transformer
3. Autotransformer
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DEFECTS OF TRANSFORMERS
1. Open Primary or Secondary Winding
Infinite , no deflection
2. Shorted Primary or Secondary Winding

0 ohm
3. Grounded Primary or Secondary Winding

Any amount of deflection
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INTRODUCTION TO SEMICONDUCTOR
CONDUCTOR
Substance, body or material, which has more electrons
that are free to move
Has very low electrical resistance
Allows electric current to flow with ease
Example: Metals such as silver, copper, gold,
electrolytes, and ionized gases
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INSULATOR
Substance, body or material that has a
characteristics that is extremely opposite
of that of a conductor.
With more than four valence electrons but
ideally, it has 8 valence electrons.
Example: Rubber, glass, paper, etc.
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SEMICONDUCTOR
Substance, body or material that has a characteristic
in between a conductor and an insulator.
With 4 valence electron.
Example:
1. Elementary semiconductors
a. Silicon (Si)
b. Germanium (Ge)
2. Compound semiconductors
a. Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
b. Aluminum Arsenide (AlAs)
c. Gallium Phosphide (GaP)
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TYPES OF IMPURITIES
1. Pentavalent Impurities
Atoms with 5 valence electrons such as
antimony (Sb), arsenic (As), and Phosphorus (P)
They are called DONOR ATOMS.
2. Trivalent Impurities
Atoms with 3 valence electrons such as
boron (B), gallium (Ga), and indium (In)
They are called ACCEPTOR ATOMS.
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CLASSIFICATION OF SEMICONDUCTORS
1. INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
It is a pure semiconductor
Every atom in the crystal is a silicon atom
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To make silicon conducting, producers combine

or dope pure silicon with very small amount of
elements like Boron or Phosphorus.
Silicon doped with

Phosphorous
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2. EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
A doped semiconductor
Result of adding an impurity atom to an intrinsic
crystal to alter / increase its electrical conductivity
Extrinsic semiconductor can be:
a. N-type - produced when pentavalent atoms are
added to the molten silicon, producing
an excess of electrons.
Majority carriers:
Minority carriers:
electrons
holes
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b. P-type - produced when trivalent atoms are

added to the molten silicon, produces
an excess of holes.
Majority carriers:
Minority carriers:
holes
electrons
Silicon doped with Boron
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DIODE
A semiconductor device that let current flow
only in one direction.
Symbol:
Cathode (K)
Anode (A)
An ideal diode is like a switch. When the switch is

closed, the circuit is completed.
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DIODE OPERATION
1. Forward Bias
2. Reverse Bias
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DIODE RATINGS
1. Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
This is the maximum reverse voltage that can be
applied to the diode. Exceeding this voltage will
break down, conduct and destroy the diode.
2. Forward Voltage (Vf)
For silicon diode, Vf = 0.7V
For germanium diode, Vf = 0.3V
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DIODE TESTING
1. GOOD CONDITION
2. DEFECTIVE CONDITION
A. Open Diode when both combinations indicate
high resistance
B. Shorted Diode when both combination indicate
zero resistance
JULY 2005, HR OD-T
JULY 2005, HR OD-T
BLOCK DIAGRAM
AC SOURCE
RECTIFIER
FILTER
CIRCUIT
REGULATOR
LOAD
1. AC SOURCE a section where the input ac signal

is applied and converted down to a
much lower value, typically a stepdown transformer is used.
1. RECTIFIER a section that converts ac signal
to pulsating dc.
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3. FILTER CIRCUIT
A section that removes the unwanted ac signal in a
pulsating dc signal, basically consists of capacitor
and inductor.
4. REGULATOR
A section that provides a constant voltage to the load
regardless of the input fluctuations.
5. LOAD
Last section of the dc power supply where the output
dc signal is taken.
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RECTIFIER CIRCUITS
1. Half-wave Rectifier
This type of rectifier employs a single diode that
conducts only in one direction.
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2. Full-wave Rectifier
a. Center-tapped full-wave rectifier
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b. Bridge-type full-wave rectifier
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FILTER CIRCUITS
RIPPLE refers to the variation in the output voltage

due to the charging and discharging of capacitor.
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REGULATOR
A circuit for maintaining an essentially constant
output voltage under varying input condition or
changing the load condition.
Vdc
0
0
Unregulated dc voltage
Regulator
Regulated dc voltage
A device that can perform the function of a regulator

is the zener diode.
JULY 2005, HR OD-T
SPECIAL DIODES
ZENER DIODE
A diode designed to conduct current when reversed
biased with a specific threshold voltage.
Application:
1. DC voltage regulators in power supply
2. Clipper circuits
JULY 2005, HR OD-T
LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)

A semiconductor device that generates light when
sufficiently forward biased.
Application:
1. Indicator lamps and readout displays
2. Seven-segment display
3. Optical coupling application often in
conjunction with fiber optics.
JULY 2005, HR OD-T
PHOTODIODE
Acts as a current generator in which the current is
directly proportional to the intensity of light.
Application:
1. Automation applications particularly as sensors
JULY 2005, HR OD-T
VARACTOR
Acts like a variable capacitor. A reversed-biased PN
junction that utilizes the inherent capacitance of the
depletion layer.
Applications:
1. Tuning circuits
2. FM modulators
3. Oscillators
4. Bandpass filters
5. Automatic frequency control
JULY 2005, HR OD-T
SCHOTTKY DIODE
A semiconductor diode formed by attaching a metal
conductor to a heavily-doped N-type semiconductor
material in order to have faster rectification.
Applications:
1. High frequency rectifiers
2. Radar systems
3. Schottky TTL logic for computers
4. Mixers and detectors in communication equipment
JULY 2005, HR OD-T
ACTIVITIES
JULY 2005, HR OD-T
Activity # 7: TESTING A SILICON DIODE

Objectives
able to
1. Identify the anode and cathode terminals of a diode using an
ohmmeter.
2. Determine the knee voltage of the silicon diode by its dynamic
operation.
3. Determine the effect of forward and reverse bias voltage on the
diodes conduction.
Materials
DC Power Supply
Voltmeter
Plug-in Module
Connecting wires
Diode: 1- !N4001
Lamp: 1- 12V
JULY 2005, HR OD-T
Activity # 8: USING THE DIODE AS A RECTIFIER

Objectives
able to
1. Draw the output waveform of a half-wave and full wave rectifier.
2. Measure the average (or DC) output of a half-wave and
full-wave rectifier.
Materials
VOM
Connecting wires
Oscilloscope
Plug-in Module
Diode: 4- !N4001
Resistor: 1 K ohm 0.5W (1)
Transformer (6V secondary)
JULY 2005, HR OD-T
JULY 2005, HR OD-T
TRANSISTORS
A three-terminal semiconductor device that is
capable of current and voltage amplification,
or gain, in conjunction with other circuit elements.
The basic principle of transistor operation is that
the voltage across two of its terminals controls
the current flow in the third terminal.
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BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

A. NPN-type
B. PNP-type
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TRANSISTOR OUTLINES AND PACKAGES
JULY 2005, HR OD-T
TRANSISTOR TESTING
A. Identification of the BASE TERMINAL and the
type of transistor.
1. Set the Ohmmeter to R x 1 range. This range

can be adjusted up to R x 1K only whenever
necessary to increase the meter deflection.
2. Connect the Ohmmeter probes to the transistor
terminals and look for two pairs of terminals
that will provide low-resistance readings. Only
these two pairs of terminals, the common
terminal is the base.
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3. If during the low resistance reading, the

positive probe is connected to the base,
then the transistor is NPN type.
If during the low resistance reading, the
negative probe is connected to the base,
then the transistor is PNP type.
JULY 2005, HR OD-T
B. Identification of the EMITTER and COLLECTOR

terminals of the transistor.
1. After knowing the location of the base terminal

of the transistor, connect the meter probes to
the two unknown terminals.
2. Touch the base terminal (or in some cases all
the terminals maintaining that no terminals will
come in contact with each other).
3. Observe the meter deflection. The Ohmmeter
should provide a low-resistance reading indicating
that the transistor has turned ON.
JULY 2005, HR OD-T
4. If the transistor is an NPN type, the terminal

where the N (negative) probe is connected is
the emitter terminal. The remaining terminal
is the collector.
If the transistor is PNP type, the terminal
where the P (positive) probe is connected
is the emitter terminal. The remaining terminal
is the collector.
JULY 2005, HR OD-T
INDICATIONS
1. GOOD INDICATIONS
Four pairs should indicate high resistance.
Two pairs should indicate low resistance.
FB base-emitter junction = low R
RB base-emitter junction = high R
FB base-collector junction = low R
RB base-collector junction = high R
collector-emitter (vice versa) = high R
2. DEFECTIVE INDICATION
When indications above were not met.
JULY 2005, HR OD-T
ACTIVITY
JULY 2005, HR OD-T
Activity # 9: IDENTIFICATION OF TRANSISTOR

TERMINALS
Objectives
able to
1. Identify the emitter, base and collector terminals of the different
packages of transistors
2. Identify whether the transistor is PNP or NPN type.
Materials
Analog Ohmmeter
Transistor: 5 transistor varieties of different packages
JULY 2005, HR OD-T
JULY 2005, HR OD-T
AMPLIFIER
Circuits that are capable of producing a larger
signal using a smaller signal as a pattern.
Amplifiers may be classified according to
frequency range, methods of inter-stage
coupling used, bias point at which the active
device operates, voltage, current and power.
JULY 2005, HR OD-T
CLASSIFICATION OF AMPLIFIER
1. Common Emitter Amplifier
The input signal is applied at the base terminal
The output signal is taken from the collector
terminal.
Exhibits high voltage gain (Av), high current
gain (Ai), and very high power gain (Ap)
JULY 2005, HR OD-T
2. Common Collector Amplifier

The input signal is applied at the base terminal
The output signal is taken from the emitter
terminal.
Exhibits unity Av.
Output signal is in phase with the input signal.
JULY 2005, HR OD-T
3. Common Base Amplifier

Input signal is applied at the emitter terminal
Output signal is taken from the collector
terminal.
Exhibits unity Ai.
Output signal is in phase with the input signal.
JULY 2005, HR OD-T
Activity # 10: USING THE TRANSISTOR IN A

COMMON-EMITTER AMPLIFIER
Objectives
able to
1. Measure the DC bias voltage of a common-emitter amplifier
2. Calculate the voltage gain and examine the input-output waveform
relationships in a common-emitter amplifier.
Materials
VOM
DC Power Supply
Audio Generator
Plug-in Module
Connecting Wires
Oscilloscope
Transistor: 2N3904 or equivalent
Resistors: 18K Ohms, 3.9 K Ohms, 1.2 K Ohms
330 Ohms
Capacitors: 3.3 microFarad, 16V (2)
22 microFarad, 16V (1)
ACTIVITY

JULY 2005, HR OD-T
JULY 2005, HR OD-T

Basic Electronics Fundamentals

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BASIC ELECTRONICS

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It is the flow of electrical charge or power. It

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To understand the flow of electrical charge, let us first

The First Law of Electrostatics

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No. of protons = No. of electrons

When an external force is applied, electrons located at

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ELECTRIC CHARGE (Q)

Unit: Coulomb (C)

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VOLTAGE (V, E or EMF)

Can be thought of as the force or the push that gets

Unit: Volt (V)

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Unit: Ampere (A)

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DC CIRCUIT WATER ANALOGY

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VOLTAGE - PRESSURE ANALOGY

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GROUND - RESERVOIR ANALOGY

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CURRENT - FLOWRATE ANALOGY

A large pipe offers very

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A wire offers very little

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Ohms Law Pie Chart

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